Relevant bibliographies by topics / International trade – European Economic Community countries

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'International trade – European Economic Community countries'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 10 March 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "International trade – European Economic Community countries"

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Eichenberg, Richard C., and Russell J. Dalton. "Europeans and the European Community: the dynamics of public support for European integration." International Organization 47, no. 4 (1993): 507–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020818300028083.

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Europeans evaluate the European Community (EC) according to its economic performance, political salience, and role in international relations. During the last two decades their measured attitudes toward European integration warmed especially when inflation rates fell, as the EC share of the country's trade expanded, when EC elections and referenda increased attention to the community, and to some extend during periods when East-West relations were relaxed. Europeans did not vary their support according to their countries' shares of the Brussels budget. Thus, notwithstanding Denmark's 1992 rejection of the Maastricht treaty and the end of the cold war, recent EC reforms that increase monetary stability, intra-European trade and political attention are all likely to maintain or increase citizen support for the EC. These findings result from a model that blends comparative political economy with international relations in one of the first applications of pooled cross-sectional and time-series analysis to the comparative study of public opinion.
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McMahon, Joseph A. "International Agricultural Trade Reform and Developing Countries: The Case of the European Community." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 47, no. 3 (July 1998): 632–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020589300062205.

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We are all aware that agriculture is important to developing countries as a source of income, employment and export earnings. To a far greater extent than in the OECD countries, agriculture it central to the economic performance of developing countries and the livelihood of their inhabitants. Rural societies in developing countries are directly dependent on the agricultural sector and urban dwellers rely on agriculture to provide food security and sustainable economic growth. Furthermore, many developing countries heavily rely on the export earnings or are highly dependent on food imports. Given the fact that the poorest and most threatened communities and countries are typically the most highly dependent, the resolution of pressing global agricultural policy and trade issues is critical to sustainable development and poverty alleviation.
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Derado, Dražen. "THE EFFECTS OF TRADE LIBERALISATION AMONG THE SOUTH EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES." Tourism and hospitality management 12, no. 1 (May 2006): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.20867/thm.12.1.1.

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Trade liberalisation brings long-term benefits. Nonetheless, in order to be able to realise those benefits, a creation of a competitive economic structure is required, which would make it possible to successfully participate in the international division of labour. Building from this fact, this paper analyzes the effects of trade liberalisation between the SEEC. To that end, a method of intra-industry trade has been applied on the example of Croatia, in order to establish dynamic effects of changes in trade flows. Low level of trade integration and weak midterm growth prospects in inter-sectoral trade represent the biggest threat for the countries in the Region. The threat could be manifested through rising adjustment costs, as a consequence of trade liberalisation, and could, therefore, jeopardize economic stability. Low level of trade integration poses a problem even from the aspect of the policy of international community towards South East Europe in the framework of the Stability Pact.
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Mardas, Dimitri. "Intra-Industry Trade in Manufactured Products Between the European Economic Community and the Eastern European Countries." Journal of World Trade 26, Issue 5 (October 1, 1992): 5–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad1992028.

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Sekongo, N. B. "PROBLEMS OF TRADE AND ECONOMIC RELATIONS OF WEST AFRICAN COUNTRIES WITH THE EUROPEAN UNION, PROSPECTS FOR THEIR DEVELOPMENT." Vestnik Universiteta, no. 3 (May 29, 2020): 102–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.26425/1816-4277-2020-3-102-110.

