Relevant bibliographies by topics / Irish criminal system

Academic literature on the topic 'Irish criminal system'

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Published: 10 December 2022
Last updated: 28 January 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Irish criminal system"

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Hillyard, Paddy. "Irish People and the British Criminal Justice System." Journal of Law and Society 21, no. 1 (March 1994): 39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1410269.

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Connon, Graham, Allian Crooks, Alan Carr, Barbara Dooley, Suzanne Guerin, Derek Deasy, Deirdre O'Shea, Imelda Ryan, and Anne O'Flaherty. "Child sex abuse and the Irish criminal justice system." Child Abuse Review 20, no. 2 (February 20, 2011): 102–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/car.1156.

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Healy, Deirdre, and Ian O’Donnell. "Criminal Thinking on Probation." Criminal Justice and Behavior 33, no. 6 (December 2006): 782–802. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854806288066.

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This article examines the use of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) with a sample of 72 Irish men on probation. It tests the hypothesis that probationers who reported no offending for at least a year (secondary desisters) would have lower PICTS scores—indicating a less active criminal belief system—than those who remained involved in crime and that probationers who did not report committing crime during the past month (primary desisters) would have lower scores than those who did. Significant differences ( p < .05) were observed on three of the eight scales and on Current Criminal Thinking for the secondary desisters and on six of the eight scales for the primary desisters. Compared with English and American prisoners, the Irish scored higher on all eight scales.
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Jankowska-Prochot, Izabela. "Regulacje normatywne dotyczące ochrony praw jednostki w irlandzkim procesie karnym." Opolskie Studia Administracyjno-Prawne 17, no. 1 (November 15, 2019): 91–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.25167/osap.1495.

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This article aims to bring closer knowledge on respecting and protecting rights and freedoms of the individual in Ireland. The author presents the evolution of the source of Irish criminal law and criminal justice system in that country. The influence of the Convention for Protection of Human Rights is also discussed. The text is based on relevant Irish statues and opinions of the country’s jurisprudence.
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Đuričić, Svetlana. "Release on parole: Aspects of criminal law and procedure." Glasnik Advokatske komore Vojvodine 93, no. 1 (2021): 234–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/gakv93-25550.

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Release on parole dates back to the middle of the 19th century and has roots in the progressive and Irish systems for executing punishment regarding persons deprived of liberty. Namely, the third phase in the execution of the sanction of imprisonment in the progressive system is called - release on parole, while it was the fourth phase in the Irish system. The Irish system for executing imprisonment was accepted in a large number of countries, including pre-war Yugoslavia. Modelled on this system, several prisons were created in Yugoslavia - in Zenica, Sremska Mitrovica, and Lepoglava. The purpose of release on parole is for the convicted person to behave properly while serving the imprisonment sentence, fulfil their work obligations, and not commit another criminal act for the duration of the sentence, all with the goal of re-socialization. Consequently, expanding the prohibition on the release on parole for certain criminal offences is contrary to the primary purpose of punishment as prescribed by art. 42, para. 1, point 1 of the Criminal Code; which is preventing the perpetrator from committing criminal acts and influencing them to not commit criminal acts in the future. Sentencing and executing sanctions must not be in retaliation for the acts committed, as it would be aligned with the theory of intimidation by punishment which has long since been abandoned; at present, the modern theory on the purpose of sanctions is widely represented, the theory of re-socialization, which has the individualization of the punishment of deprivation of liberty at the forefront, and that individualization is important to the re-education of the convicted person.
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Cusack, Alan. "Addressing vulnerability in Ireland’s criminal justice system: A survey of recent statutory developments." International Journal of Evidence & Proof 24, no. 3 (May 6, 2020): 280–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1365712720922753.

