Journal articles on the topic 'Irish University sector'

This study explores the experiences of workplace ill-treatment of academic staff in the Irish Higher Education sector, with a focus on organizational response to experienced or witnessed workplace bullying and/or incivility. Workplace bullying is a significant problem, affecting approximately 15% of the workforce, with considerable variation by sector. Educational workplaces typically display prevalence rates that exceed average workplace bullying rates. The negative impacts on health and well-being are well documented and evidence is also emerging to show that organizational responses are less than optimal. The data collected comprise 11 qualitative in-depth interviews with academic staff in three of Ireland’s seven Universities. Applying a phenomenological analysis approach, data revealed that participants’ experiences were overwhelmingly negative in respect of organizational response, despite the fact that each University had an anti-bullying policy. This is explored and discussed in the context of failure to address the complex power relations, which are particularly relevant in professional organizations, intensified by current changes in the higher educational sector. Study limitations include the small number of Universities and small sample size, thus limiting generalizability.

Purpose – The consequences of institutional change for faculty is an under-researched aspect of the higher education (HE) sector in Ireland. The purpose of this paper is to report on the changing demands of academic life in Ireland. Design/methodology/approach – A case study of the School of Business at the largest university in Ireland, University College Dublin, set out to determine the extent to which HE change is impacting on faculty. The research, involving 28 interviews with faculty and manager-academics, covered the five-year period since the appointment of a new President in 2004. Findings – The research provides evidence of an increasing focus on more explicit research output requirements; the growth of routine administration and teaching and learning compliance requirements; and the greater intensification of work and working hours. Research limitations/implications – While the university was at the forefront in implementing large-scale institutional change in Ireland, further research is needed to explore the issues raised in this paper in the context of other schools and the remaining six Irish universities. Originality/value – Few empirical research studies have been conducted in Ireland on how institutional change is impacting on the working lives of faculty. This paper serves to shine a light, for the first time, on the perspectives of faculty regarding the changing demands of academic life in Ireland.

This article argues that the journal Irisleabhar Hibernia, later renamed as Iris Hibernia, offered a vision of Irish Europeanism that was wholly different from contemporary, EU-led understandings. The journal was published between 1937 and 1965 from the Université de Fribourg in Switzerland, an institution that makes for an enlightening comparison with the Irish post-secondary sector of the same period, especially St Patrick’s College, Maynooth. Throughout its existence, the journal was published by the Hibernia society, which was made up of Irish seminary students at Fribourg. But its interests were broadly interdisciplinary, becoming gradually more so from the 1950s into the 1960s. The journal’s perspective could be generally understood as conservative, communitarian and culture-led. This perspective is not necessarily a matter of simple left-right alignment, however, and the article synthesises the journal’s legacy by elucidating the difference between two Francophone Swiss writers who were important to group behind the journal: Denis de Rougemont and Gonzague de Reynold.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is a micro-level examination of the role and function of cooperative research centers (CRCs) in entrepreneurial universities from a principal investigator (PI) perspective. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a qualitative research design and is based on 38 semi-structured interviews with PIs who are publicly funded at the Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CÚRAM) based in Ireland. CÚRAM has a multiple mission focus of supporting scientific excellence, industry engagement, educational and public engagement that supports the Irish medical device sector. Findings The findings reveal that CRCs’ role and function at the micro level constitute a necessary and functional organization architecture that supports PIs who are required to meet multiple scientific, commercialization, educational and public engagement objectives. Specifically, from the micro-level PI perspective, the role and function of CRCs focus on research quality enhancement, brokerage, networks and collaborations, addressing research impact and resource enhancement and appropriation. Practical implications This research emphasizes the importance and necessity for the creation of CRCs as part of the entrepreneurial architecture of entrepreneurial universities that provides the necessary appropriate local environmental conditions and enhanced supports to enable micro-level actors to fulfill multiple mission objectives with respect to research excellence, industry, educational and public engagement and impact. Originality/value This study contributes to the limited literature on new institutional configurations that support entrepreneurship and addresses recent calls for further research. In taking a micro-level focus, the authors identify the role and function of CRCs from a PI perspective in an entrepreneurial university setting.

Over a 12-year period, the Atlantic Philanthropies invested more than €127m in agencies and community groups, running 52 prevention and early intervention (PEI) programmes and services in the children and youth sector throughout Ireland. As a condition of this funding, each PEI programme was evaluated by a university-based research team, resulting in a substantial collection of metric and qualitative information about ways to improve the lives of vulnerable Irish families. In 2016, the Atlantic Philanthropies funded the Prevention and Early Intervention Research Initiative at the Children’s Research Network of Ireland and Northern Ireland (hereafter, the Initiative) to gather, prepare and share this evaluation data through the public data archives. The Initiative faces several challenges in its objective to archive this extensive collection of legacy data, and this paper will present two of the more salient challenges: how to share this data so that it is both (1) meaningful and (2) ethical. The paper pays particular attention to the challenges of safely sharing evaluation data through anonymisation and restricted access conditions; and also, the practical and ethical challenges of retroactively preparing these datasets for the archive. A series of publicly available documents that guide each stage of the Initiative are in development, and are emerging as a key output. This paper will describe two pivotal documents, namely the CRN-PEI Guiding Principles, and the CRN-PEI Protocols for preparing and archiving evaluation data. The CRN-PEI Guiding Principles outline the key legal and ethical obligations of archiving this legacy evaluation data, and act as moral compass to steer our progress through these uncharted waters. The CRN-PEI Protocols define the standards for how data included in the Initiative is prepared for deposition in the public data archives, so they are easily located, interpretable and comparable in the long term. This protocol is based upon best practice documentation from a number of international sources and our primary aim is to generate ‘safe, useful data’ (Elliot at al., 2016).

In 1999 the Irish Post-Medieval Archaeology Group (IPMAG) was established by a diverse group of Northern Ireland archaeologists and heritage professionals, drawn from the commercial, government, museum and university sectors. The aims of the organization, discussed at length at the group's inaugural conference held in Belfast in February of 2001, include (one) undertaking initiatives to raise the profile of post-medieval archaeology within the whole of Ireland, (two) fostering greater contacts between those individuals engaged in researching the archaeology, history and culture of post-1550 Ireland and (three) lobbying for increased academic attention to be paid to the period within Irish universities. That the organization has made progress in approaching these aims is clear, as acknowledged by Tadhg O'Keeffe: ‘the archaeological study of the “historical” (post-fifteenth-century) past is now a big deal in Ireland’. IPMAG conferences have been held in conjunction with academic institutions (Queen's University, Belfast, 2001; Trinity College, Dublin, 2002; University of Ulster, 2004; University College, Cork, 2006), public institutions (Ulster Museum, 2003), and commercial archaeology companies (Aegis Archaeology, Ltd, Limerick, 2005).

This paper surveys the context of language teacher education in Ireland, north and south, across the sectors (primary and post-primary, Irish, Modern Languages and English as an Additional Language). The discussion and analysis that follows arose through the contributions by language teacher educators to a conference organised by the Queen’s University of Belfast under the auspices of the Standing Conference on Teacher Education, North and South (SCoTENS)1. The authors suggest that a traditional view of diversification in language education, focusing on Irish and the main European languages, must be reconsidered in light of the new demographic and linguistic landscape of Ireland, North and South.