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The problems of trade and economic relations between West African countries and the European Union have been considered in the article in detail, a brief description of the Economic Community of West African States has been given. The essence of relationships between West Africa and the European Union based on the papers, both foreign and domestic researchers in the field of security, regional economic development and integration etc. has been disclosed. The historical path within the framework of international legal documentation that preceded the signing of the Economic Partnership Agreement has been described. The conducted study was based on the analysis of the cost dynamics of exports, imports and trade balance, their structure has been briefly adduced. The main negative aspects faced by West African countries in connection with the implementation of the Economic Partnership Agreement, in particular tariff restrictions, the ban on the use of export taxes, which undermines the national sovereignty of the Economic Community of West African States, have been revealed. Nevertheless, the signed Agreement will allow West Africa to actively integrate into world trade, improve the economic and demographic situation, while the overall trade tariff will remain at the same level.
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Bjelic, Predrag. "Model spoljnotrgovinske politike Evropske unije." Ekonomski anali 44, no. 156 (2003): 131–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/eka0356131b.

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When the European Economic Community, the forerunner of the European Union was formed in 1958, it was agreed that the new integration would be a tariff union with common tariffs toward third countries, but also that it would have a common foreign trade policy. As the Union's executive body, the European Commission is responsible for proposing and implementing foreign trade policies. However, the main subject in creating foreign trade policies still remains the Council of Ministers as the EU's main decision-making and legislative body. The Commission negotiates trade agreements with outside countries on behalf of the Union. However, on foreign trade issues the Commission must report to a committee (the "133 Committee"), which assists the Commission in the course of the negotiations and before becoming valid all agreements must be ratified by the Council of Ministers. The Commission ensures that the European Parliament is kept quickly and fully informed at all stages of the negotiation and conclusion of international agreements, in such a way as to enable the Commission to take account of the European Parliament's view, but its role is purely consultative. The EU is trying to establish closer partnership relations with the USA through establishing transatlantic marketplace. However, as the EU is becoming a respectable economic power, an increasing number of trade disputes arise between the EU and the USA. The EU is trying to establish a closer relationship with the European countries since they are candidate countries for EU membership. However, some of them are closer to the membership than others. Therefore the agreements that the EU conclude with certain groups of countries differ among themselves. The EU has special relations with the countries in Africa the Caribbean and the Pacific, former European colonies, that have been granted a preferential treatment allowing preferential trade with the EU. Close relations have been established with countries and regional groups in Latin America as well. The EU has become a significant factor in international economic organizations. However, in order to become an economic power as respectable as the USA and Japan and to give strategic support to its companies in global competition, the EU must integrate politically as well.
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White, John B., Morgan P. Miles, and E. James Randall. "Innovative Financial Technologies To Facilitate Trade With Eastern Europe." Journal of Applied Business Research (JABR) 8, no. 3 (October 4, 2011): 101. http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v8i3.6150.

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The European Economic Community is overshadowing the great market potential of the emerging, newly liberated Eastern Bloc countries. Entering these formerly communist markets is challenging because of a lack of sound economies and weak currencies. This paper develops a model whereby North American businesses enter these markets and accept local currencies for products and services, purchase local goods with the local currency and then sell these goods through international commodity exchanges.
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PĂUN, Nicolae. "The EEC and Comecon: A Difficult Relationship, 1960-1974." Journal of European Integration History 26, no. 1 (2020): 127–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/0947-9511-2020-1-127.

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The degree of economic integration attained within Comecon never came close to the one fostered by the policies within the European Economic Community, notably the Common Commercial Policy. Moreover, the relations between the two entities were hindered by the fact that the Moscow-driven bloc fell short of granting recognition to the EEC, with trade relations being organized in the form of bilateral agreements between countries from both sides of the Iron Curtain, until the mid-1970s. This study chiefly relies on Romanian archives, which demonstrate the specific interests of socialist countries pertaining to the fate of their economic agreements with Western states, set against the background of the institutional progress made by the EEC in shaping its Common Commercial Policy. The attempts by the former to sabotage the Community endeavour are explained through figures indicating the amount of trade conducted with Western countries, but various breaches weakened Comecon’s position.
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Fujisawa, Jun. "The End of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance." Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. History 67, no. 2 (2022): 532–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/11701/spbu02.2022.213.

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This paper analyzes the negotiations within the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance during the final years of its existence, focusing on the Soviet reform proposals and M. S. