Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Iron and steel Testing'
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1
Alsaket, Yahya. "Benchmark solutions for advanced analysis of steel frames." Thesis, Queensland University of Technology, 1999. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/36105/1/36105_Alsaket_1999.pdf.
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During the past ten years, considerable research has been conducted with the aim of
developing, implementing and verifying "advanced analysis" techniques suitable for the
non-linear analysis and design of steel framed structures. With the use of one of these
methods, the simplified concentrated methods, comprehensive assessment of the actual
failure modes and ultimate strengths of framing systems is now possible in practical
design situations, without resort to conventional elastic methods of analysis and semiempirical
specification equations. This research has the potential to extend the
creativity of the structural engineer and simplify the design process, while ensuring
greater economy and more uniform safety in certain design situations. However, the
application of concentrated plasticity methods is currently restricted to two
dimensional steel frame structures that are fully laterally restrained and constructed
from compact sections (i.e. sections not subject to local and/or lateral buckling
effects). Unfortunately this precludes the use of advanced analysis from the design of
frames consisting of cold-formed sections and a significant proportion of hot-rolled
universal beam sections. Therefore research is currently under way to develop
concentrated plasticity methods of analysis for steel frame structures subject to local
and/or lateral buckling effects. This thesis was aimed at developing appropriate
benchmark solutions that are needed to validate these simplified methods of analysis.
Finite element analyses and five large scale experiments were conducted in order to
study the ultimate strength behaviour of two-dimensional single bay single storey steel
frames subjected to local and/or lateral buckling effects. The frames comprised of
cold-formed rectangular hollow sections and hot-rolled I-sections. A good agreement
between the results from finite element analyses and experiments validated the
accuracy of the finite element model used. The finite element model was then used to
develop benchmark solutions for two-dimensional single storey, single bay steel frames
comprising cold-formed rectangular hollow sections and hot-rolled I-sections subjected
to local and/or lateral buckling effects. This thesis presents the details of finite element analyses and large scale experiments
and their results, and a series of analytical benchmark solutions that can be used for the
verification of simplified concentrated plasticity methods of analysis.
2
Oesch, Everett Ralph. "Strength and performance field testing of hybrid HPS bridge A6101 /." free to MU campus, to others for purchase, 2003. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/mo/fullcit?p1418053.
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Chen, Ju, and 陳駒. "Behaviour of high strength steel columns at elevated temperatures." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2007. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B37936554.
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Chen, Yujie. "Nominal Shear Strength and Seismic Detailing of Cold-formed Steel Shear Walls using Steel Sheet Sheathing." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2010. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc30444/.
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In this research, monotonic and cyclic tests on cold-formed steel shear walls sheathed with steel sheets on one side were conducted to (1) verify the published nominal shear strength for 18-mil and 27-mil steel sheets; and (2) investigate the behavior of 6-ft. wide shear walls with multiple steel sheets. In objective 1: this research confirms the discrepancy existed in the published nominal strength of 27-mil sheets discovered by the previous project and verified the published nominal strength of 18 mil sheet for the wind design in AISI S213. The project also finds disagreement on the nominal strength of 18-mil sheets for seismic design, which is 29.0% higher than the published values. The research investigated 6-ft. wide shear wall with four framing and sheathing configurations. Configuration C, which used detailing, could provide the highest shear strength, compared to Configurations A and B. Meanwhile, the shear strength and stiffness of 2-ft. wide and 4-ft. wide wall can be improved by using the seismic detailing.
5
Hartnagel, Bryan A. "Inelastic design and experimental testing of compact and noncompact steel girder bridges /." free to MU campus, to others for purchase, 1997. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/mo/fullcit?p9841147.
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Hedric, Andrew C. "Dynamic Behaviors of Historical Wrought Iron Truss Bridges – a Field Testing Case Study." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2015. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc822751/.
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Civil infrastructure throughout the world serves as main arteries for commerce and transportation, commonly forming the backbone of many societies. Bridges have been and remain a crucial part of the success of these civil networks. However, the crucial elements have been built over centuries and have been subject to generations of use. Many current bridges have outlived their intended service life or have been retrofitted to carry additional loads over their original design. A large number of these historic bridges are still in everyday use and their condition needs to be monitored for public safety. Transportation infrastructure authorities have implemented various inspection and management programs throughout the world, mainly visual inspections. However, careful visual inspections can provide valuable information but it has limitations in that it provides no actual stress-strain information to determine structural soundness. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) has been a growing area of research as officials need to asses and triage the aging infrastructure with methods that provide measurable response information to determine the health of the structure. A rapid improvement in technology has allowed researchers to start using new sensors and algorithms to understand the structural parameters of tested structures due to known and unknown loading scenarios. One of the most promising methods involves the use of wireless sensor nodes to measure structural responses to loads in real time. The structural responses can be processed to help understand the modal parameters, determine the health of the structure, and potentially identify damage. For example, modal parameters of structures are typically used when designing the lateral system of a structure. A better understanding of these parameters can lead to better and more efficient designs. Usually engineers rely on a finite element analysis to identify these parameters. By observing the actual parameters displayed during field testing, the theoretical FE models can be validated for accuracy. This paper will present the field testing of a historic wrought iron truss bridge, in a case study, to establish a repeatable procedure to be used as reference for the testing of other similar structures.
7
Jiao, Hui 1963. "The behaviour of very high strength (VHS) members and welded connections." Monash University, Dept. of Civil Engineering, 2003. http://arrow.monash.edu.au/hdl/1959.1/9417.
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Carballo, Manuel. "Strength of z-purlin supported standing seam roof systems under gravity loading." Thesis, Virginia Tech, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/45952.