Increasingly public sector practitioners are turning to design to help them do more with less. This often takes the form of designing tools or resources that are used by public sector workers in their everyday practice. This paper critically examines the practice of tool design with the aspiration to improve creative engagement (that is, novel interactions that result in the creation of new knowledge or understanding in the public sector). We assert that designers should not be attempting to define what is a 'right' or 'wrong' way to use an engagement tool, but instead seek to enable new interpretations and adaptations of tools so the creativity of practitioners is supported and amplified. We present a proposal for a framework that supports people in organising the multitude of creative engagement tools in a manner that is meaningful to them rather than imposing taxonomies form the outside, enabling them to fix their own meanings, significance and use of the tools they use. To explore this we present 2 use cases, one by IRISS (a leader in innovation in the social services in Scotland) and a second by Leapfrog (a research project led by Lancaster University looking to transform public sector engagement by design).We believe this change in the terms of reference when thinking about the creation and use of tools has profound implications for designers working in the social services and wider pubic services sector.

Abstract In this study, we conducted a survey of all tertiary level institutions in Ireland to find out how many of them use diagnostic tests, and what kind of mathematical content areas and topics appear on these tests. The information gathered provides an insight into what instructors expect students to know on entry to university and what they expect students to have difficulty with. In total, 12 diagnostic tests from 11 Irish institutions were collected during the study. An item-by-item analysis was carried out on each diagnostic test to determine the content areas and topics that are assessed on the diagnostic tests and to identify any additional knowledge required for successful completion. We compare the tests administered in the university sector and the Institute of Technology (IT) sector of the Irish tertiary level education system. In addition, current diagnostic tests are compared with two tests from the 1980s to see if the level of mathematical preparedness expected of first-year students has changed over time. Our analysis is situated in a discussion of previous research on diagnostic testing both nationally and internationally.

In this feature of the Bulletin, we highlight members of the SIGCSE community. In this issue, Bulletin co-editor Charles Wallace interviewed Dr. Brett Becker, Assistant Professor in the School of Computer Science at University College Dublin (UCD) in Ireland. Brett double-majored in Computer Science and Physics at Drew University in New Jersey. He then moved to Ireland and completed an M.Sc. in Computational Science and a Ph.D. in Computer Science (Heterogeneous Parallel Computing) at UCD. Since then, he has completed three postgraduate qualifications in Teaching & Learning including an MA in Higher Education. His research interests include the psychology and other human factors of learning programming, including how novices interact with programming languages and environments. In 2020, he received a Teaching and Learning Research Fellowship from the Irish National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education - the highest individual national distinction the sector offers to those teaching in higher education. Brett is active in all four SIGCSE conferences including serving as Chair of the CompEd Steering Committee and Co-chairing ITiCSE 2022 in Dublin next summer. He has co-authored several award-winning papers including best computing education research papers (SIGCSE Technical Symposium 2019, 2021) and best reviewed paper (ICER 2020). Brett is chair of the Ireland ACM SIGCSE Chapter and recently co-authored a textbook aligned with the Irish national second-level Computer Science curriculum.

Universities in sub-Saharan Africa currently struggle to maintain adequate faculty and resources to take on Ph.D. candidates. Expanding enrolment in recent decades has not been met with improvements in university facilities, and neglect from development agencies has made it difficult for the higher education sector to meet the demands of the knowledge economy. As a result African graduate students have few opportunities to pursue postgraduate study in the region and sub-Saharan Africa’s brain drain persists. In order to address the lack of opportunity for graduate study, the Professors without Borders program has been developed. Professors without Borders is a mentorship program, whereby graduate students in sub-Saharan Africa are partnered with professors and academics at universities in industrialized nations and the students are mentored during the course of their degree. The program aims to promote internationalization among universities as well as facilitate development. This report examines the motivation behind the program and its potential for success. The literature review on higher education in sub-Saharan African summarizes the problems facing the sector but indicates the potential for higher education to contribute to economic growth. In addition, the reception of the Professors without Borders idea among African universities indicates unanimously that such a mentorship program would be very much welcomed and beneficial to African Ph.D. students. The experience of a similar program known as BrainRetain by the Irish-Africa Partnership provides insight into the challenges and logistics of making such a mentorship program successful and sustainable.

Dear Reader, Welcome to this special issue of the Irish Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning the journal of the Irish Learning Technology Association. This issue comprises a selection of papers based on submissions to the Next Generation: Digital Learning Research Symposium in November 2016. This symposium was held in partnership between theIrish Learning Technology Association, the Educational Studies Association of Ireland, and both theInstitute of Education andNational Institute for Digital Learning at Dublin City University. The Symposium was framed around the notion of building capacity in research in digital learning. The Symposium’s title not only alluded to generations of teaching and learning but also to learning futures and how we might ford the chasm of the great promise of the digital with evidence of its actual effects. The symposium sought to foster discussion, debate and above all a community of scholars by discussing and debating the big issues we face in digital learning research. The event gave voice to a wide range of Irish educators and researchers across all levels and sectors. The articles in this issue represent a selection of the highlights of presentations at the symposium in extended written form. Professor Gráinne Conole’s keynote served in many ways to set the scene for a broad gathering of educators and researchers from across all levels and sectors. Her article in this issue - Research through the Generations: Reflecting on the Past, Present and Future - traces a broad arc of research in educational technology framed around key technologies and methodological developments. She identifies five transformative technologies: the web/WI-FI; Learning Management Systems (LMSs); mobile devices, Open Educational Resources (OER) and Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs); and social media. Her piece considers the characteristics that made these developments transformative, along with the challenges to their usage. This examination is followed by an overview of the field of digital learning research and divides digital learning research into three main types: research around the pedagogies of digital learning, research on underpinning technologies, and research at an organizational level. Using this framework the reader is afforded an insight into how digital learning has emerged as a new interdisciplinary field. It is always at the tectonic plates of previously separate disciplines that new terrain emerges and Professor Conole’s piece will provide an invaluable contextual overview to readers both new to the field of digital learning research but also to those more experienced researchers who may be too close to see it. As such it is a richly rewarding read for Ed Tech visitors and residents alike. A second position paper in the issue by Tony Murphy also invokes Educational Technology futures. It examines a key area, and one the three broad themes identified by Conole, that of organizational forms in digital learning. Behind the provocative title of The future of Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) is in the hands of the anonymous, grey nondescript mid-level professional manager is an informative and insightful research-informed commentary on how technology confronts existing practices and boundaries in higher education. Key insights that this paper affords arises from how it draws on well developed concepts from literature of organizational forms outside of education and uses them to interrogate the emerging practices of work and professional roles for 21st century educators. The theme of contemporary professional practice is central to Exploring higher education professionals’ use of Twitter for learning by Muireann O’Keeffe. Using a Visitor and Resident typology this paper reports on research into how higher education professionals were involved in a range of types of participation (and nonparticipation) on Twitter. It shows how participants both use and sometimes fail to use social networking for professional learning and attempts to unpick the complexities of participation in online spaces. This paper makes an important contribution to the topical area of how we participate (or resist participation) in online spaces as a professional community. Professional practice is also to the fore in a fascinating research piece by Michael Hallissy that looks at practices in Synchronous Computer Mediated Conferencing (SCMC) which is, relative to asynchronous environments, an under researched area. Sharing Professional Practice – Tutors have their say reports on research into teaching in synchronous environments. Using Pedagogical and Content Framework (TPACK) in parallel with the Flanders Interaction Analysis Category the practices of teachers are explored with the aim of challenging and changing them. The findings of this research enjoin us as educators to share our practice critically and reflectively. Its core message is perhaps encapsulated in that both teaching and teaching development are a form of dialogue. Appropriately then, this article is written in a style that immediately engages the reader, draws them into a story and is a richly rewarding read. A number of current trends are captured in Barry James Ryan’s research article Near Peers: Harnessing the power of the populous to enhance the learning environment. This research investigated the impact of a tool called NearPod used in third level educational settings. Using a case study methodology it shows a practical implementation of some key trends in higher education and reports on its aims to enhance the student learning experience through the integration of BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) and flipped classroom learning. Methodologically this study is interesting for its use of student and teacher reflective forms of data and provides a valuable vignette of contemporary research informed teaching. To conclude it is hoped that the diverse array of articles in this issue offers something for every interested reader. Indeed this is reflective of the diversity of the Irish community that is engaged in practices informed, mediated or enabled by some kind of digital learning technology. Conole’s article sets this out from a research perspective and the picture has been painted elsewhere of what “Ed Tech” as an emergent discipline might look like. To this end it is hoped that this issue goes some way towards helping us build our community through the critical lens of research. On behalf of the Irish Learning Technology Association and the journal editorial team we wish you happy reading (and hope to see your work in a future issue). Best wishes, Eamon, Tom and Fiona [1] Irish Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning Ireland, 2017. © 2017 E. Costello. The Irish Journal of TechnologyEnhanced Learning Ireland is the journal of the Irish Learning Technology Association, an Irish-based professional and scholarly society and membership organisation. (CRO# 520231) http://www.ilta.ie/. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.

06–743Amador moreno, Carolina, stephanie o'riordan & angela chambers (U de Extremadura, Spain; camador@unex.es), Integrating a corpus of classroom discourse in language teacher education: The case of discourse markers. ReCALL (Cambridge University Press) 18.1 (2006), 83–104.06–744Arnold, Ewen (U Leeds, UK; mahakand@omantel.net.om), Assessing the quality of mentoring: Sinking or learning to swim?ELT Journal (Oxford University Press) 60.2 (2006), 117–124.06–745Cary, Lisa J. & Stuart Reifel (U Texas-Austin, USA), Cinematic landscapes of teaching: Lessons from a narrative of classic film, Action in Teacher Education (Association of Teacher Educators) 27.3 (2005), 95–109.06–746Commins, Nancy L. & Ofelia B. Miramontes (U Colorado-Boulder, USA), Addressing linguistic diversity from the outset. Journal of Teacher Education (Sage) 57.3 (2006), 240–246.06–747Donnelly, Anna M. (Washington College, USA), Let me show you my portfolio! Demonstrating competence through peer interviews. Action in Teacher Education (Association of Teacher Educators) 27.3 (2005), 55–63.06–748Ellis, Elizabeth Margaret (U New England, Australia; liz.ellis@une.edu.au), Language learning experience as a contributor to ESOL teacher cognition. TESL-EJ (http://www.tesl-ej.org) 10.1 (2006), 26 pp.06–749Ezer, Hanna (Levinsky College of Education, Israel), Shoshy Millet & Dorit Pakin, Multicultural perspectives in the curricula of two colleges of education in Israel: ‘The curriculum is a cruel mirror of our society’. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 12.4 (2006), 391–406.06–750Farrel, Thomas (Brock U, Canada; tfarrell@brocku.ca), The first year of language teaching: Imposing order. System (Elsevier) 34.2 (2006), 211–221.06–751Garrido, Cecilia & Inma Álvarez (The Open U, UK), Language teacher education for intercultural understanding. European Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 29.2 (2006), 163–179.06–752Goker, Suleyman Davut (Eastern Mediterranean U, Turkey; suleyman.goker@emu.edu.tr), Impact of peer coaching on self-efficacy and instructional skills in TEFL teacher education. System (Elsevier) 34.2 (2006), 239–254.06–753Grant, Carl A. (U Wisconsin-Madison, USA) & Maureen Gillette, A candid talk to teacher educators about effectively preparing teachers who can teach everyone's children. Journal of Teacher Education (Sage) 57.3 (2006), 292–299.06–754Jones, Phyllis (U South Florida, USA; pjones@banshee.sar.usf.edu), Elizabeth West & Dana Stevens, Nurturing moments of transformation in teachers – Comparative perspectives on the challenges of professional development. British Journal of Special Education (Blackwell) 33.2 (2006), 82–90.06–755Kupetz, Rita & Birgit zeigenmeyer (U Hannover, Germany; Rita.Kupetz@anglistik.uni-hannover.de), Flexible learning activities fostering autonomy in teaching training. ReCALL (Cambridge University Press) 18.1 (2006), 63–82.06–756Kwan, Tammy & Francis Lopez-Real (U Hong Kong, China), Mentors' perceptions of their roles in mentoring student teachers. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 33.3 (2005), 275–287.06–757Lenski, Susan Davis (Portland State U, USA), Kathleen Crawford, Thomas Crumpler & Corsandra Stallworth, Preparing pre-service teachers in a diverse world. Action in Teacher Education (Association of Teacher Educators) 27.3 (2005), 3–12.06–758Martin, Andrew J. (U Western Sydney, Australia), The relationship between teachers' perceptions of student motivation and engagement and teachers' enjoyment of and confidence in teaching. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 34.1 (2006), 73–93.06–759Mayer, Diane (U California, USA), The changing face of the Australian teaching profession: New generations and new ways of working and learning. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 34.1 (2006), 57–71.06–760McCormack, Ann, Jennifer Gore & Kaye Thomas (U Newcastle, Australia), Early career teacher professional learning. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 34.1 (2006), 95–113.06–761Olson, Susan J. & Carol Werhan (U Akron, USA), Teacher preparation via on-line learning: A growing alternative for many. Action in Teacher Education (Association of Teacher Educators) 27.3 (2005), 76–84.06–762Otero, Valerie K. (U Colorado-Boulder, USA), Moving beyond the ‘get it or don't’ conception of formative assessment. Journal of Teacher Education (Sage) 57.3 (2006), 240–246.06–763Phelan, Anne M. (U British Columbia, Canada), Russell Sawa, Constance Barlow, Deborah Hurlock, Katherine Irvine, Gayla Rogers & Florence Myrick, Violence and subjectivity in teacher education. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 34.2 (2006), 161–179.06–764Rantz, Frédérique (Kildare Education Centre, Ireland), Exploring intercultural awareness in the primary modern language classroom: The potential of the new model of European language portfolio developed by the Irish Modern Languages in Primary Schools Initiative (MLPSI). Language and International Communication (Multilingual Matters) 5.3&4 (2005), 209–221.06–765Reid, Jo-Anne & Ninetta Santoro (Charles Sturt U, Australia), Cinders in snow? Indigenous teacher identities in formation. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 34.2 (2006), 143–160.06–766Reis-Jorge, José M. (Instituto Superior de Educação e Ciências, Portugal), Developing teachers' knowledge and skills as researchers: A conceptual framework. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 33.3 (2005), 303–319.06–767Richardson, Paul W. & Helen M. G. Watt (Monash U, Australia), Who chooses teaching and why? Profiling characteristics and motivations across three Australian universities. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 34.1 (2006), 27–56.06–768Romano, Molly (U Arizona, USA), Assessing and meeting the needs of pre-service teachers: A programmatic perspective. Action in Teacher Education (Association of Teacher Educators) 27.3 (2005), 40–54.06–769Ruan, Jiening & Sara Ann Beach (U Oklahoma, USA), Using online peer dialogue journaling to promote reflection in elementary pre-service teachers. Action in Teacher Education (Association of Teacher Educators) 27.3 (2005), 64–75.06–770Shaw, Carla Cooper (Northern Illinois U, USA) & Deborah Dobbins Nederhouser, Reel teachers: References for reflection for real teachers. Action in Teacher Education (Association of Teacher Educators) 27.3 (2005), 85–94.06–771Shin, Sarah (U Maryland Baltimore County, USA), Learning to teach writing through tutoring and journal writing. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 12.3 (2006), 325–345.06–772Smith, Erica (Charles Sturt U, Australia), A rich tapestry: Changing views of teaching and teaching qualifications in the vocational education and training sector. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 33.3 (2005), 339–351.06–773Smith, Kari & Lilach Lev-Ari (Oranim Academic College of Education, Israel), The place of the practicum in pre-service teacher education: The voice of the students. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 33.3 (2005), 289–302.06–774Stern, Lesa A. (Southern Illinois U, USA; Lstern@siue.edu) & Amanda Solomon, Effective faculty feedback: The road less travelled. Assessing Writing (Elsevier) 11.1 (2006), 22–41.06–775Tate, Patricia, Curtis Pyke, Karen Kortecamp (The George Washington U, USA) & CarolMuskin, Developing an ethical orientation toward supervisory practice through collaborative case writing. Action in Teacher Education (Association of Teacher Educators) 27.3 (2005), 13–25.06–776Tin, Tan Bee (U Auckland, New Zealand; tb.tin@auckland.ac.nz), Investigating the nature of ‘interest’ reported by a group of postgraduate students in an MA in English language teacher education programme. System (Elsevier) 34.2 (2006), 222–238.06–777Vick, Malcolm (James Cook U, Australia), ‘It's a difficult matter’: Historical perspectives on the enduring problem of the practicum in teacher preparation. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 34.2 (2006), 181–198.06–778Walsh, Steve (Queens U Belfast, UK), Talking the talk of the TESOL classroom. ELT Journal (Oxford University Press) 60.2 (2006), 133–141.06–779Wasburn-Moses, Leah (Miami U, Ohio, USA), Preparing special educators for secondary positions. Action in Teacher Education (Association of Teacher Educators) 27.3 (2005), 26–39.06–780Wubbels, Theo (Utrecht U, the Netherlands), Perry Den Brok, Letje Veldman&Jan Van Tartvijk, Teacher interpersonal competence for Dutch secondary multicultural classrooms. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 12.4 (2006), 407–433.06–781Yee Fan Tang, Sylvia, May May Hung Cheng & Winnie Wing Mui So (Hong Kong Institute of Education, China), Supporting student teachers' professional learning with standards-referenced assessment. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 34.2 (2006), 223–244.