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For over a quarter of century Ireland’s statutory special measures framework, as originally enacted by the Criminal Evidence Act 1992, remained largely unchanged, falling beyond the reformative gaze of successive Irish governments. This period of political inertia, however, came to an abrupt end in 2017 when Irish policymakers, motivated by developments at a European Union level, introduced two landmark legislative instruments which promised to reimagine the availability and diversity of Ireland’s store of statutory testimonial accommodations, namely the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2017 and the Criminal Justice (Victims of Crime) Act 2017. By interrogating these newly-commenced instruments in light of the experience of crime victims with intellectual disabilities, this paper surveys the current procedural landscape governing the treatment of vulnerable crime victims in Ireland and is intended to go some way towards exposing the embedded evidential barriers which continue to prejudice efforts aimed at securing their best evidence in court.
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Brandon, Avril Margaret, and Michael O’Connell. "Same Crime: Different Punishment? Investigating Sentencing Disparities Between Irish and Non-irish Nationals in the Irish Criminal Justice System." British Journal of Criminology 58, no. 5 (December 19, 2017): 1127–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azx080.

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Leahy, Susan. "Female Sex Offenders in Ireland: Examining the Response of the Criminal Justice System." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 36, no. 4 (June 29, 2020): 539–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1043986220936116.

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This article focuses on the Irish criminal justice system’s response to female sex offending. As in other jurisdictions, very little attention has been paid to female sexual offending in Ireland. However, sexual offenses involving female offenders are occurring and are increasingly being detected and prosecuted. The article provides an overview of female sex offending in Ireland, offering a discussion of available prevalence statistics and an analysis of Irish cases where women have been convicted of sexual offenses. It is argued that, in light of the fact that women are clearly being convicted of sexual offenses in Ireland, it is timely to question whether current laws and policies on sexual offenses and offenders are equipped to deal with female offenders and what types of reforms are likely to be necessary to effectively respond to this category of sexual offending. The potential for reform is considered with reference to three key stages of the criminal justice process: (a) reporting and detection; (b) prosecution and punishment; and (c) treatment and rehabilitation.
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Chapman, Tim. "The Problem of Community in a Justice System in Transition: The Case of Community Restorative Justice in Northern Ireland." International Criminal Law Review 12, no. 3 (2012): 573–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157181212x648815.

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The article describes how community restorative justice in Northern Ireland developed out of the civil conflict. It illustrates how its valuable work has been stifled by the reforms to the criminal justice system arising from the Northern Irish peace process. Habermas’s theory of the colonisation of the lifeworld by the system is used to explain how restorative justice tends to be marginalised or co-opted by the criminal justice system. The article concludes that any process of social reconstruction must focus as much on strengthening civil society as it does political reform and economic development.
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Kilcommins, Shane. "The victim in the Irish criminal process: a journey from dispossession towards partial repossession." Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly 68, no. 4 (December 21, 2017): 505–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.53386/nilq.v68i4.61.

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This article has sought to examine the criminal justice system’s interactions with victims of crime. It is a relationship which has changed irrevocably over time. A significant discontinuity occurred in the nineteenth century when a new architecture of criminal and penal semiotics slowly emerged. An institutional way of knowing interpersonal conflict crystallised, one which reified system relations over personal experiences. It also emphasised new ideals and values such as proportionality, legalism, procedural rationality, equality and uniformity. New commitments, discourses and practices came to the fore in the criminal justice network. In modernity, the problem of criminal wrongdoing became a rationalised domain of action, a site which actively distrusted and excluded ‘non-objective’ truth claims. The state, the law, the accused and the public interest became the principal claims-makers within this institutional and normative arrangement, an arrangement which would dominate criminal and penal relations for the next 150 years. In the last 40 years, the victim has slowly re-emerged as a stakeholder in the criminal process.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Irish criminal system"

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Schone, Jason Mark. "The purest of punishment : Irish republicans in the criminal justice system 1972-97." Thesis, Birkbeck (University of London), 2002. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.397975.

