Academic literature on the topic 'Ironie verbale'

Nous proposons d’analyser le recours aux domaines tabouisés dans la publicité sociétale visant la sensibilisation du public aux infections sexuellement transmissibles ainsi qu’aux autres dangers menaçant la santé, à la violence physique ou verbale et aux accidents mortels. La contribution aura pour l’objet d’examiner l’emploi de l’ironie sombre dans la publicité sociétale à partir d’un corpus constitué par des slogans, des affiches et des clips vidéo des campagnes de sensibilisation relevées sur les sites francophones et polonais entre 1995 et 2016.

ES Para establecer las razones por las que un hablante elige un enunciado irónico por encima de uno literal es necesario evaluar la mente del hablante y su intención al emplear la ironía verbal en un contexto comunicativo específico. Con base en lo anterior, el objetivo de este estudio es analizar la manera en que adolescentes de 12 y 15 años reflexionan sobre las funciones de la ironía verbal en dos tipos de enunciados irónicos: agradecimiento y ofrecimiento. Treinta y dos adolescentes se enfrentaron a diferentes situaciones comunicativas que finalizaban con un enunciado irónico, y mediante un guion de preguntas se indagó sobre las funciones que los participantes atribuían a cada enunciado irónico y sobre el tipo de conocimientos en los que basaban sus reflexiones. Los resultados muestran diferencias debidas a la edad en la cantidad y calidad de las reflexiones presentadas por los participantes. Palabras clave: DESARROLLO LINGÜÍSTICO TARDÍO, IRONÍA VERBAL, REFLEXIÓN METALINGÜÍSTICA, FUNCIÓN DE LA IRONÍA, TEORÍA DE LA MENTE EN To establish the reasons behind a speaker’s choice to use an ironic expression over a literal one, it is necessary to evaluate the speaker’s mind and his/her intention to employ irony in a specific communicative context. Taking this into account, the purpose of this study is to analyse the way in which adolescents ages 12 and 15 reflect on the functions of verbal irony in two types of ironic expressions: ironic thanking and ironic offering. Thirty-two subjects were faced with different communicative situations ending with an ironic remark and were asked about the functions they attributed to each remark and on what sort of knowledge they based their responses. Results show age-based differences in the amount and quality of the reflections presented by the participants. Key words: LATER LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT, VERBAL IRONY, METALANGUAGE, FUNCTIONS OF IRONY, THEORY OF MIND IT Per stabilire i motivi che spingono un parlante a usare un enunciato ironico al posto di uno letterale, è necessario valutarne la mente e le intenzioni nell’usare l’ironia verbale in un determinato contesto comunicativo. Con queste premesse, il presente studio si propone di analizzare in che modo adolescenti di 12 e 15 anni riflettono sulle funzioni dell’ironia verbale in due tipi di enunciati ironici: ringraziamento e offerta. Dopo essere stati messi di fronte a diverse situazioni comunicative che si chiudevano con un enunciato ironico, a 32 adolescenti è stato chiesto di rispondere a una serie di domande sulla funzione che ciascuno/a di loro attribuiva a ogni enunciato e di dire in base a cosa avevano optato per quella funzione. I risultati mostrano differenze in base all’età nella quantità e nella qualità delle riflessioni fatte dai/dalle partecipanti. Parole chiave: SVILUPPO TARDIVO DEL LINGUAGGIO, IRONIA VERBALE, RIFLESSIONE METALINGUISTICA, FUNZIONE DELL’IRONIA, TEORIA DELLA MENTE

Abstract The linguistic treatment of verbal irony1 has more often than not focused on novel, ad hoc ironies. Research in the last decade, however, suggests that there is a considerable number of utterances that are either schematic or lexically filled and interpreted as ironic by convention. By analyzing three of these, i.e. Tell me about it, XP pro BE not (A Michelangelo he is not) and stand-alone insubordinate as if (As if anyone could pronounce that), the present paper will show that these expressions are best analyzed as constructions (Goldberg 1995, 2006). The paper will further show that the Viewpoint account of irony (Dancygier 2017; Tobin & Israel 2012) describes the data at hand most adequately.

ABSTRACTAdults distinguish between ironic remarks directed at targets (sarcasm) and ironic remarks not directed at specific targets. We investigated the development of children's appreciation for this distinction by presenting these speech acts to 71 five- to six-year-olds and 71 nine- to ten-year-olds. Five- to six-year-olds were beginning to understand the non-literal meanings of sarcastic speakers and ironic speakers but did not distinguish ironic and sarcastic speakers' intentions. Nine- to ten-year-olds were more accurate at understanding sarcastic and ironic speakers and they distinguished these speakers' intentions, rating sarcastic criticisms as more ‘mean’ than ironic criticisms. These results show that children can determine the non-literal meanings of sarcasm and irony by six years of age but do not distinguish the pragmatic purposes of these speech acts until later in middle childhood.

A ironia verbal é tema de inúmeras pesquisas científicas no âmbito dos estudos da linguagem, não reunindo consenso em relação às suas especificidades, nomeadamente quanto à sua natureza e às suas marcas ou índices textuais. Nosso objetivo principal, neste artigo, é questionar o funcionamento da ironia e os recursos mobilizados para sua efetivação e reconhecimento. Para tal, adotamos como aporte teórico Ducrot (1987), Maingueneau (1997), Muecke (2008), Guimarães (2001) e Attardo (2000), sendo o exemplário utilizado oriundo de Modesta Proposta e outros textos satíricos, de Swift (2005); um excerto de Montesquieu (apud MAINGUENEAU, 1997); e Cuca fundida, de Allen (2013). Como resultado preliminar, prevemos que a ironia verbal tem como pressupostos fundamentais a assunção de um enunciador (ou ponto de vista) absurdo e o caráter facultativo de suas supostas marcas intrínsecas.

Abstract This study contributes to the ongoing debate about the informational status of attitudinal content with a focus on verbal irony. Specifically, we investigate where the different meaning components involved in ironic utterances are positioned in the dichotomy between primary and secondary content of utterances. After an analysis of the semantic and pragmatic characteristics of ironic meaning components and their linguistic expression, we show, based on experimental data, that ironic, non-literally asserted content is “less” at-issue than non-ironic, literally asserted content. Crucially, our findings also suggest that an ironic utterance’s non-literally asserted content is more at-issue than the attitudinal content expressed with an ironic utterance. No difference is observed between attitudinal content manifested as ironic criticism and content manifested as ironic praise. Our findings support the notion of at-issueness as a graded criterion and can be used to argue that verbal irony in general seems to be difficult to reject directly and treated as at-issue.

We examined whether adults who speak English as an Additional Language (EAL) have a decreased ability to comprehend verbal irony compared to native English speakers. Participants watched a series of 30-second videos containing ironic and literal statements. Respondents identified speaker’s belief, and rated speaker’s attitude and humor. EAL speakers were less reliable than native English speakers in identifying the speaker’s belief for both ironic and literal statements and showed lower humor ratings for ironic criticisms.

Abstract Verbal irony characteristically involves the expression of a derogatory, dissociative attitude. The ironical speaker is not only stating a blatant falsehood or irrelevant proposition; she is also communicating her stance towards its epistemic status. The centrality of attitude recognition in irony understanding opens up the question of which cognitive abilities make it possible. Drawing on Wilson (2009), we provide a full-fledged account of the role of epistemic vigilance in irony understanding and suggest that it relies on the exercise of first- and second-order vigilance towards the content, the ironic speaker as well as the source of the irony.

L’objectif de cette thèse était d’explorer les bases cognitives et cérébrales des processus de compréhension du langage figuré via l’utilisation d’outils de neuroimagerie (EEG et IRMf). Nous nous sommes particulièrement intéressés aux processus inférentiels sémantiques et pragmatiques. Afin de mieux les cerner, nous avons étudié la compréhension de la métaphore verbale nouvelle (« catapulter ses paroles ») et de l’ironie verbale (« Il est détesté de tous. Cet homme est très populaire. »). Ce choix repose sur l’hypothèse selon laquelle chacune de ces figures sollicite spécifiquement un type de processus inférentiel ; de nature sémantique pour la métaphore et pragmatique pour l’ironie. Conformément à cette hypothèse, nos résultats indiquent que la compréhension des métaphores verbales nouvelles se fonde sur des processus de recherche et d’intégration d’informations sémantiques, supportant l’hypothèse d’un traitement séquentiel. L’examen des bases cérébrales du traitement de ces expressions précédées d’un contexte a mis en évidence des régions cérébrales postérieures, suggérant la mise en œuvre d’un processus de manipulation conceptuelle. Concernant le traitement de l’ironie, nous avons observé un processus tardif d’intégration d’informations plus important pour les énoncés ironiques comparés aux énoncés littéraux, suggérant un traitement pragmatique plus difficile. Enfin, nous avons mis en évidence un réseau fronto-temporal bilatéral lors du traitement de l’ironie, dont une part serait sensible au contraste entre le contexte et l’énoncé et à l’humour des énoncés. Nos résultats sont confrontés aux théories psycholinguistiques et cognitives du traitement du langage figuré
Our main aim was to assess the cognitive and neural basis of the figurative language processing using neuroimaging tools (EEG and fMRI). We were especially interested in semantic and pragmatic inferential processes. In order to better grasp these processes, we have studies the comprehension of novel verbal metaphor (“to catapult his/her words”) and verbal irony (“Everybody thinks he is foul. He is a very popular man.”). This choice was based upon the hypothesis that each of these figurative expressions specifically engages one of the two inferential processes: semantic for metaphors and pragmatic for irony. Following this hypothesis, our results point out that the comprehension of novel metaphoric expression is built on the research and the integration of a semantic congruent information, supporting a sequential processing hypothesis. The assessment of the cerebral basis of the processing of such expressions embedded in a context has revealed regions in posterior areas, suggesting a conceptual manipulation process. Concerning the irony processing, we observed a greater late integration processing for ironic sentences than literal ones, suggestion a more effortful pragmatic processing. Finally, we observed a fronto-temporal network specific to irony processing. Some part of this network could be involved in both the contrast between the utterance and the context and the humor processing of the sentences. Our results are confronted with psycholinguistic and cognitive theories about figurative language processing

Title: “All roads here always lead to irony”. Verbal irony as a mean of presenting dandyismin the novels ‘Faserland’, by Christian Kracht and ‘Att komma hem ska vara en schlager’, byPer Hagman. A contrastive analysis. Author: Hanna JulinSupervisor: Bärbel WestphalExaminator: Corina Löwe Summary: The aim of this study is to investigate how verbal irony is used in fiction to indicatedandyism in pop-modern literature. It is a contrastive study based on Christian Kracht’s novelFaserland (1995), which is considered to be a romana à clef in the German popliterature. Attkomma hem ska vara en schlager (2004), by Per Hagman is a Swedish novel comparative tothe German „pop-novel“. The analysis has shown that the verbal irony primarily has threefunctions: social criticism, distancing and self-criticism. These elements correspond withdistinctive features which are typical of the dandy. Irony itself, according to Barbey (1987),Schickedanz (2000) and Rauen (2010) among others, is a distinctive feature of the classicaldandy figure, as well as of the pop-modern one. However, further research consisting of bothsynchronic, diachronic and contrastive analysis is relevant, as the dandy, according to Hörner(2008) and Tietenberg (2012) among others, always renews himself – so that his image alwaysappears elegant, modern, original and rebellious in his contemporary society.

Diese Dissertation untersucht das Verstehen figurativer Sprache, im Besonderen die zeitliche Verarbeitung von verbaler Ironie. In sechs Experimenten wurde mittels ereignis-korrelierter Potentiale (EKP) die Gehirnaktivität beim Verstehen ironischer Äußerungen im Vergleich zu entsprechenden nicht-ironischen Äußerungen gemessen und analysiert. Darüberhinaus wurde der Einfluss verschiedener sprachbegleitender Hinweisreize, z.B. von Prosodie oder der Verwendung von Satzzeichen, sowie außersprachlicher Hinweisreize, wie bspw. pragmatischen Wissens, auf das Ironieverstehen untersucht. Auf Grundlage dieser Ergebnisse werden verschiedene psycholinguistische Modelle figurativer Sprachverarbeitung, d.h. 'standard pragmatic model', 'graded salience hypothesis', sowie 'direct access view', diskutiert.
This dissertation investigates the comprehension of figurative language, in particular the temporal processing of verbal irony. In six experiments using event-related potentials(ERP) brain activity during the comprehension of ironic utterances in relation to equivalent non-ironic utterances was measured and analyzed. Moreover, the impact of various language-accompanying cues, e.g., prosody or the use of punctuation marks, as well as non-verbal cues such as pragmatic knowledge has been examined with respect to the processing of irony. On the basis of these findings different models on figurative language comprehension, i.e., the 'standard pragmatic model', the 'graded salience hypothesis', and the 'direct access view', are discussed.

Le sujet de cette recherche est l´analyse sémantico-pragmatico-discursive de l´ironie dans le débat parlementaire portugais. Nous étudions plus particulièrement les degrés d´implicitation de la critique ironique, les indices, les fonctions et les stratégies discursives de l´ironie. Notre approche théorique interdisciplinaire permet de couvrir la pluralité des formes d´expression de l´ironie dans notre corpus, et elle comprend des concepts opératoires émanant notamment: de la théorie des actes de langage (Austin 1962 et Searle 1969 et 1979); des maximes conversationnelles de Grice 1975; de la perspective antiphrastique de l´ironie (Kerbrat-Orecchioni 1980); des théories de la polyphonie linguistique (Ducrot 1984) et de la politesse verbale (Brown & Levinson 1987 et Kerbrat-Orecchioni 2005 et 2010), ainsi que des études sur l´argumentation (Amossy 2000). La première partie de ce travail est consacrée à la caractérisation du discours parlementaire portugais et à l´analyse critique de certaines études sur l´ironie. Dans la deuxième partie, nous étudions les diverses formes de manifestation de l´ironie dans notre corpus, établissant trois grandes classes d´ironie à partir des différents degrés d´implicitation du jugement ironique; nous y dégageons également les indices d´ironie les plus fréquents. Dans la troisième partie, nous nous penchons sur les principales fonctions et stratégies discursives qui sous-tendent l´utilisation de l´ironie dans le genre discursif en question. Cette démarche nous a permis d´envisager l´ironie comme un mécanisme linguistico-discursif de nature axiologique, visant la disqualification d´autrui, au service de l´argumentation et de la persuasion
The subject of this study is a semantic, pragmatic and discursive analysis of irony in Portuguese parliamentary debate. We study in particular the implicitation degrees of ironic criticism, the signals, the functions and the discursive strategies of irony. Our interdisciplinary theoretical approach covers the multiple forms that irony takes in our corpus, and includes operating concepts deriving from : the speech act theory (Austin 1962 and Searle 1969 and 1979) ; Grice´s conversational maxims (1975) ; the antiphrastic irony´s point of view (Kerbrat-Orecchioni 1980) ; the linguistic theory of polyphony (Ducrot 1984) ; the verbal politeness theory (Brown & Levinson 1987 and Kerbrat-Orecchioni 2005 and 2010) and studies on argumentation (Amossy 2000). The first part of this work focuses on the characteristics of the Portuguese parliamentary discourse and on the critical analysis of different studies on irony. In the second part, we study the different forms of irony in our corpus and identify the most common signals of irony. In the third part, we focus on the main discursive functions and strategies that underlie the use of irony in the discursive genre being analysed. This approach has allowed us to conceive irony as an axiological linguistic-discursive mechanism that aims to depreciate someone, while supporting argumentation and persuasion
O objeto de estudo deste trabalho é a análise semântico-pragmático-discursiva da ironia no debate parlamentar português. São estudados em particular os graus de implicitação da crítica irónica, os índices, as funções e as estratégias discursivas da ironia. A abordagem teórica interdisciplinar permite contemplar a multiplicidade de formas de expressão da ironia no nosso corpus e inclui conceitos operatórios oriundos nomeadamente: da teoria dos atos de fala (Austin 1962 e Searle 1969 e 1979); das máximas conversacionais de Grice (1975); da perspetiva antifrástica da ironia (Kerbrat-Orecchioni 1980); das teorias da polifonia linguística (Ducrot 1984) e da cortesia verbal (Brown & Levinson 1987 e Kerbrat-Orecchioni 2005 e 2010), assim como dos estudos sobre a argumentação (Amossy 2000). A primeira parte do trabalho é dedicada à caracterização do discurso parlamentar português e à análise crítica de determinados estudos sobre a ironia. Na segunda parte, estudamos as várias formas de manifestação da ironia no corpus em análise, estabelecendo três grandes classes de ironia a partir dos diferentes graus de implicitação da apreciação irónica; identificamos igualmente os índices de ironia mais frequentes. Na terceira parte, debruçamo-nos sobre as principais funções e estratégias discursivas da ironia que subjazem à utilização da ironia no género discursivo em questão. Este procedimento permitiu-nos considerar a ironia como um mecanismo linguístico-discursivo de natureza axiológica, que visa a desqualificação de outrem, estando ao serviço da argumentação e da persuasão

Le journal télévisé satirique est un genre qui recycle les discours issus des sources médiatiques traditionnelles, dans le but de produire une mise en scène décalée de l'information. Cette thèse s'intéresse, dans une perspective comparative, à la production de certains procédés discursifs au sein de ce genre, tel qu'ils se manifestent dans les productions françaises et américaines. Nous tâchons plus précisément de dégager les tendances et les principes socioculturels qui élucident leur fonctionnement. Notre corpus se compose de deux émissions issues de chacune des deux cultures : The Daily Show et Last Week Tonight pour le sous-corpus américain, C'est Canteloup et Les Guignols pour le sous-corpus français. Le recueil de notre corpus est déterminé plus précisément par des paramètres de thème et de temps. En prenant pour thématique les élections présidentielles, chaque épisode dans la période de 50 jours avant l'élection présidentielle respective de chaque pays a été enregistré : du 19/09/16 au 08/11/16 pour le corpus américain et du 18/03/17 au 07/06/17 pour le corpus français. Notre méthodologie se fonde sur la notion du dialogisme (Bakhtine, 1970 [1929], 1984, 1987 [1975]) qui rend compte de la nature sociale du langage en discours selon laquelle l'être humain forme sa parole en relation avec les autres, leurs réflexions et leurs paroles. Nous menons plus précisément une analyse dialogique du processus de production de sens en nous intéressant aux éléments linguistiques et contextuels que le locuteur-énonciateur met en jeu dans l'emploi des procédés discursifs. Nous prenons en considération notamment les traces linguistiques observables de la voix de l'autre dans les matériaux verbaux et paraverbaux. Notre étude est menée aux niveaux quantitatif et qualitatif. Nous proposons une étude de deux procédés particuliers : l'ironie verbale et le détournement. Dans cette étude, nous avons d'une part décrit les occurrences concrètes des deux procédés tels qu'ils se manifestent dans le journal télévisé satirique. D'autre part, nous avons exposé les usages de ceux-ci dans chacune des deux cultures en mettant au clair la portée des paramètres socioculturels sur la production du discours satirique et parodique. À partir de l'étude contrastive des deux corpus provenant de deux communautés linguistiquement et culturellement distinctes, nous avons relevé certaines convergences et certaines divergences selon le procédé discursif en jeu. Nous avons pu observer que la fonction du procédé discursif influe sur les connaissances et les images socioculturelles mobilisées, repérables par les sources énonciatives incorporées. Le détournement sert d'une façon générale à (i) créer une connivence humoristique entre les producteurs et les récepteurs et à (ii) former des associations ludiques entre deux référents afin de s'en moquer d'un. Pour ce faire, les deux corpus ont recours aux types de références culturelles similaires, relevant principalement de la culture populaire. Dans le cas de l'ironie verbale ayant principalement une fonction de critique, nous avons pu observer l'incorporation des sources énonciatives différentes selon la culture, ce qui semble refléter certaines des valeurs socioculturelles de la communauté respective
The satirical news program is a genre that recycles discourse circulating within traditional media in order to create the satirical mise-en-scène of a news broadcast. This dissertation investigates the construction of meaning of certain discursive devices within this genre, as expressed in French and American shows. We attempt to specifically pinpoint the sociocultural tendencies and principles that shed light on the way they function. Our corpus is composed of two TV programs from each culture: The Daily Show and Last Week Tonight in the American sub-corpus; C'est Canteloup and Les Guignols in the French sub-corpus. We set thematic and temporal specifications for the collection of our corpus. As the chosen theme is the presidential elections, every episode in the 50-day period before the respective presidential election of each country was recorded: September 19-November 11, 2016, for the American corpus and March 18-May 17, 2017, for the French corpus. Our methodology is based on the notion of dialogism (Bakhtine, 1970 [1929], 1984, 1987 [1975]) that establishes the social nature of language in discourse by which human beings construct their own speech in view of the speech and the thoughts of others. In this dissertation, we carry out a dialogic analysis of the process of meaning production by studying the linguistic and contextual elements that the speaker-enunciator puts into play when using discursive devices. We take into account specifically the observable verbal and paraverbal traces of the voice of the other. Our study is both qualitative and quantitative in nature. We propose a study of two specific devices: verbal irony and discursive detournement. On one hand, we describe in this study the concrete occurrences of the two devices as they are expressed in satirical news programs. On the other hand, we show the usages of these devices in each culture while clarifying the impact of sociocultural parameters on the production of satiric and parodic discourse. Based on the contrastive study of two corpora originating from two linguistically and culturally distinct communities, we have discerned certain resemblances and differences according to the device in use. We observed that the discursive device's function influences which sociocultural images and knowledge are mobilized, perceptible by the discursive sources that are incorporated. Detournement serves globally to (i) create a humoristic complicity between the producers and the recipients and (ii) form playful associations between two referents, in order to make fun of one of them. To do this, both corpora turn to similar types of cultural references, mainly from pop culture. In the case of verbal irony that primarily has a critical function, we observed the incorporation of different enunciative sources, depending on the culture, which seems to reflect certain sociocultural values of the respective community

This dissertation takes an integrated approach to the study of audiovisual cues to verbal irony. While pragmatic studies have mainly focused on the role of the discourse context in irony detection, little is known about the role of prosodic and gestural cues in this process. The thesis includes four experimental studies—each one described in a separate chapter—addressing a set of questions using a variety of experimental designs. The first one is a case study of a professional comedian and reveals (a) that ironic utterances display a higher density of prosodic and gestural markers than non-ironic utterances; and (b) that gestural markers can appear both temporally aligned with prosodic prominence but can also appear independently, as gestural codas. The second study includes two experiments: (a) a production experiment eliciting spontaneous ironic speech which reveals that in non-professional spontaneous speech, too, speakers employ a higher density of prosodic and gestural markers in ironic compared to non-ironic utterances; and (b) a perception experiment on the contribution of gestural codas to the detection of verbal irony, which shows that speakers detect ironic intent significantly better when post-utterance gestural codas are present than when they are not. Following up on this idea, the third study presents three perception experiments on the relative contribution of contextual vs. prosodic vs. gestural cues to verbal irony understanding. Overall, results of the three experiments emphasize the role of contrast effects in irony perception. The first experiment shows that (a) listeners detect irony more accurately when they have access to both prosodic and gestural cues than when they just rely on prosodic information, (b) that listeners rely more strongly on gestural information than on prosodic information, and (c) that listeners rely more heavily on gestural cues than on prosodic or contextual ones for detecting irony. Finally, the fourth study addresses the contribution of prosodic and gestural cues to children’s early understanding of verbal irony, showing that mismatched multimodal cues of emotion facilitate the detection of irony by 5-year-old children. Altogether, this dissertation shows that both prosodic and gestural markers of irony aid in guiding the hearer in the interpretation of an utterance by providing overt clues about the assumptions, emotions and attitudes held by the speaker. Together with recent studies on the general pragmatic effects of prosody and gesture, the claim is that audiovisual markers of irony are strong triggers of implicature strength which help decode speech intentions in interaction. In addition, the dissertation presents novel empirical evidence of the stronger effects of multimodal—and especially gestural—cues in comparison with contextual cues, both in adult and child populations. This crucial finding leads us to claim that the study of prosodic and gestural cues to verbal irony should be at the core of any pragmatic or psycholinguistic account of verbal irony production and comprehension.
Esta tesis aborda el estudio de las marcas audiovisuales de la ironía verbal desde una perspectiva integral. Los estudios pragmáticos se han centrado principalmente en investigar el papel del contexto discursivo en la detección de la ironía, pero poco se sabe sobre el rol que desempeñan las marcas prosódicas y gestuales en este proceso. La presente tesis incluye cuatro estudios experimentales —cada uno de ellos incluido en un capítulo separado— que abordan diferentes preguntas de investigación utilizando varios diseños experimentales. El primero es un estudio de caso sobre un cómico profesional y muestra, en primer lugar, que los enunciados irónicos presentan una mayor densidad de marcadores prosódicos y gestuales que los enunciados no irónicos y, segundo, que los marcadores gestuales pueden aparecer alineados temporalmente con la prominencia prosódica, pero también de forma independiente, como codas gestuales. El segundo estudio incluye dos experimentos. Uno de producción —diseñado para obtener discurso irónico espontáneo—, cuyos resultados confirman que también en habla espontánea los hablantes no profesionales emplean una mayor densidad de marcadores prosódicos y gestuales cuando son irónicos en comparación con cuando no lo son; y, en segundo lugar, un experimento de percepción que investiga la contribución de las codas gestuales a la detección de la ironía verbal y cuyos resultados muestran claramente cómo la intención irónica se detecta significativamente mejor cuando los hablantes tienen acceso a codas gestuales que cuando no la tienen. El tercer estudio de esta tesis contiene tres experimentos de percepción que examinan cómo el contexto, las marcas prosódicas y las marcas gestuales contribuyen a la comprensión de la ironía verbal. En general, los resultados de los tres experimentos subrayan la importancia que los “efectos de contraste” tienen en el proceso de detección de la ironía. El primero muestra que los oyentes detectan la ironía con más precisión cuando tienen acceso a las marcas prosódicas y gestuales de manera conjunta que cuando solo tienen acceso a la información prosódica; el segundo, que la información visual resulta más convincente que la información prosódica a la hora de detectar la ironía; y, por último, el tercer experimento muestra que los oyentes emplean preferentemente las marcas gestuales por encima de las prosódicas e incluso de las contextuales a la hora de detectar la ironía. Finalmente, el cuarto estudio investiga cómo los niños desarrollan la capacidad de detectar la ironía verbal a través de las marcas prosódicas y gestuales, y los resultados muestran que las marcas multimodales facilitan la detección de la ironía en niños desde los 5 años de edad. En conjunto, esta tesis muestra que tanto los marcadores prosódicos como los gestuales contribuyen de manera significativa a la comprensión de la ironía verbal, guiando al oyente en la interpretación del enunciado mediante el suministro de pistas sobre las suposiciones, las emociones y las actitudes del ironizador. Siguiendo la línea de algunos estudios recientes sobre los efectos pragmáticos de la prosodia y el gesto, los resultados de los experimentos de esta tesis muestran que los marcadores audiovisuales de la ironía son potentes desencadenadores del proceso inferencial necesario para decodificar las intenciones del hablante en las interacciones comunicativas. Además, esta tesis presenta evidencia empírica de la gran incidencia que tienen las marcas multimodales —y especialmente de las gestuales— en la detección de la ironía verbal en comparación con las marcas contextuales, tanto en la población adulta como en la infantil. Este hallazgo fundamental nos lleva a afirmar que el estudio de las señales prosódicas y gestuales de la ironía debería considerarse una parte integral fundamental de cualquier explicación pragmática o psicolingüística sobre la producción y comprensión de la ironía verbal.
Aquesta tesi adopta una perspectiva integral a l'estudi de les marques audiovisuals en la ironia verbal. Els estudis pragmàtics s'han centrat principalment a investigar el paper del context discursiu en la detecció de la ironia, però se sap poc sobre el rol que juguen les marques prosòdiques i gestuals en aquest procés. La tesi inclou quatre estudis experimentals —cadascun d’ells descrit en un capítol separat— que aborden diferents preguntes de recerca i fan servir diversos dissenys experimentals. El primer és un estudi de cas sobre que analitza el discurs d’un còmic professional i mostra, en primer lloc, que els enunciats irònics presenten una major densitat de marcadors prosòdics i gestuals que els enunciats no irònics; i, en segon lloc, que els marcadors gestuals poden aparèixer temporalment alineats amb la prominència prosòdica, però també de forma independent, en el que anomenem “codes gestuals”. El segon estudi inclou dos experiments. Un de producció, dissenyat per obtenir discurs irònic espontani i els resultats del qual confirmen que en parla espontània els parlants no professionals també empren una major densitat de marcadors prosòdics i gestuals quan són irònics en comparació a quan no ho són; i, en segon lloc, un experiment de percepció sobre la contribució de les codes gestuals a la detecció de la ironia verbal, els resultats del qual demostren que la ironia es detecta millor quan els parlants tenen accés a codes gestuals que quan no en tenen. El tercer estudi presenta tres experiments de percepció que examinen com el context, les marques prosòdiques i les marques gestuals contribueixen a la comprensió de la ironia verbal. En general, els resultats dels tres experiments subratllen la importància dels efectes de contrast en el procés de detecció de la ironia. El primer experiment mostra que els oients detecten la ironia amb més precisió quan tenen accés a les marques prosòdiques i gestuals alhora, comparat amb quan només tenen accés a la informació prosòdica; el segon, que la informació visual és més poderosa que la informació prosòdica a l’hora de detectar la ironia, i, finalment, el tercer experiment mostra que els oients empren preferentment les marques gestuals per sobre de les prosòdiques o les contextuals a l’hora de detectar la ironia. Finalment, el quart estudi investiga com els infants aprenen a comprendre la ironia verbal a través de les marques prosòdiques i gestuals, i els resultats mostren que les marques multimodals faciliten la detecció de la ironia des dels 5 anys d'edat. En conjunt, aquesta tesi mostra que tant els marcadors prosòdics com els gestuals contribueixen a la comprensió de la ironia verbal, tot guiant l'oient en la interpretació de l’enunciat mitjançant el subministrament de pistes sobre els supòsits, les emocions i les actituds del parlant irònic. Seguint la línia d’estudis recents sobre els efectes pragmàtics de la prosòdia i el gest, els resultats dels experiments d’aquesta tesi mostren que els marcadors audiovisuals de la ironia són potents factors que desencadenen el procés inferencial necessari per a descodificar les intencions del parlant en les interaccions comunicatives. A més, aquesta tesi presenta evidència empírica de la gran incidència que tenen les marques multimodals —i especialment de les gestuals— en la detecció de la ironia verbal, en comparació amb les marques contextuals, tant en població adulta com en població infantil. Aquesta troballa fonamental reforça la idea que l'estudi dels aspectes prosòdics i gestuals hauria de ser una part integral fonamental de qualsevol explicació pragmàtica o psicolingüística sobre la producció i comprensió de la ironia verbal.

This study offers a pragmatic account of verbal irony, arguing that verbal irony can be best treated as a special type of conversational implicature.As the first part of the thesis, Grice's theory of conversational implicature is revised. This is done by 1)an addition to Grice's Maxim of Quality so that this maxim will be able to take presupposition into account; 2)an inclusion of the notion of mutual knowledge in Grice's framework and 3)an establishment of speakers' motivation for violating Grice's Maxims. This motivation is subsumed into three principles--the Politeness Principle (PP) (following previous writers such as R. Lakoff, Brown and Levinson), which embodies the speaker's need and want to be polite to others, the Selfishness Principle (SP), which constrains the speaker to say things that will bring him/her desirable consequences, and the Expressivity Principle (EP), by observing which the speaker will succeed in leaving more propositional and emotional impact on the hearer. Lastly, a heuristic of implicature production and understanding is offered which is believed to be more coherent and explanatory than Grice's original procedures for implicature calculation.Second, the revised theory is applied to verbal irony. Based on the heuristic of implicature production and understanding, a heuristic of irony production and understanding is provided. This heuristic demonstrates that irony is both similar to and different from ordinary conversational implicatures. It is similar in that it results from the speaker's observance of the motivating principles, and thus violation of Grice's maxims. It is different because 1)It is seen as the violation of the Maxim of Quality alone, while in ordinary conversational implicatures, any of the maxims may be violated; and 2)This violation is caused by all the three motivating principles, the PP, the SP, and the EP, whereas an ordinary conversational implicature is usually motivated by one of these three principles. Finally, this heuristic is applied to various cases of verbal irony, showing that the revised theory of conversational implicature is better than previous proposals on the subjuct.
Department of English

Aborda el problema de la ironía desde el trasfondo de las presuposiciones pragmáticas. De esta manera, brinda una mirada en la que la ironía se analiza como un fenómeno perteneciente a la cognición, pero inciden en las anclas contextuales que despliegan lo que se puede denominar una cognición situada en el entorno. En cuanto al método de análisis, se delinea un procedimiento pragmático-cognitivo configurado en cuatro dimensiones: determinación de anclas materiales, inferencia de la intención irónica, acomodación del trasfondo presuposicional y estructuración topológica del sentido. Con miras a la evaluación de la teoría, se propende a una evidencia convergente que añade al análisis de enunciados irónicos una perspectiva centrada en la apuesta cognitiva. Esta tesis se sustenta en un estudio llevado a cabo durante el 2010 en el seno del Instituto de Investigaciones Humanísticas con el título de Prolegómenos a una teoría cognitiva de la ironía (código 100303251) y que contó con el auspicio del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos.
Tesis

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Neste trabalho são apresentados dois estudos sobre ironia verbal na Análise do Comportamento. Essa dissertação traz as contribuições de outras áreas (Linguística, Psicologia Cognitiva) para a Análise do Comportamento, de maneira que se possa construir, em alicerces comportamentais, um arcabouço sustentável para o estudo das funções da produção e da compreensão da ironia verbal; e, ao mesmo tempo, para que se possam testar empiricamente algumas das interpretações behavioristas sobre a ironia verbal. O Estudo I é conceitual e seu objetivo é apresentar o conceito de ironia em duas grandes áreas do conhecimento: a Linguística, através da autora Paiva (1961), Contribuição Para Uma Estilística Da Ironia; e a Análise do Comportamento, através doutor Skinner (1957), Verbal Behavior. A partir dessas duas obras clássicas, foi analisado e discutido, através do método da ECD (Análise Comportamental do Discurso), o conceito de ironia verbal e as possibilidades de uma análise funcional do comportamento verbal que envolve o fenômeno. Esse método é a auto-descrição dos efeitos do texto-discurso sob o pesquisador. Os resultados mostraram que a ironia em Skinner pode ser conceituada como comportamento verbal sob controle múltiplo audiência múltipla, estímulos múltiplos (especialmente não verbais) e operações motivacionais a partir desses estímulos e audiências múltiplas com a função de deixar que o ouvinte produza uma resposta (em geral contrária ao que foi dito). As diferentes consequências sobre as audiências classificam funcionalmente subtipos de ironia: sarcasmo, sátira, alegoria, cinismo, etc. Esses elementos do conceito de ironia do autor são compartilhados pelas definições de ironia de Paiva. Skinner descreve a função da ironia a partir do contexto do controle múltiplo do comportamento verbal (irônico), que inclui mais de uma audiência como parte desse contexto; Paiva demonstra uma relevante contribuição na diferenciação dos cinco tipos (pura, satírica, disfemística, restritiva e contornante) e climas (ingênuo, retórico, sagrado, científico e familiar) da ironia. A junção das abordagens de Skinner e de Paiva aponta que o estudo da ironia no discurso deve analisar a produção e a compreensão do comportamento verbal irônico levando em consideração o contexto (controle de estímulo) e a audiência múltipla que definem tipos e climas de ironias. Concluiu-se que a análise funcional do comportamento verbal irônico ajudou a ir além de simplesmente dizer como a ironia é utilizada, apontando onde, como e porque (para que) esse comportamento é emitido. No Estudo II é apresentada uma análise empírica da produção e compreensão da ironia verbal em ambienta jurídico. Foi gravado e filmado um Júri Popular e analisadas as falas do Promotor e do Advogado. Dessas falas gravadas foram selecionadas quatro frases irônicas de cada participante, escolhidas pela pesquisadora e julgadas por outras três pessoas (um estagiário, o orientador dessa dissertação e o oponente do participante). As frases foram separadas e analisadas com base no método da ACD. Os resultados demonstraram uma clara compreensão da ironia por parte dos participantes pela definição mais dicionarizada. Além disso, a alta emissão de autoclíticos manipulativos fez com que a ironia fosse mais emitida com o objetivo de persuadir os ouvintes do que com função humorística, por exemplo. Concluiu-se que a emissão da ironia pode ser compreendida com algo inapropriado em ambiente jurídico. Além disso, quando investigada pela Análise do Comportamento (juntamente com a junção das definições na Linguística), é emitida sob controle múltiplo, destacando-se as funções de humor e de desqualificação da fala do oponente (como sarcasmo ou deboche). Palavras-chave: Tribunal do Júri, Linguística.

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This paper presents two studies of verbal irony in Behavior Analysis. This work shows the contributions of other areas (Linguistics, Cognitive Psychology) for Behavior Analysis, so that it can construct in behavioral foundations, a sustainable framework for studying the functions of production and comprehension of verbal irony, and, at the same time, so they can test empirically some of the verbal irony interpretations. The first study is conceptual and is intended to introduce the concept of irony in two areas of knowledge :Linguistics, through the author Paiva (1961), A Contribution to The Stylistics Irony, and Behavior Analysis, through the author Skinner (1957), Verbal Behavior. From these two classics, was analyzed and discussed through the method of BAS (Behavioral Analysis of Speech), the concept of verbal irony and the possibilities for a functional analysis of verbal behavior that involves the phenomenon. This method is self-description of the effects of text-speech under the researcher. The results showed that the irony in Skinner can be conceptualized as verbal behavior under multiple control - multiple audience, multiple stimuli (especially non-verbal) and motivational operations from these stimulus and multiple audiences - with the function of allowing the listener to produce a response (in general, contrary to what was said). The different consequences on audiences, functionally classify subtypes of irony (sarcasm, satire, allegory, cynicism, etc).The authors Skinner and Paiva share the same elements of irony concept. Skinner describes the function of irony from the context of multiple control on verbal behavior (ironic), that includes more than one audience as part of that context; Paiva demonstrates an outstanding contribution in the differentiation of five types (pure, satirical, disfemistic, restrictive and contornant) and climates (naive, rhetoric, sacred, scientific and familiar) of irony. The junction of the approaches of Skinner and Paiva suggests that investigation of irony in speech should analyze the production and comprehension of verbal irony considering the context (stimulus control) and the audience that define multiple types of climates and ironies. We conclude that functional analysis of verbal irony helped to go beyond simply saying how irony it is "used", indicating where, how and why (for what) this behavior is emitted. Study II presents an empirical analysis of production and comprehension of verbal irony in the legal environment. A Jury was recorded, filmed and the speech of the Prosecutor and Lawer was analysed. From the recorded statements, four ironic phrases were selected from each participant, chosen by the researcher and judged by three people (a trainee, the supervisor of this dissertation and the participant s opponent). The phrases were separated and analyzed using the BAS method. The results demonstrated a clear understanding of the participant s irony by definition in the dictionary. Moreover, the high emission of manipulative autoclitics made the irony be issued more in order to persuade listeners than to humor function, for example. It was concluded that the emission of irony can be understood as something inappropriate in legal environment. Furthermore, when investigated by the Behavior Analysis (along with the addition of Linguists definitions), is issued under multiple control, highlighting the humor functions and disqualification of the opponent s speech (such as sarcasm or mockery)
Neste trabalho são apresentados dois estudos sobre ironia verbal na Análise do Comportamento. Essa dissertação traz as contribuições de outras áreas (Linguística, Psicologia Cognitiva) para a Análise do Comportamento, de maneira que se possa construir, em alicerces comportamentais, um arcabouço sustentável para o estudo das funções da produção e da compreensão da ironia verbal; e, ao mesmo tempo, para que se possam testar empiricamente algumas das interpretações behavioristas sobre a ironia verbal. O Estudo I é conceitual e seu objetivo é apresentar o conceito de ironia em duas grandes áreas do conhecimento: a Linguística, através da autora Paiva (1961), Contribuição Para Uma Estilística Da Ironia; e a Análise do Comportamento, através do autor Skinner (1957), Verbal Behavior. A partir dessas duas obras clássicas, foi analisado e discutido, através do método da ACD (Análise Comportamental do Discurso), o conceito de ironia verbal e as possibilidades de uma análise funcional do comportamento verbal que envolve o fenômeno. Esse método é auto-descrição dos efeitos do texto-discurso sob o pesquisador. Os resultados mostraram que a ironia em Skinner pode ser conceituada como comportamento verbal sob controle múltiplo audiência múltipla, estímulos múltiplos (especialmente não verbais) e operações motivacionais a partir desses estímulos e audiências múltiplas com a função de deixar que o ouvinte produza uma resposta (em geral contrária ao que foi dito). As diferentes consequências sobre as audiências classificam funcionalmente subtipos de ironia: sarcasmo, sátira, alegoria, cinismo, etc. Esses elementos do conceito de ironia do autor são compartilhados pelas definições de ironia de Paiva. Skinner descreve a função da ironia a partir do contexto do controle múltiplo do comportamento verbal (irônico), que inclui mais de uma audiência como parte desse contexto; Paiva demonstra uma relevante contribuição na diferenciação dos cinco tipos (pura, satírica, disfemística, restritiva e contornante) e climas (ingênuo, retórico, sagrado, científico e familiar) da ironia.A junção das abordagens de Skinner e de Paiva aponta que o estudo da ironia no discurso deve analisar a produção e a compreensão do comportamento verbal irônico levando em consideração o contexto (controle de estímulo) e a audiência múltipla que definem tipos e climas de ironias. Conclui-se que a análise funcional do comportamento verbal irônico ajudou a ir além de simplesmente dizer como a ironia é utilizada , apontando onde, como e porque (para que) esse comportamento é emitido. No Estudo II é apresentada uma análise empírica da produção e compreensão da ironia verbal em ambiente jurídico. Foi gravado e filmado um Júri Popular e analisadas as falas do Promotor e do Advogado. Dessas falas gravadas foram selecionadas quatro frases irônicas de cada participante, escolhidas pela pesquisadora e julgadas por outras três pessoas (um estagiário, o orientador desta dissertação e o oponente do participante). As frases foram separadas e analisadas com base no método da ACD. Os resultados demonstraram uma clara compreensão da ironia por parte dos participantes pela definição mais dicionarizada. Além disso, a alta emissão de autoclíticos manipulativos fez com que a ironia fosse mais emitida com o objetivo de persuadir os ouvintes do que com função humorística, por exemplo. Concluiu-se que a emissão da ironia pode ser compreendida como algo inapropriado em ambiente jurídico. Além disso, quando investigada pela Análise do Comportamento (juntamente com a junção das definições na Linguística), é emitida sob controle múltiplo, destacando-se as funções de humor e de desqualificação da fala do oponente (como sarcasmo ou deboche)

Legal pressures fundamentally shaped English satire during the long eighteenth century. Rather than being purely repressive, however, the law often encouraged authors and their booksellers to find creative ways to write and publish satire to circumvent both the authorities and the courts. As part of their strategy, satirists developed verbally evasive forms of satire, producing coyly ironic, densely allegorical, and circumlocutory rhetorical styles markedly unlike the seventeenth century’s most bald-faced manuscript lampoons. Shifty printers and booksellers also complicated the mechanics of detection and prosecution through a host of publication ruses. In effect, the elegant insults, comical periphrases, and booksellers’ tricks that came to typify eighteenth-century satire were a way of writing and publishing born of legal necessity. Early on, these emergent satiric practices stymied the authorities and the courts. But they also eventually led to new legislation and innovative courtroom procedures that targeted satire’s most routine evasions. Especially important were a series of eighteenth-century rulings that increased the legal liabilities of printers and booksellers and that expanded and refined doctrines for the courtroom interpretation of verbal ambiguity, irony, and allegory. By the mid-eighteenth century, satirists and their booksellers faced a range of newfound legal pressures. Rather than disappearing, however, personal and political satire began to migrate to dramatic mimicry and caricature. Such acoustic and visual forms relied less on verbal ambiguity and were therefore not subject to either the provisions of preperformance dramatic licensing or courtroom interpretive procedures that had earlier enabled the prosecution of printed satire.

Thucydides self-consciously composed his history for an elite audience of reader-listeners who would pay close attention to his work, not simply hear parts of it recited once. On the surface, he organized it tightly according to rigidly heeded principles: strict focus on war and political decision-making; rigorous ordering of time and space by consecutive summers and winters, and by theaters of action. Behind these overt structures Thucydides imposed a number of implicit designs, which lead perceptive readers to see and appreciate recurring patterns in history, particularly in political leaders’ decision making and in the morale of their cities. Structural parallelisms, juxtapositions, and the ordering of the accounts, for instance, are important Thucydidean means of making readers engage with his history and with their own; verbal linkages also provoke readers to note the ironies, paradoxes, and incongruities of the events.

This chapter examines three works by Japanese North American writers: Ruth Ozeki's A Tale for the Time Being,Mariko Tamaki's novella Cover Me, and her graphic novel Skim, illustrated by Jillian Tamaki. Though different in narrative style and technique, these three texts feature Japanese North American teens, who struggle with identity issues, family instability, self-esteem, and depression. The protagonists are unable to follow the kind of hard-working immigrant ethos of their parents; instead, they pursue what looks like a path to unhappiness, and suffer mental and physical consequences. Ozeki plays with the connectedness of geographical space, and uses postmodern devices to show global economic and social uncertainty; Mariko Tamaki uses the detached and ironic first-person point of view of a twenty-year old to critique our obsession with ownership and money. In Skim, verbal and visual techniques convey Skim's outsider status, her broken family, difficulties with her peers, and what Sara Ahmed calls the "happiness commandment."

Opera buffa is cited as the source for the topical variety of classical style instrumental music. It is also cited as a topic within instrumental music. This essay argues, with examples from works by Haydn, Mozart, Galuppi, Cimarosa, and Martín y Soler, that musical devices of opera buffa were not on the whole exported to instrumental music but rather were translated to the subtler and more refined instrumental idiom. When opera buffa is identified as a topic in instrumental music, it is more often the presumed gestural world of the comic stage that is evoked than the actual musical devices most characteristic of the genre. And when we study topics in opera—either buffa or seria—it is worth taking into account that they have the capacity not only redundantly to confirm verbal and visual cues, but also to complicate them by suggesting irony or parody, among other things.

The article examines the language of the russian-ukrainian war of the 21st century based on the materials of compressed media texts; the role of political narratives and psychological-emotional markers in the creation of new lexemes is clarified; the verbal expression of forecasts of ukrainian and foreign analysts regarding the course of hostilities on the territory of Ukraine is shown. Compressed media texts reflect the main meanings of the language of the russian-ukrainian war in relation to the surrounding world. First of all, the media vocabulary was supplemented with neologisms – aggressive and sad: “rashism”, “denazification”, “katsapstan”, “orks”, “rusnia”, “kremlins”, “parebrik”, “in the swamps”, “nuclear dictator”, “putinism”, “two hundred” and others. Numerals acquired new expressive and evaluative meanings: “200s” (dead), “300s” (wounded), “400s” (russian military personnel who filed reports for termination of the contract), “500s” (hopelessly drunk russian soldiers, alcoholics who are unable to perform combat tasks). The language of war intensified the slogans of the struggle for state independence and people’s freedom. The scope of the greeting “Glory to Ukraine! – Glory to Heroes!”. New official holidays have appeared in the history of Ukraine since 2014: “Heroes of the Heavenly Hundred” Day (February 20), “Ukrainian Volunteer Day” (March 14), “Defenders and Defenders of Ukraine Day” (October 14), “Volunteer Day” (5 December). As you know, the professional holiday of the military is the Day of the Armed Forces of Ukraine” (December 6). A special style is characteristic of media texts on military topics: “Iron Force of Ukraine” (Iron Force of Ukraine), “digitize the Army” (for effective simulation of military operations); “grain corridor” (export of Ukrainian grain to African and European countries); “don’t let Ukraine lose” (the position of the Allies at the first stage of the war), “Ukraine must win!” (the position of the Allies in the second stage of the war); “in the Russian-Ukrainian war, the thinking of the 19th century collided with the thinking of the 21st century”, “a politician is a person who understands time” (Grigori Yavlinskyy, Russian oppositionist); “aggressive neutrality” (about Turkey’s position); “in Russia”, “there, in the swamps” (in Russia), “weak, inadequate evil” (about Russia), “behind the fence”; “a great reset of the world order”; “technology of military creativity”; “they are not Russian and not Ukrainian, they are Soviet”, “people without mentality”, “in Ukraine and without Ukraine” (Vitaly Portnikov about a separate category of Russian-speaking citizens in Ukraine); “information bed of Ukraine” (about combat operations on the front line; “when a descendant asks me what I did in those terrifying moments, I will know what to answer. At the very least, I did not stand aside” (opinion of a Ukrainian fighter). Compressed in media texts is implemented in the headline, note, infographic, chronicle, digest, help, caption for photos, blitz poll, interview, short articles, caricature, visual text, commercial, etc. Researchers add “nominative-representative text (business card text, titles of sections, pages, names of presenters, etc.) to concise media texts for a functional and pragmatic purpose.” accent text (quote, key idea); text-navigator (content, news feed, indication of movement or time); chronotope”. A specific linguistic phenomenon known as “language compression” is widespread in media texts. Language compression is the art of minimization; attention is focused on the main, the most essential, everything secondary is filtered out. Compression uses words succinctly and sparingly to convey the meaning as much as possible. For example, the headline “Racism. What is the essence of the new ideology of the Russian occupiers?”. The note briefly explains the meaning of this concept and explains the difference from “nazism” and “fascism”. Key words: compressed media text, language compression, language of war, emotional markers, expressive neologisms, political journalism.