During the last one hundred years, science has played a major role in compressing time and physical space through technological advances. Countries and peoples once thoroughly detached from each other are now linked in economic, political, and cultural cooperation and exchange. The challenges ahead are apparent. Scientists, as well as world leaders, must understand other cultures if they wish to share ideas and values, transfer technology, establish personal relationships, and help tomorrow’s leaders in the quest for a peaceful and equitable global society. Responding to these challenges across disciplines, education at the college and university level is becoming increasingly multicultural. However, science education has not risen sufficiently to this challenge. An appreciation and knowledge of foreign cultures, literatures, and languages are essential to science students as well as students in the humanities and social science if they are to assume leadership roles in the new multicultural world. Because of the critical role that science and technology will play in this new world, the challenge of educating scientists with global competence is urgent. Science students need to be in contact with alternative ways of thinking and doing things from around the globe, and they need to have a better understanding of the global effect of their work. Subtle and not so subtle differences in culture can neither be learned in a classroom nor obtained from books. They must be experienced. In today’s world, universities can no longer afford to produce scientific experts who are not adequately prepared for the wider global arena. Nevertheless, undergraduate science majors seldom participate in international studies and study abroad programs. At many U.S. colleges and universities, less than 4 percent of the students graduating with a bachelor’s degree in the physical sciences have studied abroad, compared with over 50 percent of the students graduating with a major in the arts of humanities. Before they can embark on an international science education program, science faculty and students need some idea of the scientific environment into which the students will be placed. As a first step in defining this environment, papers in these proceedings, Section I, discuss the similarities and differences in science education in different cultures. Each presenter provides an overview of science education from kindergarten through the Ph.D. in his or her own culture. The goals of science education and questions of how science students are recruited, including questions or gender representation, are explored. This overview provides a range of models for science education, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. For example, Iris Huang describes the centralized system of science education that characterizes China. Here teachers teach from standard textbooks and must reach curriculum goals established by the national government. In contrast, since the federal government of the United States has no authority to control science education, there is considerable state to state variability in what is covered. Additionally, as described by Audrey Champagne, education in the United States is subject to local economic, political, and cultural factors. The goals of science education are also quite variable from country to country. On the one hand, as described by T.N. Goh, the main objective of science education in Singapore is to enhance national competitiveness in the world industrial and service sectors. This is in contrast to the objective in Europe, where science is taught because it is considered an area with which an educated person should be familiar. In order to set the context for the student experience, the second section of this volume addresses some of the global questions raised by science and technology. For example, David Pimentel discusses the problems created by an increasing population whereas Paul Connett addresses the question of economic growth versus sustainable survival. Healing traditions, study abroad for prospective health professionals, and science communication ethics are discussed in other papers in this section. The papers in this section are not meant to be definitive treatises. Rather, they raise these issues to eye level for faculty and students. These discussions provide some of the justification as well as the context for science abroad programs. Section III is the keystone section of the proceedings. Ben DeWinter provides an overview of the needs, values, and problems of science students participating in study abroad programs. This is followed by discussions of the opportunities, challenges, and models of programs in engineering, the biological/environmental sciences, and the physical sciences. Section IV presents possibilities for the future with discussions about electronic communications, teaching science with a more global perspective, and the future of science education. The symposium in which these papers were presented was held at Cornell University on June 9-12, 1996. The main sponsor was the New York State Pew Program in Undergraduate Science Education. Cosponsoring institutions included Denmark International Study Program, Leiden University, the University of Manchester, Ben-Gurion University, National Autonomous University of Mexico, and the National University of Singapore. It is hoped that these proceedings will serve as a road map for future science education programs. It is meant to provide justifications and models for colleges and universities that wish to pursue foreign programs for their students. We hope it will serve as a resource for educators, administrators, scientists, and students who are interested in an international experience for their students. The editors are grateful to the members of the Organizing Committee, in particular to Dr. Yervant Terzian, the James A. Weeks Professor of Physical Sciences at Cornell University and Director of the Pew Science Program, for proposing this topic for the conference of the New York State Program in Undergraduate Science Education and providing the leadership for the conference. The other members of the Organizing Committee were Dr. Bruce Lewenstein, Associate Professor in the Departments of Communication and Science and Technology Studies at Cornell University, and Dr. Terry Weiner, Professor of Sociology and Anthropology at Union College. Very special thanks go to Ms. Sue Chamberlain, Assistant Director of Education for the Pew Science Program at Cornell, who coordinated all the administrative aspects of the conference with great skill and grace. David E. Hornung Urbain (Ben) DeWinter