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This thesis is a critique of the law's response to the violence perpetrated by Irish republicans on the British mainland during the Northern Irish conflict. The research is undertaken from within the public law paradigm, and takes account of the inadequacies of explanations of political violence from across the academic spectrum, sociological, criminological, and jurisprudential. Generally research into punishment has taken one of two forms: either the empirical work of criminologists or the theoretical work of philosophers. This thesis is unique in that the law is used to posit the central argument. By analysing the text of legal judgments relating to punishment in general and the punishment of Irish republicans in particular the central thesis, the inability of the law to comprehend and consequently respond appropriately to political violence, is made. In turn, wider and more general points, such as the confusion that currently exists in regard to penal policy, are made. The work is broadly divided into two: in the fIrst part, after a general introduction to academic accounts of punishment the sentencing oflrish republicans is examined. In the second part we move to the prison, where the focus is the place of Irish republicans in both the estate itself and prison law. This also reflects the unique quality of the work, as the traditional approach of public lawyers to the issue of political violence, or 'terrorism', has been to focus on the earlier, interrogatory stage of the criminal justice process. In summary, via an exegesis of the law, the position oflrish republicans in the criminal justice system is used as exemplifIcation ofthat law's inability to fully address political violence.
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Drummond, Anthony. "Irish travellers and the criminal justice systems across the island of Ireland." Thesis, University of Ulster, 2007. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.491168.

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This study is influenced by Foucault's (1980) philosophy of the technologies of power, aiming to discipline, punish and subjugate certain groups within society via dividing practices. As Irish Travellers' perceptions of, and experiences with, criminal justice and its agencies across the island of Ireland are examined, this work emphasises the ways in which in many cases they remain divided from fully participating in 21 st Century sedentary society, unlike the majority of their settled counterparts. Until completion of this work, little was known about the situation of Travellers with criminal justice across the island of Ireland. Consequently, the major contribution that this research makes tonomadology is its investigation of the ways in which Travellers are divided by policies which are discordant between states across the island of Ireland. The ways in which certain sections of the media and many members of the public can also be implicated in the division ofTravellers within sedentary society are also underscored. Largely, the method of investigation was qualitative in nature, involving semi-structured interviews. The conceptual framework of this thesis was underpinned by investigating the concept of sedentarism, being 'that system ofideas and practices which serves to normalise and reproduce sedentary modes of existence' (McVeigh, 1997: 9). The research was also influenced by the concept that crime can be socially constructed, begging a need to explore 'the active and intentional incitement of fear and hatred of nomads' (McVeigh, 1997: 9) alleged to be intrinsic to sedentarism. Principally, the argument outlined throughout this study is that like any other ethnic/racial groups, Irish Travellers should be able to integrate whilst maintaining specific ethnic boundaries if they so choose. However, this research makes clear that with regards to any notion of integrating in the manner just intimated, Irish Travellers face an invidious dichotomy with regards to their socia-legal positions which, due to adherence to human rights principles in Northern Ireland, appear to be stronger there than is the case in the Republic of Ireland.
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Books on the topic "Irish criminal system"

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Action Group for Irish Youth., Federation of Irish Societies, Bourne Trust, Irish Commission for Prisoners Overseas., and National Association of Prison Officers., eds. The Irish community: Discrimination and the criminal justice system. [London]: AGIY, The Bourne Trust, FIS, ICPO and NAPO, 1996.

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Reidy, Conor. Criminal Irish drunkards: The inebriate reformatory system 1900-1920. Dublin: The History Press Ireland, 2014.

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Hargaden, Sarah. Equality and the Irish juvenile justice system: A critical overview. Dublin: University College Dublin, 1997.

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Williams, Linda Pizani. Gypsies and travellers in the criminal justice system: The forgotten minority? [Cambridge]: Institute of Criminology, University of Cambridge, 1998.

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Reidy, Conor. Criminal Irish Drunkards: The Inebriate Reformatory System, 1900-1920. History Press Limited, The, 2014.

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Brice, Dickson. The Irish Supreme Court. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198793731.001.0001.