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The objective of the Standing Seam Roof Systems Research Project at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University is to develop a design procedure for the strength of Z-purlin supported standing seam roof systems under gravity leading. Various approaches were taken to calculate the strength of systems with either torsional restraint, third point span restraint, or midspan restraint. Since few test results are available for single and three span continuous, two purlin line systems, the primary focus of this research is analytical. Even though the test setup used for these tests does not represent actual field conditions, the data obtained will be extremely useful in the development of analytical models to predict system strength. However, at least four multiple purlin line tests will be required to verify the accuracy of the design procedure. The analytical formulation will include the effects of sliding friction in the clips and "drape" restraint effects of the standing seam deck.
Master of Science
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Vora, Hitesh. "Shear Wall Tests and Finite Element Analysis of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2008. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9726/.
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The research was focused on the three major structural elements of a typical cold-formed steel building - shear wall, floor joist, and column. Part 1 of the thesis explored wider options in the steel sheet sheathing for shear walls. An experimental research was conducted on 0.030 in and 0.033 in. (2:1 and 4:1 aspect ratios) and 0.027 in. (2:1 aspect ratio) steel sheet shear walls and the results provided nominal shear strengths for the American Iron and Steel Institute Lateral Design Standard. Part 2 of this thesis optimized the web hole profile for a new generation C-joist, and the web crippling strength was analyzed by finite element analysis. The results indicated an average 43% increase of web crippling strength for the new C-joist compared to the normal C-joist without web hole. To improve the structural efficiency of a cold-formed steel column, a new generation sigma (NGS) shaped column section was developed in Part 3 of this thesis. The geometry of NGS was optimized by the elastic and inelastic analysis using finite strip and finite element analysis. The results showed an average increment in axial compression strength for a single NGS section over a C-section was 117% for a 2 ft. long section and 135% for an 8 ft. long section; and for a double NGS section over a C-section was 75% for a 2 ft. long section and 103% for an 8 ft. long section.
10
Kahle, Matthew Gilbert. "Partially restrained composite connections : design and analysis of a prototype structure." Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/20830.
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Nassiri, Esmail. "Modelling nonlinear behaviour of two-dimensional steel structures subjected to cyclic loading." Thesis, Queensland University of Technology, 1998.
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Ho, Ho-chuen Federick. "Ferrous metal balance of Hong Kong : consumption, waste generation, recycling and disposal /." Hong Kong : University of Hong Kong, 1997. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record.jsp?B18734893.
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Ahmad, J. "Dephosphorisation of molten iron and steel." Thesis, Brunel University, 1988. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.379756.
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Yin, Maggie Huaying Materials Science & Engineering Faculty of Science UNSW. "Metal dusting of iron and low alloy steel." Awarded by:University of New South Wales. School of Materials Science and Engineering, 2006. http://handle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/25188.
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Metal dusting is a kind of catastrophic corrosion phenomenon that can be observed in several of petrochemical processes. It occurs on iron-, nickel- and cobalt-base metals in carbonaceous atmospheres at high temperature when gaseous carbon activity is higher than one. The process is particularly rapid for ferritic alloys The aim of this project was to compare the dusting kinetics of pure iron and a 2.25Cr-1Mo alloy steel under CO-H2-H2O atmosphere at 650??C. Polished (3??m) samples of iron and the steel were exposed to flowing CO-H2-H2O gas atmospheres at 650??C, when the gases were supersaturated with respect to graphite. The partial pressure of CO was varied between 0.25 and 0.9 atm, and the carbon activity was varied from 2.35 to 16, in order to obtain a series of experimental conditions. In most experiments, pO2 was less than 7.37E-24 atm, and no iron oxide could form. However, Cr2O3 would always have been stable. When exposed to these gases, both iron and steel developed a surface scale of Fe3C which was buried beneath a deposit of carbon, containing iron-rich nanoparticles (the dust). Examination by Scanning Electron Microscopy allowed the observation of fine and coarse carbon nanotubes, and also spiral filaments. However, the morphology of the graphitic carbon was not sensitive to pCO and aC. Moreover, the carbon deposit was gas permeable, allowing continuing gas access to the underlying metal. At a fixed=4.5, the carburizing rate clearly increased with CO content from 0.25 to 0.68 atm. However, increasing the CO content to higher value led to decreased rates, indicating that carburizing rate reaches a maximum value at pCO=0.68 atm. When pCO was fixed at 0.25 atm and 0.68 atm, and carbon activity was varied. The induction period was extended by the formation of protective oxide layers at low values of carbon activity (aC= 2.35 and 2.55) where pO2 exceed the iron oxide formation value. For other reaction conditions, the carbon uptake rate for iron and steel did not increase with aC. The present work showed that the carbon deposition rates were not proportional to pCO or pCOpH2. Instead, the rate was affected by the partial pressure of all three reaction gases, and the carbon uptake rate for both materials could be expressed at r=k1pCOpH2+k2pCO2+k3pH22 and the rate constant k3 has a negative value, corresponding to coke gasification. From XRD analyses, it was found that cementite was the only iron-containing phase in the dusting product. The cementite particles acted as catalysts for carbon deposition from the gas. The same deposition process at the surface of the cementite layer led to its disintegration, thereby producing the particles. This disintegration process was faster on the steel than on pure iron. Consequently, the rates of both metal wastage and coke accumulation were faster for the steel. It is concluded that chromium and molybdenum do not stabilize the carbide but accelerate its disintegration process. It is suggested that Cr2O3 fine particles in the cementite layers provide more nucleation sites in the cementite layer on steel, explaining its more rapid dusting kinetics. However, appropriate methods of proving this assumption, such as TEM and FIB, are required.
15
Xu, Jingsi M. C. P. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "Energy intensity in China's iron and steel sector." Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/67246.
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Thesis (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 2011.Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 105-108).
In this study, I examine the spatial and economic factors that influence energy intensity in China's iron and steel sector, namely industrial value added, renovation investment, coke consumption, and local coke supply. Despite the recognition of the importance of these spatial and economic factors in understanding energy intensity in the steel industry, the municipal and provincial governments of China have failed to integrate them into their energy policy making. Therefore, in order to seek the most effective ways of reducing energy intensity and to encourage energy conservation behavior in China's iron and steel sector, I make three simulations based on the (1) shifts in direct energy efficiency in the sector, (2) coke consumption during the iron and steel making processes, and (3) manufacturing material transportation. I propose an analytical framework for examining the differences in energy intensity at the regional level that are attributed to these spatial and economic factors. More specifically, among these four key factors presented in the multi-level regression models, I identify three factors-industrial value added, renovation investment, and coke consumption indices- as "spatial-level" or "time-variant" factors. I treat the fourth one-local coke supply-as the only "temporal-level" or "time-invariant" factor. I present three major implications for the energy policy-making regarding the development of a "green" iron and steel sector in China. First, when I incorporate all four key factors-industrial value added, renovation investment, coke consumption, and local coke supply-I obtain significantly improved overall exploratory power of the regional-level energy intensity model. Second, the results of my national-level input-output analysis show that policy makers should focus on the changes in total energy intensity, which includes both direct (40 percent) and indirect (60 percent) energy intensity, to design, implement, and evaluate energy-efficient policies for China's iron and steel sector. Third, my study sheds light on the most recent national-level development plan the "1 2 th Five-Year' Plan-and I argue that by adopting efficient industrial structure upgrading strategies, the iron and steel sector can dramatically reduce the national energy consumption in China in the near future.
by Jingsi Xu.
M.C.P.
16
Ekengård, Johan. "Slag/Metal Metallurgy in Iron and Steel Melts." Doctoral thesis, KTH, Tillämpad processmetallurgi, 2016. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-187228.
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In this work, the metal and slag phase mixing in three steps of a ladle refining operation of steel melts and for an oxygen balance during cooling of cast iron melts have been studied at two Swedish steel plants and at two Swedish cast iron foundries, respectively. In order to predict the oxygen activity in the steel bulk in equilibrium with the top slag as well as in metal droplets in the top slag in equilibrium with the top slag, three slag models were used. In addition, the assumptions of a sulphur-oxygen equilibrium between steel and slag and the dilute solution model for the liquid steel phase were utilized in the calculations. Measured oxygen activities in steel bulk, which varied between 3.5-6 ppm, were compared to predicted oxygen activities. The differences between the predicted and measured oxygen activities were found to be significant (0-500%) and the reasons for the differences are discussed in the thesis. Slag samples have been evaluated to determine the distribution of the metal droplets. The results show that the relatively largest numbers of metal droplets are present in the slag samples taken before vacuum degassing. Also, the projected interfacial area between steel bulk and top slag has been compared to the interfacial area between the metal droplets and slag. The results show that the droplet-slag interfacial area is 3 to 14 times larger than the flat projected interfacial area between the steel and top slag. Furthermore, the effect of the reactions between top slag and steel and the slag viscosity on the metal droplet formation is discussed. The results show significant differences between the steel bulk and steel droplet compositions and the reasons for the differences are discussed in the thesis. The oxygen activity in different cast irons was studied. Plant trials were performed at three occasions for lamellar, compacted and nodular iron melts. The results show that at temperatures close to the liquidus temperature the oxygen activities were 0.03-0.1 ppm for LGI, around 0.02 ppm for CGI, and 0.001ppm for SGI. In addition, it was found that as the oxygen activities increased with time after an Mg treatment, the ability to form a compact graphite or a nodular graphite in Mg-treated iron melts was decreased. Also, extrapolated oxygen activity differences up to 0.07 ppm were found for different hypoeutectic iron compositions for lamellar graphite iron at the liquidus temperature. Overall, the observed differences in the dissolved oxygen levels were believed to influence how graphite particles are incorporated into the austenite matrix and how the graphite morphology will be in the cast product.QC 20160518
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Tognarelli, Donna M. "Heavy metal mobility in iron and steel waste." Thesis, University of the West of Scotland, 2003. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.742768.
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selvaraj, nadar vighneish. "Fatigue testing of scratched flapper valve steel." Thesis, Karlstads universitet, Avdelningen för maskin- och materialteknik, 2014. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kau:diva-31704.
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A flapper valve is made from a hardened and tempered high strength strip steel which opens and shuts as it is subjected to very high cyclic loads. Steel strip of which flapper valves are made from can encounter a surface defect which are anticipated to influence fatigue life negatively. In this study, the influence of surface scratches on fatigue life of flapper valve strip was investigated. The analysis was carried out by using thirty samples that were blanked out of eight different steel strips in the transverse direction. Of these samples, fifteen of them had scratches on the surface and fifteen did not, all these samples were fatigue tested by constant amplitude method. An S-N curve was plotted based upon the values and results from the fatigue test, considering the curve as the nerve center in relation with fractrographic studies using the Scanning electron microscope. Therefore this master thesis work aims to explain the influence of scratches on fatigue life of flapper valve strip and suggest future improvements based on the findings.
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Yousof, Mohamad. "Analytical Model for Lateral Deflection in Cold-formed Steel Framed Shear Walls with Steel Sheathing." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2014. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc700013/.
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An analytical model for lateral deflection in cold-formed steel shear walls sheathed with steel is developed in this research. The model is based on the four factors: fastener displacement, steel sheet deformation, and hold-down deformation, which are from the effective strip concept and a complexity factor, which accounts for the additional influential factors not considered in the previous three terms. The model uses design equations based on the actual material and mechanical properties of the shear wall. Furthermore, the model accounts for aggressive and conservative designers by predicting deflection at different shear strength degrees.
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Moor, Constantin. "Three dimensional analysis of steel portal frame buildings." Thesis, Queensland University of Technology, 1997. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/36010/1/36010_Moor_1997.pdf.
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The true strength and deflection behaviour of industrial and commercial
steel portal frame buildings is understood better if the effects of stiffness of
end frames and profiled steel claddings are included. The conventional
designs ignore these effects and are very much based on an idealised twodimensional
frame behaviour. This thesis describes an investigation into the
three-dimensional behaviour of steel portal frame buildings using computer
modelling and full scale tests.