In 2006, a seminal report from the World Health Organization1 provided an all-encompassing definition of health workers as “all people engaged in actions whose primary intent is to enhance health,” whether involved in direct service provision (e.g., physicians, nurses, midwives) or administrative/support functions (e.g., administrative professional or driver in a healthcare facility), and with or without compensation (e.g., volunteer health workers, family caregivers). Because of limitations on data availability and measurement, however, technical and academic discussions about health workers, or more formally, human resources for health (HRH), focus on those under the formal sector.2 By and large, HRH is considered a vital pillar of a functioning health system3 because the health sector is a labor-intensive industry4 that relies on a substantial number of highly skilled staff to provide services to target populations, and consequently, the attainment of national and global health targets (e.g., Sustainable Development Goals). One challenge confronting HRH management is the issue of geographical imbalance, which means that health workers are attracted to work and settle in urban more than rural areas for a variety of individual, organizational, institutional, economic, political, and cultural factors.5,6 In the Philippine context, the Department of Health (DOH) reported in 2018 that there still exists a maldistribution of HRH in the country, particularly in “hardship” posts where municipalities could not entice, nor retain, HRH.7 For example, a separate analysis of institution-based HRH data in 2017 showed that the National Capital Region had significantly more physicians, nurses, and medical technologists than the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao.8 The paper by Tejero et al.9 in this issue of Acta Medica Philippina adds further evidence to the underlying reasons for the geographical imbalance of HRH in the country. Based on interviews with officials and health workers from 76 rural municipalities across the Philippines, the researchers found that, in general, while local government units attempted to implement strategies to help recruit and retain health workers in their areas, such a response has mainly been inadequate and has failed to bridge the HRH gap confronting their locality. At its core, the financial obligations tied to the recruitment and retention process appear to be a significant driver of this situation since most rural municipalities are dependent on their share of national revenues by way of the Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA), which in turn is based on population (50%), land area (25%), and equal sharing (25%).10 That is to say, rural municipalities can only commit so much financial resources in their annual budget to fund the salary of health workers, given the other equally important social and development programs that need to be implemented. Even the impact of the expected increase in IRA based on the Mandanas Doctrine promulgated by the Supreme Court in 2019 revising the computation of national revenues may be modest at best since some programs, projects, and activities previously supported by the national government will have to be assumed again by local government units.11 The devolution of health services following the promulgation of the Local Government Code of 199112 with its promise of creating a governance structure that is more responsive to the needs of communities has resulted in a paradox whereby local government units are constrained in their strategies and initiatives by, among other things, the financial resources that are available at their disposal. To this end, two important points need to be considered by local government units to address the issue of the geographical imbalance of HRH. First, augmentation of available human resources for health through national-level initiatives (e.g., DOH HRH Deployment Program 8, Medical Scholarship, and Return Service Program 13) as well as private sector support (e.g., project-specific HRH for the tuberculosis control program 14) should be maximized, but with a clear intent that, as we have argued in past publications, these be regarded as temporary measures to rectify the issue in the short- to intermediate-term.14–18 Second, and more importantly, there is a need to explore, mobilize, and maximize non-financial incentives (e.g., housing) and extrabudgetary sources (e.g., share from the feed paid by social health insurance), as more long-term tactics.1,17 Unless and until a viable fiscal environment is put in place, coupled with implementation of a comprehensive policy and framework across the phases of the working lifespan1 , the challenge of HRH maldistribution will continue to persist. Carl Abelardo T. Antonio, MD, MPH Department of Health Policy and Administration College of Public Health University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines Department of Applied Social Sciences The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon Hong Kong SAR, China REFERENCES World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2006: Working together for health [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2006 [cited 2022 May 4]. Available from https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43432 Al-Sawai A, Al-Shishtawy MM. Health workforce planning: an overview and suggested approach in Oman. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J. 2015 Feb; 15(1):e27-33. World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2000. Health systems: improving performance [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2000 [cited 2022 May 4]. Available from https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/42281 Buchan J. What difference does (“good”) HRM make? Hum Resour Health. 2004 Jun 7; 2(1):6. doi: 10.1186/1478-4491-2-6. Zurn P, Dal Poz MR, Stilwell B, Adams O. Imbalance in the health workforce. Hum Resour Health. 2004 Sep 17; 2(1):13. doi: 10.1186/1478-4491-2-13. Dussault G, Franceschini MC. Not enough there, too many here: understanding geographical imbalances in the distribution of the health workforce. Hum Resour Health. 2006 May 27; 4:12. doi: 10.1186/1478-4491-4-12. Department of Health. National objectives for health Philippines 2017-2022 [Internet]. Manila, Philippines: Department of Health; 2018 [cited 2022 May 4]. Available from https://doh.gov.ph/sites/default/files/health_magazine/NOH-2017-2022-030619-1%281%29_0.pdf Dayrit MM, Lagrada LP, Picazo OF, Pons MC & Villaverde MC. The Philippines health system review [Internet]. New Delhi: World Health Organization, Regional Office for South-East Asia; 2018 [cited 2022 May 4]. Available from https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/274579. Tejero LS, Leyva EA, Abad PB, Montorio D, Santos M. Production, recruitment, and retention of health workers in rural areas in the Philippines. Acta Med Philipp. 2022; 56(8):31-42. Congressional Policy and Budget Research Department. Facts in figures, FF2012-03 [Internet]. Quezon City: House of Representatives; 2012 [cited 2022 May 4]. Available from https://cpbrd.congress.gov.ph/images/PDF%20Attachments/Facts%20in%20Figures/03-FnF%20IRA.pdf Manasan RG. Fiscal sustainability, equity, and allocative efficiency in the light of the 2019 Supreme Court ruling on the LGUs’ share in national taxes, DP 2020-18 [Internet]. Quezon City: Philippine Institute for Development Studies; 2020 [cited 2022 May 4]. Available from https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/PUBLICATIONS/pidsdps2018.pdf Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 7160, Local Government Code of 1991 [Internet]. Metro Manila: Congress of the Philippines; 1991 Oct 10 [cited 2022 May 5]. Available from https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/downloads/1991/10oct/19911010-RA-7160-CCA.pdf Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 11509, Doktor Para sa Bayan Act [Internet]. Metro Manila: Congress of the Philippines; 2020 Dec 23 [cited 2022 May 4]. Available from https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/downloads/2020/12dec/20201223-RA-11509-RRD.pdf Antonio CT, Guevarra JP, Medina PN, Roxas EA, Cavinta LL, Manalo JA, et al. Facilitators and barriers to the implementation of selected local tuberculosis control programs in the Province of Laguna, Philippines. Philipp J Sci. 2021 Dec; 150(6A):1501-1506. Lawas ND, Faraon EA, Mabunga SY, Antonio CT, Tobias EM, Javier RS. An evaluation of the Medical Pool Placement and Utilization Program (MedPool PUP) of the Philippine Department of Health. Acta Med Philipp. 2016; 50(3):186–193. doi: 10.47895/amp.v50i3.826 Medina PN, Bardelosa DD, Lara AB, Avelino MD, Agbon AG, Cengca RM, et al. A historical perspective of mandatory service policy in the Philippines: a document analysis. Phil J Health Res Dev. 2018; 22(3):1–12. Antonio CT, Guevarra JP, Medina PN, Avelino MD, Agbon AG, Sepe DC, et al. Components of compulsory service program for health professionals in low-and middle-income countries: A scoping review. Perspect Public Health.2020;140(1):54–61. doi: 10.1177/1757913919839432. Guevarra JP, Medina PN, Avelino MD, Cengca MM, Ting ML, Agbon AG, et al. Perception of program administrators and students on the implementation of return service agreement in the Philippines. Acta Med Philipp. 2020;54(3):289–95. doi: 10.47895/amp.v54i3.1666.

Introduction Figure 1 The counter-Terrorism advertising campaign of London’s Metropolitan Police commodifies some everyday items such as mobile phones, computers, passports and credit cards as having the potential to sustain terrorist activities. The process of ascribing cultural values and symbolic meanings to some everyday technical gadgets objectifies and situates Terrorism into the everyday life. The police, in urging people to look out for ‘the unusual’ in their normal day-to-day lives, juxtapose the everyday with the unusual, where day-to-day consumption, routines and flows of human activity can seemingly house insidious and atavistic elements. This again is reiterated in the Met police press release: Terrorists live within our communities making their plans whilst doing everything they can to blend in, and trying not to raise suspicions about their activities. (MPA Website) The commodification of Terrorism through uncommon and everyday objects situates Terrorism as a phenomenon which occupies a liminal space within the everyday. It resides, breathes and co-exists within the taken-for-granted routines and objects of ‘the everyday’ where it has the potential to explode and disrupt without warning. Since 9/11 and the 7/7 bombings Terrorism has been narrated through the disruption of mobility, whether in mid-air or in the deep recesses of the Underground. The resonant thread of disruption to human mobility evokes a powerful meta-narrative where acts of Terrorism can halt human agency amidst the backdrop of the metropolis, which is often a metaphor for speed and accelerated activities. If globalisation and the interconnected nature of the world are understood through discourses of risk, Terrorism bears the same footprint in urban spaces of modernity, narrating the vulnerability of the human condition in an inter-linked world where ideological struggles and resistance are manifested through inexplicable violence and destruction of lives, where the everyday is suspended to embrace the unexpected. As a consequence ambient fear “saturates the social spaces of everyday life” (Hubbard 2). The commodification of Terrorism through everyday items of consumption inevitably creates an intertextuality with real and media events, which constantly corrode the security of the metropolis. Paddy Scannell alludes to a doubling of place in our mediated world where “public events now occur simultaneously in two different places; the place of the event itself and that in which it is watched and heard. The media then vacillates between the two sites and creates experiences of simultaneity, liveness and immediacy” (qtd. in Moores 22). The doubling of place through media constructs a pervasive environment of risk and fear. Mark Danner (qtd. in Bauman 106) points out that the most powerful weapon of the 9/11 terrorists was that innocuous and “most American of technological creations: the television set” which provided a global platform to constantly replay and remember the dreadful scenes of the day, enabling the terrorist to appear invincible and to narrate fear as ubiquitous and omnipresent. Philip Abrams argues that ‘big events’ (such as 9/11 and 7/7) do make a difference in the social world for such events function as a transformative device between the past and future, forcing society to alter or transform its perspectives. David Altheide points out that since September 11 and the ensuing war on terror, a new discourse of Terrorism has emerged as a way of expressing how the world has changed and defining a state of constant alert through a media logic and format that shapes the nature of discourse itself. Consequently, the intensity and centralisation of surveillance in Western countries increased dramatically, placing the emphasis on expanding the forms of the already existing range of surveillance processes and practices that circumscribe and help shape our social existence (Lyon, Terrorism 2). Normalisation of Surveillance The role of technologies, particularly information and communication technologies (ICTs), and other infrastructures to unevenly distribute access to the goods and services necessary for modern life, while facilitating data collection on and control of the public, are significant characteristics of modernity (Reiman; Graham and Marvin; Monahan). The embedding of technological surveillance into spaces and infrastructures not only augment social control but also redefine data as a form of capital which can be shared between public and private sectors (Gandy, Data Mining; O’Harrow; Monahan). The scale, complexity and limitations of omnipresent and omnipotent surveillance, nevertheless, offer room for both subversion as well as new forms of domination and oppression (Marx). In surveillance studies, Foucault’s analysis is often heavily employed to explain lines of continuity and change between earlier forms of surveillance and data assemblage and contemporary forms in the shape of closed-circuit television (CCTV) and other surveillance modes (Dee). It establishes the need to discern patterns of power and normalisation and the subliminal or obvious cultural codes and categories that emerge through these arrangements (Fopp; Lyon, Electronic; Norris and Armstrong). In their study of CCTV surveillance, Norris and Armstrong (cf. in Dee) point out that when added to the daily minutiae of surveillance, CCTV cameras in public spaces, along with other camera surveillance in work places, capture human beings on a database constantly. The normalisation of surveillance, particularly with reference to CCTV, the popularisation of surveillance through television formats such as ‘Big Brother’ (Dee), and the expansion of online platforms to publish private images, has created a contradictory, complex and contested nature of spatial and power relationships in society. The UK, for example, has the most developed system of both urban and public space cameras in the world and this growth of camera surveillance and, as Lyon (Surveillance) points out, this has been achieved with very little, if any, public debate as to their benefits or otherwise. There may now be as many as 4.2 million CCTV cameras in Britain (cf. Lyon, Surveillance). That is one for every fourteen people and a person can be captured on over 300 cameras every day. An estimated £500m of public money has been invested in CCTV infrastructure over the last decade but, according to a Home Office study, CCTV schemes that have been assessed had little overall effect on crime levels (Wood and Ball). In spatial terms, these statistics reiterate Foucault’s emphasis on the power economy of the unseen gaze. Michel Foucault in analysing the links between power, information and surveillance inspired by Bentham’s idea of the Panopticon, indicated that it is possible to sanction or reward an individual through the act of surveillance without their knowledge (155). It is this unseen and unknown gaze of surveillance that is fundamental to the exercise of power. The design and arrangement of buildings can be engineered so that the “surveillance is permanent in its effects, even if it is discontinuous in its action” (Foucault 201). Lyon (Terrorism), in tracing the trajectory of surveillance studies, points out that much of surveillance literature has focused on understanding it as a centralised bureaucratic relationship between the powerful and the governed. Invisible forms of surveillance have also been viewed as a class weapon in some societies. With the advancements in and proliferation of surveillance technologies as well as convergence with other technologies, Lyon argues that it is no longer feasible to view surveillance as a linear or centralised process. In our contemporary globalised world, there is a need to reconcile the dialectical strands that mediate surveillance as a process. In acknowledging this, Giles Deleuze and Felix Guattari have constructed surveillance as a rhizome that defies linearity to appropriate a more convoluted and malleable form where the coding of bodies and data can be enmeshed to produce intricate power relationships and hierarchies within societies. Latour draws on the notion of assemblage by propounding that data is amalgamated from scattered centres of calculation where these can range from state and commercial institutions to scientific laboratories which scrutinise data to conceive governance and control strategies. Both the Latourian and Deleuzian ideas of surveillance highlight the disparate arrays of people, technologies and organisations that become connected to make “surveillance assemblages” in contrast to the static, unidirectional Panopticon metaphor (Ball, “Organization” 93). In a similar vein, Gandy (Panoptic) infers that it is misleading to assume that surveillance in practice is as complete and totalising as the Panoptic ideal type would have us believe. Co-optation of Millions The Metropolitan Police’s counter-Terrorism strategy seeks to co-opt millions where the corporeal body can complement the landscape of technological surveillance that already co-exists within modernity. In its press release, the role of civilian bodies in ensuring security of the city is stressed; Keeping Londoners safe from Terrorism is not a job solely for governments, security services or police. If we are to make London the safest major city in the world, we must mobilise against Terrorism not only the resources of the state, but also the active support of the millions of people who live and work in the capita. (MPA Website). Surveillance is increasingly simulated through the millions of corporeal entities where seeing in advance is the goal even before technology records and codes these images (William). Bodies understand and code risk and images through the cultural narratives which circulate in society. Compared to CCTV technology images, which require cultural and political interpretations and interventions, bodies as surveillance organisms implicitly code other bodies and activities. The travel bag in the Metropolitan Police poster reinforces the images of the 7/7 bombers and the renewed attempts to bomb the London Underground on the 21st of July. It reiterates the CCTV footage revealing images of the bombers wearing rucksacks. The image of the rucksack both embodies the everyday as well as the potential for evil in everyday objects. It also inevitably reproduces the cultural biases and prejudices where the rucksack is subliminally associated with a specific type of body. The rucksack in these terms is a laden image which symbolically captures the context and culture of risk discourses in society. The co-optation of the population as a surveillance entity also recasts new forms of social responsibility within the democratic polity, where privacy is increasingly mediated by the greater need to monitor, trace and record the activities of one another. Nikolas Rose, in discussing the increasing ‘responsibilisation’ of individuals in modern societies, describes the process in which the individual accepts responsibility for personal actions across a wide range of fields of social and economic activity as in the choice of diet, savings and pension arrangements, health care decisions and choices, home security measures and personal investment choices (qtd. in Dee). While surveillance in individualistic terms is often viewed as a threat to privacy, Rose argues that the state of ‘advanced liberalism’ within modernity and post-modernity requires considerable degrees of self-governance, regulation and surveillance whereby the individual is constructed both as a ‘new citizen’ and a key site of self management. By co-opting and recasting the role of the citizen in the age of Terrorism, the citizen to a degree accepts responsibility for both surveillance and security. In our sociological imagination the body is constructed both as lived as well as a social object. Erving Goffman uses the word ‘umwelt’ to stress that human embodiment is central to the constitution of the social world. Goffman defines ‘umwelt’ as “the region around an individual from which signs of alarm can come” and employs it to capture how people as social actors perceive and manage their settings when interacting in public places (252). Goffman’s ‘umwelt’ can be traced to Immanuel Kant’s idea that it is the a priori categories of space and time that make it possible for a subject to perceive a world (Umiker-Sebeok; qtd. in Ball, “Organization”). Anthony Giddens adapted the term Umwelt to refer to “a phenomenal world with which the individual is routinely ‘in touch’ in respect of potential dangers and alarms which then formed a core of (accomplished) normalcy with which individuals and groups surround themselves” (244). Benjamin Smith, in considering the body as an integral component of the link between our consciousness and our material world, observes that the body is continuously inscribed by culture. These inscriptions, he argues, encompass a wide range of cultural practices and will imply knowledge of a variety of social constructs. The inscribing of the body will produce cultural meanings as well as create forms of subjectivity while locating and situating the body within a cultural matrix (Smith). Drawing on Derrida’s work, Pugliese employs the term ‘Somatechnics’ to conceptualise the body as a culturally intelligible construct and to address the techniques in and through which the body is formed and transformed (qtd. in Osuri). These techniques can encompass signification systems such as race and gender and equally technologies which mediate our sense of reality. These technologies of thinking, seeing, hearing, signifying, visualising and positioning produce the very conditions for the cultural intelligibility of the body (Osuri). The body is then continuously inscribed and interpreted through mediated signifying systems. Similarly, Hayles, while not intending to impose a Cartesian dichotomy between the physical body and its cognitive presence, contends that the use and interactions with technology incorporate the body as a material entity but it also equally inscribes it by marking, recording and tracing its actions in various terrains. According to Gayatri Spivak (qtd. in Ball, “Organization”) new habits and experiences are embedded into the corporeal entity which then mediates its reactions and responses to the social world. This means one’s body is not completely one’s own and the presence of ideological forces or influences then inscribe the body with meanings, codes and cultural values. In our modern condition, the body and data are intimately and intricately bound. Outside the home, it is difficult for the body to avoid entering into relationships that produce electronic personal data (Stalder). According to Felix Stalder our physical bodies are shadowed by a ‘data body’ which follows the physical body of the consuming citizen and sometimes precedes it by constructing the individual through data (12). Before we arrive somewhere, we have already been measured and classified. Thus, upon arrival, the citizen will be treated according to the criteria ‘connected with the profile that represents us’ (Gandy, Panoptic; William). Following September 11, Lyon (Terrorism) reveals that surveillance data from a myriad of sources, such as supermarkets, motels, traffic control points, credit card transactions records and so on, was used to trace the activities of terrorists in the days and hours before their attacks, confirming that the body leaves data traces and trails. Surveillance works by abstracting bodies from places and splitting them into flows to be reassembled as virtual data-doubles, and in the process can replicate hierarchies and centralise power (Lyon, Terrorism). Mike Dee points out that the nature of surveillance taking place in modern societies is complex and far-reaching and in many ways insidious as surveillance needs to be situated within the broadest context of everyday human acts whether it is shopping with loyalty cards or paying utility bills. Physical vulnerability of the body becomes more complex in the time-space distanciated surveillance systems to which the body has become increasingly exposed. As such, each transaction – whether it be a phone call, credit card transaction, or Internet search – leaves a ‘data trail’ linkable to an individual person or place. Haggerty and Ericson, drawing from Deleuze and Guattari’s concept of the assemblage, describe the convergence and spread of data-gathering systems between different social domains and multiple levels (qtd. in Hier). They argue that the target of the generic ‘surveillance assemblage’ is the human body, which is broken into a series of data flows on which surveillance process is based. The thrust of the focus is the data individuals can yield and the categories to which they can contribute. These are then reapplied to the body. In this sense, surveillance is rhizomatic for it is diverse and connected to an