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This book examines the jurisprudence of the Supreme Court of Ireland since its creation in 1924. It sets out the origins of the Court, explains how it operated during the life of the Irish Free State (1922-1937), and considers how it has developed various fields of law under Ireland’s 1937 Constitution, especially after the ‘re-creation’ of the Court in 1961. As well as constitutional law, the book looks at the Court’s views on the status and legal system of Northern Ireland, administrative law, criminal justice and personal and family law. There are also chapters on the Supreme Court’s interaction with European Union law and with the European Convention on Human Rights. The argument throughout is that, while the Court has been well served by many of its judges, who on occasion have manifested a healthy degree of judicial activism, there are still several legal fields in which the Court has not developed its jurisprudence as clearly or as imaginatively as it might have done. It has often displayed undue conservatism and deference. For many years its performance was hampered by its extreme workload, generated by its inability to control the number of appeals brought to it. However, the creation of a new Court of Appeal in 2014 has freed up the Supreme Court to act in a manner more analogous to that adopted by supreme courts in other common law countries. The Court’s future looks bright.
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Nietsch, Michael, ed. Compliance und soziale Verantwortung im Unternehmen. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/9783845292380.

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The 4th edition of Wiesbaden’s Compliance Day discusses current topics of corporate governance and compliance. Issues regarding the implementation of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) into corporate systems are the foremost topic. These are followed by an update on the rising CSR legislation in Germany. Furthermore, a look is taken at directors’ duties with respect to compliance management and their criminal liability resulting as a lack thereof. This refers to the offence of breach of fiduciary duties. Reflections on the underwriting of compliance risks through D&O insurances are the focus of the ultimate section. With contributions by Prof. Dr. Michael Nietsch, Prof. a.D. Dr. Peter Gola, Dr. Birgit Spießhofer, Prof. Dr. Iris H-Y Chiu, Prof. Dr. Jürgen Taschke, Prof. Dr. Frank Saliger, Dr. Horst Ihlas
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O'Donnell, Ian. Justice, Mercy, and Caprice. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198798477.001.0001.

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Justice, Mercy, and Caprice is a work of criminal justice history that speaks to the gradual emergence of a more humane Irish state. It is a close examination of what can be learned from the National Archives of Ireland about the decision to grant clemency to men and women sentenced to death between the end of the civil war in 1923 and the abolition of capital punishment in 1990. Frequently, the decision to deflect the law from its course was an attempt to introduce a measure of justice to a system where the mandatory death sentence for murder caused predictable unfairness and undue harshness. In some instances the decision to commute a death penalty sprang from merciful motivations. In others it was capricious, depending on factors that should have had no place in the government’s decision-making calculus. The custodial careers of those whose lives were spared repay scrutiny. Women tended to serve relatively short periods in prison but were often transferred to a religious institution, such as a Magdalen laundry, where their coercive confinement continued, occasionally for life. Men, by contrast, served longer in prison but were discharged directly to the community. Political offenders, such as members of the IRA, were either executed hastily or, when the threat of capital punishment had passed, incarcerated for extravagant periods. The issues addressed are of continuing relevance for countries that retain capital punishment as the ultimate sanction.
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Book chapters on the topic "Irish criminal system"

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Windle, James, Orla Lynch, Kevin Sweeney, Maggie O’Neill, Fiona Donson, and James Cuffe. "The Irish Criminal Justice System." In Criminology, Crime and Justice in Ireland, 23–38. London: Routledge, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003044284-4.

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"The victim and the justice system." In The victim in the Irish criminal process. Manchester University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.7765/9781526153722.00007.

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Howlin, Niamh. "The Trials of Peter Barrett: A Microhistory of Dysfunction in the Irish Criminal Justice System." In Fair and Unfair Trials in the British Isles, 1800–1940. Bloomsbury academic, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350050976.ch-004.

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Crossman, Virginia. "Attitudes and Responses to Vagrancy in Ireland in the Long Nineteenth Century." In Crime, Violence and the Irish in the Nineteenth Century. Liverpool University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5949/liverpool/9781786940650.003.0015.

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This essay focuses on a special category of Irish crime: vagrancy. While vagrancy was a criminal offence in its own right, it was often its association with other forms of criminality and immorality that ensured ‘tramps’ could be viewed with fear and contempt in the Irish countryside. The relationship between crime and poverty has been a subject of considerable debate in numerous scholarly fields. This essay makes the important point that tramps were viewed with suspicion, not on account of their poverty intrinsically, but rather because they consciously rejected social norms in favour of an itinerant lifestyle. The ‘tramp problem’ occupied the attentions of the public and the administrators alike at the turn of the century: the former sometimes startled by the arrival at their door of a ‘big lazy fellow’ demanding relief, and the latter busily issuing circulars to magistrates and police imploring them to clamp down on the offenders. In the end, however, an unsatisfactory justice system predicated on punishment merely reinforced existing prejudices and did little to alleviate the social inequality that gave rise to vagrancy in the first place.
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Friedman, David. "Private Prosecution and Enforcement in Roman Law." In Roman Law and Economics, 327–46. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198787211.003.0021.

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Many legal systems show evidence of having evolved out of a decentralized system of privately enforced law. Our very imperfect information on early Roman law, in particular the surviving texts from the law of the Twelve Tables, suggests that that was the case for it as well. Punishments for what we would consider crimes largely consisted of damage payments, while enforcement of court verdicts seems to have been largely the responsibility of the plaintiff, as was compelling the defendant to come to court. The earliest procedure for trial (legis actio sacramento) took the form of a bet on which side’s claim was true, with the money deposited by the losing party forfeiting to the state. Arguably its function, like that of a trial in a feud system such as that of saga-period Iceland, was to establish for third parties which of the two litigants was in the right and so entitled to use force if the losing litigant refused to obey the judgment. There was, however, an exception to that pattern for offenses against religion or directly against the state. Privately enforced systems, most notably early Irish law, make use of sureties to enforce contracts and judgments. The same was true of Roman law throughout its history, although with many detailed differences from the Irish. Over time, responsibility for prosecution and enforcement shifted from the plaintiff to state actors. But even in its final form as codified by Justinian, prosecution of both civil and criminal offenses was primarily the responsibility of private citizens.
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Hamill, Heather. "West Belfast." In The Hoods. Princeton University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691180687.003.0002.

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This chapter argues that, from the early days of the political conflict in the 1970s the conditions were such that the Irish Republican Army (IRA) adopted some of the functions of the state, namely the provision of policing and punishment of ordinary crime. The hostility of the statutory criminal justice system, particularly the police, toward the working-class Catholic community dramatically increased the costs of using state services. The high levels of disaffection and aggression among working-class Catholics toward the police meant that the state could no longer fulfill its function and police the community in any “normal” way. A demand for policing therefore existed. Simultaneously, this demand was met and fostered by the IRA, which had the motivation, the manpower, and the monopoly on the use of violence necessary to carry out this role.
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O’Rourke, Maeve, Jennifer O’Mahoney, and Katherine O’Donnell. "Institutional Abuse in Ireland: Lessons from Magdalene Survivors and Legal Professionals." In Giving Voice to Diversity in Criminological Research, 67–88. Policy Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781529215526.003.0004.

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The girls and women who were incarcerated in Ireland’s Magdalene institutions found themselves under lock and key due largely to perceptions that they were at risk of violating or had violated moral rather than legal codes. Their treatment was in many ways worse than the treatment of those imprisoned under the Irish criminal justice system; arbitrariness and exploitation were its hallmarks. Addressing the manifold injustices that occurred is still an on-going issue for groups such as Justice for Magdalenes Research (JFMR) and survivors themselves, and this chapter offers an introduction to the difficulties that the women face in seeking accountability and redress for the legal wrongs perpetrated by State and non-State actors. In particular, the chapter discusses the findings of a 24-month European research project in which the authors were involved, entitled SASCA (Support to Adult Survivors of Child Abuse in institutional settings).
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Breathnach, Ciara, and Laurence M. Geary. "Crime and Punishment: Whiteboyism and the Law in Late Nineteenth-Century Ireland." In Crime, Violence and the Irish in the Nineteenth Century. Liverpool University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5949/liverpool/9781786940650.003.0009.

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This chapter is concerned with the administration of justice and offers a detailed examination of agrarian outrages in south-west Ireland during the first phase of the Land War. The focus is on those convicted of ‘Whiteboy’ offences at the Munster assizes of 1881 and the manner in which they were treated by the justice and penal system. The sentences meted out in these instances of agrarian outrage were often tougher than those given to ‘ordinary’ criminals. The Whiteboys could expect harsh treatment in prison. The conventions of the prison ‘mark’ system were flouted and physical and mental deterioration was common due to inactivity and solitary confinement. ‘Whiteboyism’ was merely a term of convenience by the 1880s, but this essay captures vividly how the draconian treatment handed out to convicted insurgents reflected the state’s fear of agrarian unrest and the threat it posed to the status quo.
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Ó Donghaile, Deaglán. "Coercion and Resistance: Vera … or the Land War." In Oscar Wilde and the Radical Politics of the Fin de Siécle, 57–87. Edinburgh University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474459433.003.0003.

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In the first act of Wilde’s 1880 play, Vera; or, the Nihilists, as Russian radicals discuss the gruesome merits of political violence, a conspirator declares that “(o)ne dagger will do more than a hundred epigrams.” Centred on Wilde’s opposition to the “bloody work” of state repression, his first play represented the contemporary land crisis in Ireland and criticised the anachronistic class system that prevailed there. Wilde’s radical proposal is that terrorism is not the mindless work of apolitical criminals, but a product of political despair. Although ostensibly portraying the more distant phenomenon of Russian state repression, the ongoing deployment of coercion in Ireland is barely encoded in Vera; or the Nihilists. Wilde’s first play veiled the contemporary politics of the Irish Land War.
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Singh, Richa, Mayank Vatsa, and Phalguni Gupta. "Biometrics." In Encyclopedia of Multimedia Technology and Networking, Second Edition, 121–27. IGI Global, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-014-1.ch017.

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The modern information age gives rise to various challenges, such as organization of society and its security. In the context of organization of society, security has become an important challenge. Because of the increased importance of security and organization, identification and authentication methods have developed into a key technology in various areas, such as entrance control in buildings, access control for automatic teller machines, or in the prominent field of criminal investigation. Identity verification techniques such as keys, cards, passwords, and PIN are widely used security applications. However, passwords or keys may often be forgotten, disclosed, changed, or stolen. Biometrics is an identity verification technique which is being used nowadays and is more reliable, compared to traditional techniques. Biometrics means “life measurement,” but here, the term is associated with the unique characteristics of an individual. Biometrics is thus defined as the “automated methods of identifying or authenticating the identity of a living person, based on physiological or behavioral characteristics.” Physiological characteristics include features such as face, fingerprint, and iris. Behavioral characteristics include signature, gait, and voice. This method of identity verification is preferred over traditional passwords and PIN-based methods for various reasons, such as (Jain, Bolle, & Pankanti, 1999; Jain, Ross, & Prabhakar, 2004): • The person to be identified is required to be physically present for the identity verification. • Identification based on biometric techniques obviates the need to remember a password or carry a token. • It cannot be misplaced or forgotten. Biometrics is essentially a multi-disciplinary area of research, which includes fields like pattern recognition image processing, computer vision, soft computing, and artificial intelligence. For example, face image is captured by a digital camera, which is preprocessed using image enhancement algorithms, and then facial information is extracted and matched. During this process, image processing techniques are used to enhance the face image and pattern recognition, and soft computing techniques are used to extract and match facial features. A biometric system can be either an identification system or a verification (authentication) system, depending on the application. Identification and verification are defined as (Jain et al., 1999, 2004; Ross, Nandakumar, & Jain, 2006): • Identification–One to Many: Identification involves determining a person’s identity by searching through the database for a match. For example, identification is performed in a watch list to find if the query image matches with any of the images in the watch list. • Verification–One to One: Verification involves determining if the identity which the person is claiming is correct or not. Examples of verification include access to an ATM, it can be obtained by matching the features of the individual with the features of the claimed identity in the database. It is not required to perform match with complete database. In this article, we present an overview of the biometric systems and different types of biometric modalities. The next section describes various components of biometric systems, and the third section briefly describes the characteristics of biometric systems. The fourth section provides an overview of different unimodal and multimodal biometric systems. In the fifth section, we have discussed different measures used to evaluate the performance of biometric systems. Finally, we discuss research issues and future directions of biometrics in the last section.
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