The full scale tests of a 12 m x 12 m clad and unclad steel portal frame
building with true pinned and standard (normal) bases were conducted
under a range of design load cases which indicated that the observed
deflections and bending moments in the portal frames were considerably
different to those obtained from a two-dimensional analysis of frames
ignoring the effects of cladding and end frame rigidity. Three dimensional
analyses of the same building including these effects using the "equivalent
truss member'' theory were carried out and the results agreed well with full
scale test results. The cladding flexibility coefficient required for this
computer analysis was obtained from shear tests of 6 m x 6 m crest-fixed
trapezoidal steel claddings.
In both full scale tests and computer modelling, the stiffness of cladding and
end frames had a significant influence on moments and deflections of the
portal frames when Cross Wind load was considered. For the tested frame
these effects were equivalent to stiffening the column bases from pinned to
fixed conditions. However, for Longitudinal Wind and Live Loads, the results
showed that buildings with a flat roof slope (in this case 5° ) will not gain
from the presence of claddings and the differences in maximum moment and
deflections are insignificant when cladding action and rigidity of end frame
are considered. In the design of the common industrial and commercial buildings, Cross
Wind load is the governing load case. Therefore it is important that the
significant effects observed due to the presence of cladding and end frame
rigidity be taken into account in the analysis and design of these buildings.
There was a noticeable load transfer from the central frame to the gable
frame when claddings and end frame bracing were added to the building
considered in the full scale tests and three-dimensional computer analysis.
This increased the moments on the end gable frame, but decreased the
higher moments on the central frame, leading to a more balanced moment
and deflection distribution among these frames. It is expected that such a
three dimensional analysis and design method will lead to lighter steel
frames as the maximum moments are reduced. Therefore this method which
is based on the true building behaviour is recommended for Cross Wind
loads.
This design method as well as recent advances in the use of higher strength
materials, can lead to buildings with more slender members, larger spans
and thus larger deflections. As a result, unlike in the past, deflection criteria
may become more critical than strength and increasing the member sizes is
not always the best solution for limiting such problems. For this purpose the
use of appropriate deflection limits and a better understanding of the true
deflection behaviour of the buildings are important. This investigation has
shown that choosing the location of the points where the deflection is to be
limited is more important than limiting maximum deflections for the whole
building. Serviceability problems usually do not appear in members such as
columns or rafters, instead they appear in panels such as walls, partitions,
ceilings and claddings. In order to eliminate serviceability problems in the
buildings it is then necessary to consider the "Characteristic panel" concept
developed by the author of this thesis. As a result, it is important from a
serviceability point of view not to limit the maximum horizontal and vertical
deflections in portal frames buildings, but to consider appropriate
characteristic panels in the buildings and analysing their relative deflections
to limit their specific deformations.
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Arduini, Emmanuele. "Development and testing of new iron chelating agents." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1999. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/MQ55036.pdf.
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Ionescu, Denisa V. "The hydraulic potential of high iron bearing steel slags." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1999. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape8/PQDD_0018/NQ46358.pdf.
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Richardson, Hugh. "Iron and steel production and trade patterns in China /." Title page, contents and introduction only, 1990. http://web4.library.adelaide.edu.au/theses/09EC/09ecr522.pdf.
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Saleh, Abdel Fattah El Sayed. "Performance evaluation in the Egyptian iron and steel industry." Thesis, University of Hull, 1993. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.297383.
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Sidhu, Mandeep Singh. "Liquid Aluminium Corrosion Characteristics of Cast Iron and Steel." Thesis, University of Canterbury. Mechanical Engineering, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/7013.
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Cast iron and steel alloys are commonly used for tooling and structural components in Al production, Al die-casting and the aluminizing industry due to their favourable properties including high strength, good formability and low cost. However, the iquid Al corrosion of these materials is one of the crucial concerns in maintaining the efficient production. Al is produced by the electrolytic smelting of alumina. Cast iron and/or cast steel pipes - commonly known as „tapping pipes‟ - are used to extract the liquid Al produced by smelting. Tapping pipes mainly degrade by material loss because liquid Al reacts with nearly all metals. Failure of tapping pipes is a significant contributor to the maintenance expenses; therefore, the primary aim of this research is to develop a material to enhance the life time of tapping pipes. Various test methods were developed in order to examine the effect of molten Al
environment on cast iron and steel alloys. The corrosion resistance of these alloys was determined under different conditions of Al flow and temperature. The intermetallic compounds formed by exposing the ferrous to liquid Al were characterized using the Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) and Electron Back Scatter Diffraction (EBSD) techniques. The formation, growth and nature of reaction products were revealed to establish a link to the liquid Al corrosion resistance. A relationship between the chemical composition and liquid Al corrosion resistance of cast irons could not established in the past. In the present work, the corrosion rate was found to depend upon the graphite morphology and fraction of each Fe-C phase of cast
iron matrix, which can be controlled by selecting the chemical composition. Moreover, present research suggested the guidelines for producing a cast iron with enhanced liquid
Al corrosion resistance. The presence of C-rich phases, graphite flakes and cementite was found to be effective in enhancing the liquid Al corrosion resistance of gray cast
irons. Conversely, a higher Si content was found to enhance the susceptibility of cast irons to liquid Al corrosion.
The corrosion mechanisms for ferrous alloys in liquid Al are not fully understood. Thus the subsequent analysis of the dissolution data was supported by investigating the
reaction products formed between Al and substrate materials. In addition to commonly existent ε-Fe2Al5 and ζ-FeAl3 phases, the formation of Al4C3 and κ-Fe3AlC compounds was confirmed for the first time in the intermetallic layers of ferrous alloys. The Fe3Si phase in the intermetallic layers of high Si cast irons was found, which was believed to facilitate the high corrosion rates of high Si cast irons. Moreover, the mechanism by which C in Fe-substrates affects the liquid Al corrosion resistance can be better understood given the present work.
Furthermore, the analysis presented here gives an understanding of the nature, growth and dissolution of intermetallic compounds in several cast iron alloys. Higher Si
additions to cast irons played an important role in molten metal corrosion by accelerating the material loss and changing the nature of intermetallic layers. The results of this study
clearly indicated that the dissolution and the growth of intermetallic compounds are interrelated and the dissolution and/or spallation of the intermetallic layers may be the
primary mode of liquid Al corrosion of ferrous alloys.
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Palumbo, Nicolino. "Accelerated corrosion testing of steel reinforcement in concrete." Thesis, McGill University, 1991. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=60681.
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In the last few decades, there has been an increasing worldwide problem of deterioration of reinforced concrete structures, caused primarily by the corrosion of the steel reinforcement embedded within the concrete. Several factors can influence the corrosion process in different types of inservice structures. This thesis reviews the basic principles of the reinforcement corrosion. Various protection and rehabilitation schemes that can be undertaken in the repair of deteriorated concrete structures are presented. In particular, three specific types of structures in the Montreal region which have undergone rehabilitation are presented as typical case studies. Additionally, major research work done in the area of reinforcement corrosion over the last twenty years is reviewed.This thesis reports the results of an experimental research program carried out at McGill University dealing with accelerated electrochemical corrosion testing of reinforced concrete. The main objective of this study is to determine the importance and influence of the depth of the concrete cover thickness on the rate of corrosion of steel reinforcement and thereby, on the resistance of concrete. Appropriate conclusions and recommendations regarding the construction variables affecting the corrosion process are brought forth.
These conclusions and recommendations can be summarized.
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Coy, Bradly B. "Buckling-Restrained Braced Frame Connection Design and Testing." Diss., CLICK HERE for online access, 2007. http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/ETD/image/etd2030.pdf.
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Alemdar, Bulent Nedim. "Distributed plasticity analysis of steel building structural systems." Diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/22220.
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Toledo, García Gustavo A. "High temperature compression testing of hardened steels for plasticity behavior modeling." Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/16909.
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Bienias, Grzegorz. "An experimental investigation of the shear plate connections." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1987. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/26682.
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In Limit States Design for steel structures, single plate connections are designed to transfer beam shear to supporting member. These connections, with the connection plate shop-welded to the supporting member and field-bolted to the supported beam are becoming increasingly popular due to their economy and ease of fabrication. Single plate connections are very suitable for cases where speed of erection is a primary consideration. They are particularly superior for skewed connections. Traditional design methods which deal with connection problems generally give over-conservative solutions to this complex problem.
Two series of experimental investigations of single plate connections for beam-to-girder webs were conducted. A variety of connections were tested to demonstrate their feasibility and to collect data for analytical correlation studies. The ultimate goal of these tests and studies is to devise a rational basis for the design of these connections. This work is part of a comprehensive research project and the reader is referred to other papers (References 1 and 2) for completeness.
Based on experimental results and theoretical correlation studies, a modified design formula is proposed in order to predict the ultimate capacity of single plate connections. The formula tries to incorporate the influences of applied loads (shear force, torsional moment, and bending moment), resistance of the single plate connection, skew angle of the connection plate and type of holes (slotted and standard) used in the connection.Applied Science, Faculty of
Civil Engineering, Department of
Graduate
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Lan, Xing. "Seismic Performance Evaluation of Novel Cold-Formed Steel Framed Shear Walls Sheathed with Corrugated Steel Sheets." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2017. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1011859/.
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This thesis presents experiments and numerical analysis of a novel cold-formed steel framed shear wall sheathed with corrugated steel sheets. The objective of this newly designed shear wall is to meet the growing demand of mid-rise buildings and the combustibility requirement in the International Building Code. The strength of the novel shear wall is higher than currently code certified shear wall in AISI S400-15 so that it could be more favorable for mid-rise building in areas that are prone to earthquakes and hurricanes. Full-scale monotonic and cyclic tests were conducted on bearing walls and shear walls under combined lateral and gravity loads. Though the gravity loads had negative effects on the strength and stiffness of the shear wall due to the buckling of the chord framing members, it still shows promise to be used in mid-rise buildings. The objective of numerical analysis is to quantify the seismic performance factors of the newly design shear wall lateral-force resisting system by using the recommended methodology in FEMA P695. Two groups of building archetypes, story varied from two to five, were simulated in OpenSees program. Nonlinear static and dynamic analysis were performed in both horizontal directions of each building archetype. Finally, the results of the performance evaluation verified the seismic performance factors(R=Cd=6.5 and Ω =3.0) were appropriate for the novel shear wall system.
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Huang, Donglin. "Heterogeneous reduction of selenite by zero valent iron-steel wool." Morgantown, W. Va. : [West Virginia University Libraries], 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10450/11233.
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 2010.Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains ix, 106 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references.
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Georgakopoulos, Evangelos D. "Iron and steel slag valorization through carbonation and supplementary processes." Thesis, Cranfield University, 2016. http://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/1826/12323.
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Alkaline industrial wastes are considered potential resources for the mitigation of CO2 emissions by simultaneously capturing and sequestering CO2 through mineralization. Mineralization safely and permanently stores CO2 through its reaction with alkaline earth metals. Apart from natural formations, these elements can also be found in a variety of abundantly available industrial wastes that have high reactivity with CO2, and that are generated close to the emission point-sources. Apparently, it is the applicability and marketability of the carbonated products that define to a great extent the efficiency and viability of the particular process as a point source CO2 mitigation measure. This project investigates the valorization of iron- and steel-making slags through methods incorporating the carbonation of the material, in order to achieve the sequestration of sufficient amounts of CO2 in parallel with the formation of valuable and marketable products. Iron- and steel-manufacturing slags were selected as the most suitable industrial byproducts for the purposes of this research, due to their high production amounts and notable carbonation capacities. The same criteria (production amount and carbonation capacity) were also used for the selection of the iron- and steel-making slag types that are more suitable to the scope of this work. Specifically for the determination of the slag types with the most promising carbonation capacities, the maximum carbonation conversions resulting from recent publications related to the influence of process parameters on the conversion extent of iron- and steel-manufacturing slags, were directly compared to each other using a new index, the Carbonation Weathering Rate, which normalizes the results based on particle size and reaction duration. Among the several iron- and steel-manufacturing slags, basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and blast furnace (BF) slags were found to combine both high production volumes and significant affinity to carbonation. In the context of this research, two different procedures aiming to the formation of value added materials with satisfactory CO2 uptakes were investigated as potential BF and BOF slags valorization methods. In them, carbonation was combined either with granulation and alkali activation (BOF slag), or with hydrothermal conversion (BF slag). Both treatments seemed to be effective and returned encouraging results by managing to store sufficient amounts of CO2 and generating materials with promising qualities. In particular, the performance of the granulation-carbonation of BOF slag as a method leading to the production of secondary aggregates and the sequestration of notable amounts of CO2 in a solid and stable form, was evaluated in this work. For comparison purposes, the material was also subjected to single granulation tests under ambient conditions. In an effort to improve the mechanical properties of the finally synthesized products, apart from water, a mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate was also tested as a binding agent in both of the employed processes. According to the results, the granules produced after the alkali activation of the material were characterized by remarkably greater particle sizes (from 1 to 5 mm) compared to that of the as received material (0.2 mm), and by enhanced mechanical properties, which in some cases appeared to be adequate for their use as aggregates in construction applications. The maximum CO2 uptake was 40 g CO2/kg of slag and it was achieved after 60 minutes of the combined treatment of alkali activated BOF slag. Regarding the environmental behavior of the synthesized granules, increased levels of Cr and V leaching were noticed from the granules generated by the combination of granulation-carbonation with alkali activation. Nevertheless, the combination of granulation with alkali activation or that of granulation with carbonation were found not to worsen, if not to improve, the leaching behaviour of the granules with regards to the untreated BOF slag. The formation of a zeolitic material with notable heavy metal adsorption capacity, through the hydrothermal conversion of the solid residues resulting from the calcium- extraction stage of the indirect carbonation of BF slag, was also investigated in this project. To this end, calcium was selectively extracted from the slag by leaching, using acetic acid of specific concentration (2 M) as the extraction agent. The residual solids resulting from the filtration of the generated slurry were subsequently subjected to hydrothermal conversion in caustic solution of two different compositions (NaOH of 0.5 M and 2 M). Due to the presence of calcium acetate in the composition of the solid residues, as a result of their inadequate washing, only the hydrothermal conversion attempted using the sodium hydroxide solution of higher concentration (2 M) managed to turn the amorphous slag into a crystalline material, mainly composed by a zeolitic mineral phase (detected by XRD), namely, analcime (NaAlSi2O6·H2O), and tobermorite (Ca5(OH)2Si6O16·4H2O). Finally, the heavy metal adsorption capacity of the particular material was assessed using Ni2+ as the metal for investigation. Three different adsorption models were used for the characterization of the adsorption process, namely Langmuir, Freundlich and Temkin models. Langmuir and Temkin isotherms were found to better describe the process, compared to Freundlich model. Based on the ability of the particular material to adsorb Ni2+ as reported from batch adsorption experiments and ICP-OES analysis, and the maximum monolayer adsorption capacity (Q0 = 11.51 mg/g) as determined by the Langmuir model, the finally synthesized product can potentially be used in wastewater treatment or environmental remediation applications.
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Yorulmaz, Serdar. "Analysis and Testing of Laser Welded Steel Sandwich Panels." Fogler Library, University of Maine, 2008. http://www.library.umaine.edu/theses/pdf/YorulmazS2008.pdf.
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Clubley, Simon. "Computational structural analysis and testing of Bi-Steel plate." Thesis, University of Southampton, 2001. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/340969/.
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Bi-Steel panels are a new composite construction system developed by Corus formerly British Steel Plc. The comprise of steel plates permanently coupled by a matrix of transverse friction welded rods with a concrete in-fill. Numerical modelling using finite element analysis has been conducted on Bi-Steel plates with and without in-filled concrete. The results of non-linear analysis are compared with new and existing experimental data. Both material and geometrical non-linearity were considered in the computer analysis. The shear strength and deformation capacity of the Bi-Steel unit subject to push-out load is discussed. The steel and concrete interface is considered extensively in a series of contact studies. A range of element types is used to examine the effect of modelling the interface as a smeared or discrete contact. Mathematical modelling is used in conjunction with experimental data to validate solution accuracy. The inclusion of a smeared cracking and crushing mechanism has allowed the accurate modelling of concrete. A new method of differential smeared element reinforcement is proposed to maximise accuracy and numerical stability. The failure of a panel subject to an applied bending force is analysed to determine the combined effect of flexure and shear. Finally, a design model has been suggested to calculate the shear strength and deformation capacity of any section size. This research has indicated that Bi-Steel bars and plates have significant shear strength. The shear strength is affected by several important parameters. These include plate spacing, bar spacing and bar diameter. From load-deformation relationships it can be seen that Bi-Steel plates have high ductility and deformation capacity. For very thick plates (>12mm), the failure can be brittle if bar numbers are small. The failure will be initiated by shear failure at the weld interface.
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Papin-Ramcharan, Jennifer. "An investigation on instrumentation for testing electrical steel sheets." Thesis, [Hong Kong] : University of Hong Kong, 1989. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record.jsp?B12433809.
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Nhamoinesu, Shelton. "Steel-glass composite panels." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2015. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.708845.
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Tavrou, Chrysostomos Kyriacou, and stavrou@swin edu au. "Evaluation of adhesively bonded steel sheets using ultrasonic techniques." Swinburne University of Technology, 2005. http://adt.lib.swin.edu.au./public/adt-VSWT20060306.085412.
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Adhesives have presently reached a stage where they have become part of everyday
life both in a professional sense as well as for household applications. They offer
advantages that in many respects surpass other joining processes such as bonding
of large areas, joining a wide range and dissimilar materials; and without the need for
special tooling or operator training, that is often required by many other joining
processes. They are of course not a panacea to all fastening applications, but they
can easily be described as the most versatile and most widely used joining method at
present.
Engineering applications have also benefited from the advantages offered by
adhesives, but they are not as liberally used due to the severe consequences that
may result from bond failure. Although adhesives can demonstrate their ability to
fulfil the joining strength requirements under laboratory conditions, their application in
industry proved to be not as reliable as expected. A number of parameters that can
easily be controlled under laboratory conditions such as temperature, humidity,
surface preparation and uniform adhesive application are not as easily observed in
industry. Quality assurance during manufacturing can achieve excellent results;
however even in these cases the probability of having adhesive bond defects is still
present. Therefore, there is a need for post process inspection of adhesive bonds
where risk levels require higher reliability than what is offered though process quality
control.
Adhesive bond inspection is a well researched area with respectable outcomes. Non
destructive inspection techniques such as x-ray, thermal, and ultrasonic are well
utilised in the inspection of adhesive bonds. However, despite all the effort in this
area for more than forty years, there is still no singular technique that can achieve the
confidence level required in some engineering applications. Therefore, the need for
continuing research in the area of non-destructive evaluation of adhesive bonds is as
necessary today as it�s ever been. The research presented in this thesis, continues
in the same endeavour as many other researchers; that of achieving the ultimate
technique in adhesive bond inspection, capable of reaching the confidence level
required for all engineering applications.
The research in the thesis commenced with coverage of adhesives used for
engineering applications and a study of the adhesion science that was considered
necessary to enable an informed approach to the problem. Adhesive bond failure is
also analysed through a literature survey as well as experimental tests on standard
specimens. At the completion of the literature survey and preliminary tests, a
decision was taken to follow the ultrasonic path of non-destructive testing of adhesive
bonds. The reasons for this, are clearly outlined in the main body of this thesis but in
summary, the literature has shown that ultrasonic evaluation is the most widely used
technique by industry. Therefore, improvements on data analysis using existing
techniques that exploit ultrasonic inspection have the potential to reach the widest
spectrum of industrial applications.
Ultrasonic inspection equipment was sourced that was capable of achieving
experimental results to the accuracy level required in this research. A precision test
rig was designed and constructed that was subsequently calibrated using computer
based statistical techniques to ensure the validity of all results. Other ancillary
equipment, such as a portable tensile testing device were also designed and
constructed during the research as it became necessary.
Research concentrated on techniques found to be inadequately researched in this
domain. The first technique evaluated was to measure bond quality through the
stress distribution in adherent and adhesive. Computer based Finite Element
Analysis showed that the ability to detect variation in stress distribution at the
adhesion interface is capable of revealing the local bond strength. Having found that
there is no technique available at present that can measure the stress distribution at
the interface, a different direction was taken that showed potential in achieving
excellent quantitative results in the analysis of ultrasonic signals from adhesive
bonds. This technique was rigorously evaluated and the results are systematically
reported in this work.
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Machado, Rafael Ignacio. "Experimental investigation of steel tubed reinforced concrete columns." Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 1998. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/19457.
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Datta, Satya Brata. "Capital accumulation and workers' struggle in Indian industrialisation : the case of Tata Iron and Steel Company 1910-1970." Doctoral thesis, Stockholm : Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1986. http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/15397056.html.
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Hillman, John R. "Innovative lightweight floor systems for steel framed buildings." Thesis, This resource online, 1990. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-06082009-170953/.
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Kuyucak, Selçuk. "Direct detection of non-metallic inclusions in molten iron." Thesis, McGill University, 1985. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=63356.
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Armstrong, Derek C. "Influence of segregated impurities on the corrosion and oxidation of ferrous alloys." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1991. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.239600.
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Belghiti, Moulay El Mehdi. "Influence of steel fibres on response of beams." Thesis, McGill University, 2007. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=100222.
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The following thesis presents the results of six full scale beams tests as part of a research program conducted at McGill University on the effect of steel fibres on the shear capacity of a beam with an aid ratio greater than 2.5. The test specimens had the following dimensions: 4400 mm long, 300 mm wide and 500 mm long. The beams had 4-25M bottom reinforcing bars and 2-20M top reinforcing bars. Two series were designed with different reinforcing details: the "BA" series contained transverse reinforcement spaced at 275 mm center to center while the "BB" series had no transverse reinforcement. The specimens were cast in three batches of two specimens from each series, with each batch containing concrete with respectively 0%, 0.5% and 1% fibres content by volume. The beams were simply supported and were tested with two equal point loads located at 500 mm from the centre of the beam.This research project demonstrated a clear improvement of the shear capacity resulting from the use of steel fibres for the beams without transverse reinforcement. For the beams with transverse reinforcement, displacement ductility was highly increased. This suggests that fibres have the potential to reduce the congestion of the reinforcement if fibres are designed to replace partially closely spaced transverse reinforcement. Also, it was noted that a redistribution of stresses occurred resulting in the formation of more well-controlled cracks. Finally, the strength predictions using the method developed by Aoude (Aoude, 2007) agree very well with the experimental results.
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Hewetson, C. G. "Object - oriented steel member design framework /." Thesis, Link to the online version, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/10019/249.
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Clingenpeel, Beth F. "The economical use of high performance steel in slab-on-steel stringer bridge design." Morgantown, W. Va. : [West Virginia University Libraries], 2001. http://etd.wvu.edu/templates/showETD.cfm?recnum=2235.
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Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2001.Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains xiii, 148 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 136-137).
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Day, Kent Allen. "The use of thin polymeric coatings to prevent fretting corrosion and metallic contact in steel-on-steel systems." Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1986. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/76040.
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A fundamental study was conducted to investigate the ability of thin polymeric coatings to prevent metallic contact and fretting corrosion in steel-on-steel systems. Ten polymer types were chosen for study: polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyimide (PI), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low-density polyethylene (LOPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polysulfone (PSO) and polystyrene (PS). These polymers were applied as thin films to a steel disk which was in turn fretted by a normally-loaded steel sphere.
The experimental investigation consisted of two phases. In the first phase, the lives of the ten polymer types were evaluated over a range of normal loads from 11.1 to 44.5 N. In the second phase, optical and electron microscopy were used to document the fretting process at the sphere-film interface as a function of time.Master of Science
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Öhman, Amanda. "Towards a fossil free steel sector : Conditions for technology transfer of hydrogenbased iron and steel in Europe." Thesis, KTH, Skolan för industriell teknik och management (ITM), 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-264106.
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In order to meet the targets of the Paris Agreement, there is a need to significantly reduce emissions from energy-intensive industries, iron and steel included. One promising technology with the potential to reduce the emissions related to iron and steelmaking to basically none is direct reduction with fossil free hydrogen, which requires large amounts of fossil free electricity. This master thesis explores the conditions for this technology in a European context with an energy perspective as the main focus. Three primary steel producing countries in Europe are chosen as focus countries; Germany, France and Italy. The findings of the study conclude that neither of the focus countries is an optimal sociotechnical fit for hydrogen-based direct reduction for iron and steel production at present. France is the country with the best conditions from a solely energy perspective but lacks some important factors for an enabling environment for technology transfer. Germany on the other hand have the most promising characteristics for an enabling environment but still face large challenges when it comes to power sector decarbonisation. In order to overcome the barriers and create an enabling environment it is key that energy and industry transitions are aligned, that a policy framework that supports these transitions is in place and that key actors representing all aspects of the transition cooperate; from industry to research, academia, policymakers and others. The findings also show that the current locations of the primary steel plants are in many cases not where the most favourable conditions for renewable power generation are and given the renewable capacity and transmission limitations of today, merely switching to a hydrogenbased process is not likely viable. A future configuration could be decentralised value chains where the different processes are located where there are optimal conditions e.g. that either hydrogen or sponge iron is produced where there are favourable power conditions and then transported to steel plants for the remaining processes in the value chain.För att nå målen uppsatta i Parisavtalet behöver energiintensiva industrier kraftigt minska sina utsläpp, däribland järn- och stålindustrin. Direktreduktion med fossilfri vätgas är en teknologi med potential att minska utsläppen från järn och ståltillverkning till praktiskt taget noll men kräver stora mängder fossilfri el. Detta examensarbete undersöker de energimässiga förutsättningarna för denna teknik i en europeisk kontext. Tre länder som producerar primärstål är utvalda som fokusländer i studien; Tyskland, Frankrike och Italien. Resultaten av studien visar att inget av de utvalda länderna i dagsläget har optimala sociotekniska förutsättningar för tekniken. Frankrike är det land med de bästa energimässiga förutsättningarna men saknar några viktiga faktorer för att vara en möjliggörande socioteknisk miljö. Tyskland å andra sidan har de mest lovande förutsättningarna för en lämplig socioteknisk miljö men står inför utmaningar när det kommer till energisystemet och tillgången på fossilfri el. För att skapa förutsättningar för denna teknik är det viktigt med koordinerade omställningar i energisektorn och industrin, policys som möjliggör dessa omställningar samt ett väl fungerande samarbete mellan industrin, akademin, beslutsfattare och andra viktiga aktörer. Studien visar också att de platser där nuvarande stålverk för primärstål finns inte har de bästa förutsättningar för förnybar elproduktion och att en vätgasbaserad process inte är optimal, baserat på den förnybara kapaciteten och de transmissionsbegränsningar som finns idag i elsystemet. Det finns istället möjlighet till decentraliserade värdekedjor, där varje process placeras där de mest lämpliga förhållandena finns. Detta kan exempelvis innebära att vätgas eller järnsvamp produceras där tillgången till fossilfri el är god, för att sedan transporteras till stålverken för de resterande processtegen.
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Cárdenas, Efraín. "Particle tracking in geometallurgical testing for Leveäniemi Iron ore, Sweden." Thesis, Luleå tekniska universitet, Mineralteknik och metallurgi, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-65988.
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In a particle based geometallurgical model, the behavior of the particles can be used for forecast the products and quantify the performance of the different ore types within a deposit. The particle tracking is an algorithm developed by Lamberg and Vianna 2007 whose aim is to balance the liberation data in a mineral processing circuit composed by several processing units. Currently, this tool is being developed for the HSC Chemistry software by Outotec.The objective of this study is to understand and evaluate the particle tracking algorithm in a geometallurgical test for iron ore. To achieve this objective, the liberation data is balanced in a Davis tube test circuit. A total of 13 samples from Leveäniemi iron ore were process in a Davis tube circuit.The magnetite is the main mineral in the Leveäniemi iron ore samples. Its high recovery in the Davis tube circuit along with the V, Ti and Mn suggest that these elements are present in the magnetite lattice. These penalty elements in the iron concentrates cannot be avoided at the stage of mineral concentrations.The washing effect of the Davis tubes controlled by the rotational and longitudinal agitation of the tube perturb the particles agglomeration between the pole tips of the electromagnet. A higher agitation frequency and amplitude will wash away most of the gangue minerals and also fine grained magnetite.In this work, the particle tracking is depicted and implemented in a magnetic separation circuit for high liberated material. The liberation data was balanced in a way that the particle classes can be followed through circuit and their recoveries can be calculated. Nevertheless, the algorithm requires further validation and analysis of its limitations in terms of resolution and reproducibility.
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Li, Guzhao. "Bracing design requirements for inelastic members." Access restricted to users with UT Austin EID, 2002. http://www.lib.utexas.edu/etd/r/d/2002/guzhaol022/guzhaol022.pdf#page=4.
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