underlying, invisible infrastructure which concerns interconnected technologies in multiple contexts (Ball, “Elements”). The co-opted body in the schema of counter-Terrorism enters a power arrangement where it constitutes both the unseen gaze as well as the data that will be implicated and captured in this arrangement. It is capable of producing surveillance data for those in power while creating new data through its transactions and movements in its everyday life. The body is unequivocally constructed through this data and is also entrapped by it in terms of representation and categorisation. The corporeal body is therefore part of the machinery of surveillance while being vulnerable to its discriminatory powers of categorisation and victimisation. As Hannah Arendt (qtd. in Bauman 91) had warned, “we terrestrial creatures bidding for cosmic significance will shortly be unable to comprehend and articulate the things we are capable of doing” Arendt’s caution conveys the complexity, vulnerability as well as the complicity of the human condition in the surveillance society. Equally it exemplifies how the corporeal body can be co-opted as a surveillance entity sustaining a new ‘banality’ (Arendt) in the machinery of surveillance. Social Consequences of Surveillance Lyon (Terrorism) observed that the events of 9/11 and 7/7 in the UK have inevitably become a prism through which aspects of social structure and processes may be viewed. This prism helps to illuminate the already existing vast range of surveillance practices and processes that touch everyday life in so-called information societies. As Lyon (Terrorism) points out surveillance is always ambiguous and can encompass genuine benefits and plausible rationales as well as palpable disadvantages. There are elements of representation to consider in terms of how surveillance technologies can re-present data that are collected at source or gathered from another technological medium, and these representations bring different meanings and enable different interpretations of life and surveillance (Ball, “Elements”). As such surveillance needs to be viewed in a number of ways: practice, knowledge and protection from threat. As data can be manipulated and interpreted according to cultural values and norms it reflects the inevitability of power relations to forge its identity in a surveillance society. In this sense, Ball (“Elements”) concludes surveillance practices capture and create different versions of life as lived by surveilled subjects. She refers to actors within the surveilled domain as ‘intermediaries’, where meaning is inscribed, where technologies re-present information, where power/resistance operates, and where networks are bound together to sometimes distort as well as reiterate patterns of hegemony (“Elements” 93). While surveillance is often connected with technology, it does not however determine nor decide how we code or employ our data. New technologies rarely enter passive environments of total inequality for they become enmeshed in complex pre-existing power and value systems (Marx). With surveillance there is an emphasis on the classificatory powers in our contemporary world “as persons and groups are often risk-profiled in the commercial sphere which rates their social contributions and sorts them into systems” (Lyon, Terrorism 2). Lyon (Terrorism) contends that the surveillance society is one that is organised and structured using surveillance-based techniques recorded by technologies, on behalf of the organisations and governments that structure our society. This information is then sorted, sifted and categorised and used as a basis for decisions which affect our life chances (Wood and Ball). The emergence of pervasive, automated and discriminatory mechanisms for risk profiling and social categorising constitute a significant mechanism for reproducing and reinforcing social, economic and cultural divisions in information societies. Such automated categorisation, Lyon (Terrorism) warns, has consequences for everyone especially in face of the new anti-terror measures enacted after September 11. In tandem with this, Bauman points out that a few suicidal murderers on the loose will be quite enough to recycle thousands of innocents into the “usual suspects”. In no time, a few iniquitous individual choices will be reprocessed into the attributes of a “category”; a category easily recognisable by, for instance, a suspiciously dark skin or a suspiciously bulky rucksack* *the kind of object which CCTV cameras are designed to note and passers-by are told to be vigilant about. And passers-by are keen to oblige. Since the terrorist atrocities on the London Underground, the volume of incidents classified as “racist attacks” rose sharply around the country. (122; emphasis added) Bauman, drawing on Lyon, asserts that the understandable desire for security combined with the pressure to adopt different kind of systems “will create a culture of control that will colonise more areas of life with or without the consent of the citizen” (123). This means that the inhabitants of the urban space whether a citizen, worker or consumer who has no terrorist ambitions whatsoever will discover that their opportunities are more circumscribed by the subject positions or categories which are imposed on them. Bauman cautions that for some these categories may be extremely prejudicial, restricting them from consumer choices because of credit ratings, or more insidiously, relegating them to second-class status because of their colour or ethnic background (124). Joseph Pugliese, in linking visual regimes of racial profiling and the shooting of Jean Charles de Menezes in the aftermath of 7/7 bombings in London, suggests that the discursive relations of power and visuality are inextricably bound. Pugliese argues that racial profiling creates a regime of visuality which fundamentally inscribes our physiology of perceptions with stereotypical images. He applies this analogy to Menzes running down the platform in which the retina transforms him into the “hallucinogenic figure of an Asian Terrorist” (Pugliese 8). With globalisation and the proliferation of ICTs, borders and boundaries are no longer sacrosanct and as such risks are managed by enacting ‘smart borders’ through new technologies, with huge databases behind the scenes processing information about individuals and their journeys through the profiling of body parts with, for example, iris scans (Wood and Ball 31). Such body profiling technologies are used to create watch lists of dangerous passengers or identity groups who might be of greater ‘risk’. The body in a surveillance society can be dissected into parts and profiled and coded through technology. These disparate codings of body parts can be assembled (or selectively omitted) to construct and represent whole bodies in our information society to ascertain risk. The selection and circulation of knowledge will also determine who gets slotted into the various categories that a surveillance society creates. Conclusion When the corporeal body is subsumed into a web of surveillance it often raises questions about the deterministic nature of technology. The question is a long-standing one in our modern consciousness. We are apprehensive about according technology too much power and yet it is implicated in the contemporary power relationships where it is suspended amidst human motive, agency and anxiety. The emergence of surveillance societies, the co-optation of bodies in surveillance schemas, as well as the construction of the body through data in everyday transactions, conveys both the vulnerabilities of the human condition as well as its complicity in maintaining the power arrangements in society. Bauman, in citing Jacques Ellul and Hannah Arendt, points out that we suffer a ‘moral lag’ in so far as technology and society are concerned, for often we ruminate on the consequences of our actions and motives only as afterthoughts without realising at this point of existence that the “actions we take are most commonly prompted by the resources (including technology) at our disposal” (91). References Abrams, Philip. Historical Sociology. Shepton Mallet, UK: Open Books, 1982. Altheide, David. “Consuming Terrorism.” Symbolic Interaction 27.3 (2004): 289-308. Arendt, Hannah. Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. London: Faber & Faber, 1963. Bauman, Zygmunt. Liquid Fear. 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