Books: 'Ion current measurements'

1

N, Matossian J., and United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., eds. High-power ion thruster technology. [Washington, DC]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1996.

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2

N, Matossian J., and United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., eds. High-power ion thruster technology. [Washington, DC]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1996.

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3

N, Matossian J., and United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., eds. High power ion thruster technology. [Washington, DC]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1992.

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4

N, Matossian J., and United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., eds. High-power ion thruster technology. [Washington, DC]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1996.

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5

Elmi, Amina H. N. Housing discrimination study: Replication of 1977 measures using current data. [Washington, D.C.?]: The Office, 1991.

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6

1952-, Simmonds E. John, and International Council for the Exploration of the Sea., eds. Acoustic survey design and analysis procedure: A comprehensive review of current practice. Copenhagen, Denmark: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 1992.

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7

K, Carney Harold, and Langley Research Center, eds. 1984 direct strike lightning data. Hampton, Va: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center, 1986.

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8

Elmi, Amina H. N. Housing discrimination study: Replication of 1977 measures using current data. [Washington, D.C.?]: The Office, 1991.

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9

Maris, Mikelsons, United States. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development., and Urban Institute, eds. Housing discrimination study: Replication of 1977 measures using current data. [Washington, D.C.?]: The Office, 1991.

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10

Caruso, Michael J. Biweekly maps of wind stress for the North Pacific from the ERS-1 scatterometer, 1992-1995. Woods Hole, Mass: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1997.

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11

Flückiger, Yves. The measurement of segregation in the labor force. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag, 1999.

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12

Inc, ebrary, ed. Current issues and trends in special education: Identification, assessment and instruction. Bingley: Emerald, 2010.

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13

Office, General Accounting. Nuclear waste: A look at current use of funds and cost estimates for the future : report to Congressional requesters. Washington, D.C: The Office, 1987.

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14

Hall thruster ion beam characterization. [Washington, D.C.]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1995.

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15

High-power ion thruster technology. [Washington, DC]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1996.

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16

Evaluation of low power hall thruster propulsion. [Washington, DC]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1996.

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17

Rappaport, Theodore S., Kate A. Remley, Camillo Gentile, Andreas F. Molisch, and Alenka Zajić, eds. Radio Propagation Measurements and Channel Modeling: Best Practices for Millimeter-Wave and Sub-Terahertz Frequencies. Cambridge University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781009122740.

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This book offers comprehensive, practical guidance on RF propagation channel characterization at mmWave and sub-terahertz frequencies, with an overview of both measurement systems and current and future channel models. It introduces the key concepts required for performing accurate mmWave channel measurements, including channel sounder architectures, calibration methods, channel sounder performance metrics and their relationship to propagation channel characteristics. With a comprehensive introduction to mmWave channel models, the book allows readers to carefully review and select the most appropriate channel model for their application. The book provides fundamental system theory accessible in a step by step way with clear examples throughout. With inter- and multidisciplinary perspectives, the reader will observe the tight interaction between measurements and modeling for these frequency bands and how different disciplines interact. This is an excellent reference for researchers, including graduate students, working on mmWave and sub-THz wireless communications, and for engineers developing communication systems.

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18

Fontanarosa, Phil B., and Stacy Christiansen. Units of Measure. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jama/9780195176339.003.0018.

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The presentation of quantitative scientific information is an integral component of biomedical publication. Accurate communication of scientific knowledge and presentation of numerical data require a scientifically informative system for reporting units of measure. The International System of Units (Le Système International d'Unités or SI) represents a modified version of the metric system that has been established by international agreement and currently is the official measurement system of most nations of the world.1 The SI promotes uniformity of quantities and units, minimizes the number of units and multiples used in other measurement systems, and can express virtually any measurement in science, medicine, industry, and commerce. In 1977, the World Health Organization recommended the adoption of the SI by the international scientific community. Since then, many biomedical publications throughout the world have adopted SI units as their preferred and primary method for reporting scientific measurements...

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19

Smeeding, Timothy M. Poverty Measurement. Edited by David Brady and Linda M. Burton. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199914050.013.3.

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This article focuses on the complexities and idiosyncrasies of poverty measurement, from its origins to current practice. It first considers various concepts of poverty and their measurement and how economists, social statisticians, public policy scholars, sociologists, and other social scientists have contributed to this literature. It then discusses a few empirical estimates of poverty across and within nations, drawing primarily on data from the Luxembourg Income Study and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) to highlight levels and trends in overall poverty, while also referring to the World Bank’s measures of global absolute poverty. In the empirical examinations, the article takes a look at rich and middle-income countries and some developing nations. It compares trends in relative poverty over different time periods and in relative and anchored poverty across the Great Recession.

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20

Rose, Sage, and Nicole Sieben. Hope Measurement. Edited by Matthew W. Gallagher and Shane J. Lopez. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199399314.013.7.

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This chapter covers the multiple measures currently used to assess hope theory. Hope, as theorized by Snyder and colleagues, was originally determined to be a global construct measuring agency and pathways toward goal attainment. Using much of the original theory, hope research has expanded, resulting in multiple measures across different applications and domains. By exploring the context specificity, these scales have been shown to consistently predict outcomes across differing domains, supporting the reliability and validity of new hope measurement. It is anticipated that with more specific hope measurement, the more accurate hope assessment and intervention can become. Concepts covered in this chapter include academic hope, math hope, writing hope, work hope, children’s hope, employment hope, and state hope.

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21

Wright, A. G. Measurement of low light flux. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199565092.003.0007.

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There are three experimental methods for quantifying the flux of light incident on a photocathode: counting the anode output pulses initiated by photoelectrons—known as photon counting; measuring the DC current flowing at the anode—referred to as analogue detection, or charge integration; and determining the rms noise in the anode current—known as shot noise power detection. The statistical performances of the three methods, based on weighting factors, are compared, revealing the theoretical superiority of the photon-counting method. Optimal time allocation between signal and background measurement is derived for photon counting. An amplifier discriminator is the simplest and preferred instrumentation for photon counting, but setting the optimal counting threshold is ultimately a matter of judgement. This is because the plateau has a different slope for signal, background, and afterpulses. Rudiments of signal recovery instrumentation covering boxcar integrators, lock-in detection, and synchronous signal averaging are given.

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22

Matsuo, M., E. Saitoh, and S. Maekawa. Spin-Mechatronics—mechanical generation of spin and spin current. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198787075.003.0025.

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This chapter discusses interconversion phenomena between spin and mechanical angular momtum. In moving objects, the spin gauge fields emerge from inertial effects and produce angular momentum transfer between mechanical motion and spin. Such spin-mechanial effects are predicted by quantum theory in non-inertial frames, and confirmed by recent experiments including the resonance frequency shift in NMR, the stray field measurement of rotating metals, and the inverse spin Hall voltage generation in liquied metals. These spin-mechanical effects that arise via the spin-gauge fields open a new field of spintornics, where spin and mechanical motion couple harmoniously.

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23

Silva, Elvira, Spiro E. Stefanou, and Alfons Oude Lansink. Dynamic Efficiency and Productivity Measurement. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190919474.001.0001.

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The book takes on a systematic treatment of dynamic decision making and performance measurement. The analytical foundations of the dynamic production technology are introduced and developed in detail for several primal representations of the technology with an emphasis on dynamic directional distance functions. Dynamic cost minimization and dynamic profit maximization are developed for primal and dual representations of the dynamic technology. A dynamic production environment can be characterized as one where current production decisions impact future production possibilities. Consequently, the dynamic perspective of production relationships necessarily involves the close interplay between stock and flow elements in the transformation process and how current decisions impact the changes in future stocks. Stock elements in the production transformation process can involve physical elements that can be effectively employed in the transformation process, which can include the stock of technical knowledge and expertise available to the decision maker during the decision period. The dynamic generalization of concepts measuring the production structure (e.g., economies of scale, economies of scope, capacity utilization) and performance (e.g., allocative, scale and technical inefficiency, productivity) are developed from primal and dual perspectives. As an important source of productivity growth, production efficiency analysis is the subject of countless studies. Yet, theoretical and empirical studies focusing on production efficiency have ignored typically the time interdependence of production decisions and the adjustment paths of the firm over time. The empirical implementation of these production and performance measures is developed at length for both nonparametric and econometric approaches.

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24

Reed, Sean, Sonia Jego, and Antoine Adamantidis. Electroencephalography and Local Field Potentials in Animals. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199939800.003.0007.

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This chapter discusses the history, practice, and application of electroencephalography (EEG) and local field potential (LFP) recordings, with a particular focus on animal models. EEG measures the fluctuations of electrical activity resulting from ionic currents in the brain. These measurements are often taken from electrodes placed on the surface of the scalp, or in animal models, directly on the skull. LFP recordings are more invasive, measuring electrical current from all nearby dendritic synaptic activity within a volume of tissue. These two techniques are useful in determining how neural activity can synchronize during different behavioral or motivational states.

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25

Ragin, Charles C. Measurement Versus Calibration: A Set‐Theoretic Approach. Edited by Janet M. Box-Steffensmeier, Henry E. Brady, and David Collier. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199286546.003.0008.

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This article distinguishes between ‘measurement’ and ‘calibration’. It is organized around the distinction between measurement and calibration. The main message of this article is that fuzzy sets, unlike conventional variables, must be calibrated. It also argues that fuzzy sets provide a middle path between quantitative and qualitative measurement. It explores the common measurement practices in quantitative and qualitative social research. It then further demonstrates that fuzzy sets resonate with both the measurement concerns of qualitative researchers, where the goal often is to recognize between relevant and irrelevant variation, and the measurement concerns of quantitative researchers, where the goal is the precise placement of cases relative to each other. Current practices in quantitative social science undercut serious attention to calibration. Set-theoretic analysis without careful calibration of set membership is an exercise in futility.

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26

The Measurement of Segregation in the Labor Force. Springer-Verlag Telos, 1999.

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27

Elliott, Stephen N., and Brendan J. Bartlett. Opportunity to Learn. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935291.013.70.

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Opportunity to learn (OTL) is an evolving construct from which to better understand and use the intricacy of the schooling process. Progress to date includes considerations of how it might serve as an index of key factors of teachers’ and students’ contributions to learning and as a tool to guide fair and productive measurement of its operation. In this chapter, we provide an account of OTL measurement where classrooms have been the unit of analysis and where concentrations of focus have moved to include calibration of the quality of instruction alongside considerations of time and content elements of a learning opportunity. The account highlights the significance of this inclusion and presents current developments in creating feasible, reliable measurement and ongoing challenges where additional research is needed to further refine our conceptualization and current tooling for measuring OTL.

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28

Saitoh, E., and K. Ando. Experimental observation of the spin Hall effect using spin dynamics. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198787075.003.0015.

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This chapter describes an experiment on the inverse spin Hall effect (ISHE) induced by spin pumping. Spin pumping is the generation of spin currents as a result of magnetization M(t) precession; in a ferromagnetic/paramagnetic bilayer system, a conduction-electron spin current is pumped out of the ferromagnetic layer into the paramagnetic conduction layer in a ferromagnetic resonance condition. The sample used in the experiment is a Ni81Fe19/Pt bilayer film comprising a 10-nm-thick ferromagnetic Ni81Fe19layer and a 10-nm-thick paramagnetic Pt layer. For the measurement, the sample system is placed near the centre of a TE011 microwave cavity at which the magnetic-field component of the microwave mode is maximized while the electric-field component is minimized.

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29

Magee, Patrick, and Mark Tooley. Physics in anaesthesia. Edited by Antony R. Wilkes and Jonathan G. Hardman. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642045.003.0023.

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This chapter covers the basic science of physics relevant to anaesthetic practice. Equipment and measurement devices are covered elsewhere. Starting with fundamentals, atomic structure is introduced, followed by dimensions and units as used in science. Basic mechanics are then discussed, focusing on mass and density, force, pressure, energy, and power. The concept of linearity, hysteresis, and frequency response in physical systems is then introduced, using relevant examples, which are easy to understand. Laminar and turbulent fluid flow is then described, using flow measurement devices as applications of this theory. The concept of pressure and its measurement is then discussed in some detail, including partial pressure. Starting with the kinetic theory of gases, heat and temperature are described, along with the gas laws, critical temperature, sublimation, latent heat, vapour pressure and vaporization illustrated by the function of anaesthetic vaporizers, humidity, solubility, diffusion, osmosis, and osmotic pressure. Ultrasound and its medical applications are discussed in some detail, including Doppler and its use to measure flow. This is followed by an introduction to lasers and their medical uses. The final subject covered is electricity, starting with concepts of charge and current, voltage, energy, and power, and the role of magnetism. This is followed by a discussion of electrical circuits and the rules governing them, and bridge circuits used in measurement. The function of capacitors and inductors is then introduced, and alternating current and transformers are described.

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30

Rotatori, Anthony F., Jeffrey P. Bakken, and Festus E. Obiakor. Current Issues and Trends in Special Education: Research, Technology, and Teacher Preparation. Emerald Publishing Limited, 2010.

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31

Fox, K. F., and B. A. Popescu. Quality assurance in echocardiography. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199599639.003.0028.

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Quality assurance (QA) in echocardiography is the systematic process of ensuring that information sent out by echo laboratories is timely, appropriate, and accurate. All aspects of a service need to be continuously monitored and optimized if quality is to be maintained and furthermore improved.Particular focus is needed on reporting and measurement with continuous checking for reporting errors and assessment of measurement variability.A systematic QA programme needs to be an essential part of any echo laboratory. Life-determining clinical decisions may depend on it. In this chapter we describe the background to QA, current evidence and guidelines, and a systematic approach to QA.

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32

Alkire, Sabina. The Capability Approach and Well-Being Measurement for Public Policy. Edited by Matthew D. Adler and Marc Fleurbaey. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199325818.013.18.

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This chapter presents Sen’s capability approach as a framework for well-being measurement with powerful and ongoing relevance to current work on measuring well-being in order to guide public policy. It discusses how preferences and values inform the relative weights across capabilities, then draws readers’ attention to measurement properties of multidimensional measures that have proven to be policy relevant in poverty reduction. It presents a dual-cutoff counting methodology that satisfies these properties and outlines the assumptions that must be fulfilled in order to interpret ensuing indices as measuring capability poverty. It then discusses Bhutan’s innovative extension of this methodology in the Gross National Happiness Index and reflects upon whether it might be suited to other contexts. It closes by responding at some length to relevant material in other Handbook chapters.

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33

Murano, Dana M., and Richard D. Roberts. Traversing the Gap Between College and Workforce Readiness: Anything But a “Bridge Too Far”! Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199373222.003.0014.

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This chapter reviews Chapters 11–13. Each chapter offers possible solutions for bridging the apparent gap between college and workforce readiness while inherently highlighting ways in which these two readiness domains are analogous. Across the chapters, an integrative framework for studying noncognitive skills across putative domains remains elusive, although it is possible. The authors also discuss various approaches to the measurement of noncognitive skills and both practical and policy implications. This chapter focuses on next steps that can be taken in an effort to resolve issues surrounding measurement and the organizational framework. It also advocates for social–emotional learning programs at the primary, secondary, and tertiary education levels to foster these skills. Juxtaposed, these chapters elucidate the current state of college and workforce readiness, potential pathways through which measurement of necessary skills can be improved, and a compelling means by which to bridge the gap between college and workforce readiness.

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34

Furst, Eric M., and Todd M. Squires. Microrheology. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199655205.001.0001.

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We present a comprehensive overview of microrheology, emphasizing the underlying theory, practical aspects of its implementation, and current applications to rheological studies in academic and industrial laboratories. Key methods and techniques are examined, including important considerations to be made with respect to the materials most amenable to microrheological characterization and pitfalls to avoid in measurements and analysis. The fundamental principles of all microrheology experiments are presented, including the nature of colloidal probes and their movement in fluids, soft solids, and viscoelastic materials. Microrheology is divided into two general areas, depending on whether the probe is driven into motion by thermal forces (passive), or by an external force (active). We present the theory and practice of passive microrheology, including an in-depth examination of the Generalized Stokes-Einstein Relation (GSER). We carefully treat the assumptions that must be made for these techniques to work, and what happens when the underlying assumptions are violated. Experimental methods covered in detail include particle tracking microrheology, tracer particle microrheology using dynamic light scattering and diffusing wave spectroscopy, and laser tracking microrheology. Second, we discuss the theory and practice of active microrheology, focusing specifically on the potential and limitations of extending microrheology to measurements of non-linear rheological properties, like yielding and shear-thinning. Practical aspects of magnetic and optical tweezer measurements are preseted. Finally, we highlight important applications of microrheology, including measurements of gelation, degradation, high-throughput rheology, protein solution viscosities, and polymer dynamics.

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35

Sneddon, Jacqueline, and William Malcolm. Measuring and feeding back stewardship. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198758792.003.0007.

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An essential part of any antimicrobial stewardship programme is the measurement of its impact with regard to intended and unintended outcomes. Measurement requires the utilization of data from electronic data capture systems or through manual collection of data from patient records and ideally a combination of process, outcome, and balancing measures should be used to provide a holistic picture of stewardship practice. Data relating to stewardship activities may be used for scrutiny, for example achievement of targets, or may be for quality improvement to drive up standards. Whatever the purpose, feedback of data to clinical teams and managers is essential and may utilize various methods tailored to the target audience. Measurement of stewardship is evolving and there is interest in defining standard metrics for comparison across regions as well as within and between countries. This chapter provides an insight into current methodology with some examples from practice in the UK and Europe.

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36

Lanctot, Krista, and André Aleman. Apathy. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198841807.001.0001.

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Apathy is characterized by loss of motivation, decreased initiative, and emotional blunting. It is highly prevalent in neurological and psychiatric disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease, traumatic brain injury, schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, cerebrovascular disorders, and mild behavioural impairment. It has negative outcomes including impairments in activities of daily living, caregiver burden, and higher rates of institutionalization and mortality. The definition of apathy has changed over the years alongside the development of diagnostic criteria and apathy scales and measurements. Apathy is emerging as a treatment target with interest in pharmacological, non-pharmacological, and neuromodulatory treatments for apathy. There is also an increased understanding of the neurobiology of apathy with functional and structural neuroimaging research studies. This book is a comprehensive, in-depth review from experts in neurology and psychiatry. It examines the current state of apathy in these various disorders while also summarizing apathy diagnostic criteria, scales and measurements, neuropathology, and treatments.

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37

MacKenzie-Ross, Robert, Karen K. K. Sheares, and Joanna Pepke-Zaba. Pulmonary hypertension. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0100.

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Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a haemodynamic and pathophysiological condition defined as mean pulmonary artery pressure ≥25 mm Hg at rest, assessed by right-heart catheterization (8–20 mm Hg is considered normal). A pulmonary capillary wedge pressure measurement of >15 mm Hg indicates a significant pulmonary venous component. PH is associated with a variety of causes. The current PH classification is helpful in understanding the different etiological, pathological, and treatment approaches.

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38

Dobb, Geoffrey J. Diarrhoea and constipation in the critically ill. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0183.

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The diagnosis of intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH)/abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS ) relies on accurate IAP measurement. The current gold standard for measurement is intermittently every 4–6 hours via the bladder. IAP monitoring should be performed in all critically-ill or injured patients exhibiting ≥1 risk factors for the development of IAH, and continued until risk factors are resolved and intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) has remained normal for 24–48 hours. IAH and ACS cause organ dysfunction through direct compression of the heart, compression of both arterial and venous perfusion of the abdominal organs, and abdomino-thoracic pressure transmission. All organ systems are affected by IAH-induced injury. Standard surgical treatment of established ACS not responding to non-invasive management consists of decompressive laparotomy via midline or transverse incision. Promising alternative surgical strategies are being developed to avoid the complications of the open abdomen.

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39

Reynaud, Serge, and Astrid Lambrecht. Casimir forces and vacuum energy. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198768609.003.0009.

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The Casimir force is an effect of quantum vacuum field fluctuations, with applications in many domains of physics. The ideal expression obtained by Casimir, valid for perfect plane mirrors at zero temperature, has to be modified to take into account the effects of the optical properties of mirrors, thermal fluctuations, and geometry. After a general introduction to the Casimir force and a description of the current state of the art for Casimir force measurements and their comparison with theory, this chapter presents pedagogical treatments of the main features of the theory of Casimir forces for one-dimensional model systems and for mirrors in three-dimensional space.

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40

Boxall, Peter, John Purcell, and Patrick M. Wright, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199547029.001.0001.

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The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management aims to provide an authoritative account of current trends and developments in Human Resource Management (HRM). HRM is central to management teaching and research, and has emerged in the last decade as a significant field from its earlier roots in personnel management, industrial relations, and industrial psychology. People Management and High Performance teams have become key functions and goals for managers at all levels in organizations. The text is divided into four parts: foundations and frameworks; core processes and functions; patterns and dynamics; and finally measurement and outcomes.

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41

Rhodes, Jonathan K. J., and Peter J. D. Andrews. Intracranial pressure monitoring in the ICU. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0223.

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Intracranial pressure (ICP) measurement is an established monitoring modality in the ICU and can aid prognostication after acute brain injury. ICP monitoring is recommended in all patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), and an abnormal cranial computed tomographic (CT) scan and the ability to control ICP is associated with improved outcome after TBI. The lessons from TBI studies can also be applied to other acute pathologies of the central nervous system where ICP can be increased. ICP measurement can warn of impending disaster and allow intervention. Furthermore, measurement of ICP allows the calculation of cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) and maintenance of CPP may help to ensure adequate cerebral oxygen delivery. Various systems exist to monitor ICP. A recent trial in two South American countries suggested that ICP-guided management and management guided by clinical examination and repeated imaging produced equivalent outcomes. Although this trial currently provides the best evidence regarding the impact of monitoring ICP on outcome following TBI, but because of the inadequate power and questionable external validity, the generalizability of the results remain to be confirmed.

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42

Kasprzak, Jaroslaw D., Anita Sadeghpour, and Ruxandra Jurcut. Doppler echocardiography. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198726012.003.0003.

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Doppler examination is an integral part of the echocardiogram. Current systems are equipped with spectral Doppler in continuous wave mode (offering measurements of high velocities with limited spatial specificity due to integration of signal along the scan line), pulsed wave mode (high spatial specificity with maximal recordable velocity reduced by the Nyquist limit), and colour Doppler flow mapping (allowing rapid identification of flow pattern within a cross-sectional B-mode sector). Tissue Doppler echocardiography emerged as a basic tool for sampling regional myocardial velocities, in pulsed wave or colour velocity mapping mode. Finally, three-dimensional systems improve spatial presentation of flow phenomena by integrating Doppler-derived flow patterns in three-dimensional datasets.

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43

Skaaning, Svend-Erik. The Global State of Democracy Indices Methodology: Conceptualization and Measurement Framework, Version 4 (2020). International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.31752/idea.2020.72.

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The Global State of Democracy is a biennial report that aims to provide policymakers with an evidence-based analysis of the state of global democracy, supported by the Global State of Democracy Indices (GSoD Indices), in order to inform policy interventions and identify problem-solving approaches to trends affecting the quality of democracy around the world. The second edition of the report provides a health check of democracy and an overview of the current global and regional democracy landscape. This document presents revised and updated information about all the variables included in the GSoD indices data set that enabled the construction of Version 4 of the GSoD Indices, which depicts democratic trends at the country, regional and global levels across a broad range of different attributes of democracy in the period 1975–2019. The data underlying the GSoD Indices is based on a total of 116 indicators developed by various scholars and organizations using different types of source, including expert surveys, standards-based coding by research groups and analysts, observational data and composite measures.

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44

Beattie, R. Mark, Anil Dhawan, and John W.L. Puntis. Nutritional assessment and requirements. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198569862.003.0001.

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Nutritional assessment 2Risk factors for undernutrition 3Nutritional intake 4Taking a feeding history 5Basic anthropometry: the assessment of body form 6Growth 7Patterns of growth 15Malnutrition 17Nutritional requirements 19Nutritional status reflects the balance between supply and demand and the consequences of any imbalance. Nutritional assessment is therefore the foundation of nutritional care for children. When judging the need for nutritional support an assessment must be made both of the underlying reasons for any feeding difficulties, and of current nutritional status. This process includes a detailed dietary history, physical examination, anthropometry (weight, length; head circumference in younger children) with reference to standard growth charts, and basic laboratory indices when possible. In addition, skin fold thickness and mid-upper arm circumference measurements provide a simple method for estimating body composition....

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45

Durgin, Frank H., and Zhi Li. Why Do Hills Look So Steep? Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199794607.003.0016.

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This chapter discusses the visual perception of hills. Hills look much steeper than they are. This chapter reviews current knowledge of the phenomenology of slant perception in relation to both functionalist and mechanistic accounts of this perceptual bias. Recent discoveries suggest that this misperception of the geometry of our environment may be related to useful biological information coding strategies with respect to not only slant but also other angular variables relevant to the biological measurement of surface layout. Even in the absence of hills, people misperceive the angular declination of their gaze systematically in ways that seem to contribute to the vertical expansion of the perceived environment.

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46

Livingston, D. W. Skill Under-utilization. Edited by John Buchanan, David Finegold, Ken Mayhew, and Chris Warhurst. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199655366.013.14.

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This chapter first addresses the challenge of defining dimensions of ‘skill’, especially given contending standpoints. A general overview of the current state of knowledge about the extent of skill under-utilization in advanced capitalist economies is offered, including general theoretical approaches, conceptual dimensions, measurement issues and recent empirical findings. Research on antecedents and effects of under-utilisation is also briefly summarized. The basic conclusion is that under-utilisation (also known as: under-employment, over-education, over-qualification or the education-jobs gap) has become a chronic problem in the labour forces of advanced capitalist economies. Future prospects for research on skill under-utilisation are suggested.

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Bhise, Vikram, Leigh Charvet, and Lauren B. Krupp. Fatigue in Multiple Sclerosis. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199341016.003.0020.

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Fatigue is the most frequent symptom in individuals with multiple sclerosis. Fatigue can be measured with self-report instruments, performance-based measures, or a combination of both. The pathophysiology of fatigue is complicated because it is both intrinsic to the disease and secondary to other disease-related factors. Fatigue has been linked to neuroimaging markers, findings on polysomnography, and experimental test measures of vigilance and attention. Treatment relies primarily on nonpharmacologic interventions including exercise programs, energy conservation, mindfulness, and cognitive behavioral therapy. Most clinical trials with medications have had mixed results. Current research work is focused on improved measurement approaches and innovative treatment strategies.

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Foreman, Peter O., and David A. Whetten. Measuring Organizational Identity. Edited by Michael G. Pratt, Majken Schultz, Blake E. Ashforth, and Davide Ravasi. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199689576.013.3.

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Although the concept of organizational identity has gained currency in the organizational studies literature, and many conceptual issues have been addressed, there is an overall lack of attention to methodological concerns. Specifically, the field lacks a comprehensive and systematic review of how organizational identity is operationalized and measured. Given the disparate uses of the concept and the range of theories employing it, the means of measurement span the gamut of qualitative and quantitative methodologies. In this chapter, we review over 80 studies where organizational identity was operationalized and/or measured. We develop a descriptive classification framework of measurement approaches, noting the distinctive elements of the five major types that result. We then identify key patterns that emerge from the data, leading to insights and observations about the landscape of organizational identity research. We conclude with a discussion of critical implications and directions for future research.

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Cauli, Alberto. Domains and instruments. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198737582.003.0023.

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In order to define and validate standardized outcome measurement tools both for therapeutic trials and for real life clinics, the need to precisely identify the relevant domains of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis has led to the ‘rassemblement’ of experts and patients in the Group for Research and Assessment of Psoriasis and Psoriatic Arthritis (GRAPPA). The output of intensive work, performed according to the Outcome Measures in Rheumatology (OMERACT) scientific method, has been the definition of the key domains and instruments relevant in PsA evaluation. This chapter summarizes the present approach in PsA assessment, focusing on the ‘pathophysiological manifestations’, as well as current ideas regarding future revisions. Patient-related outcome measures and composite scores will be detailed in other chapters.

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Smith, Jeffrey S., Kenneth Small, and Phillip Njoroge. Benchmarking and Bias in Hedge Funds. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190607371.003.0027.

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This chapter discusses investment benchmarking and measurement bias in hedge fund performance. A good benchmark should be unambiguous, investible, measurable, appropriate, reflective of current investment opinions, specified in advance, and accountable. Additionally, a good benchmark should be simple, easily replicable, comparable, and representative of the market that the benchmark is trying to capture. Several biases, such as database selection bias, survivorship bias, style classification bias, backfill bias, self-reporting bias, and return-smoothing bias exist that impede the process of creating a benchmark. These biases increase the difficulty of studying hedge fund returns and managerial skill. However, most of the academic research on hedge fund returns report positive alphas for hedge funds.

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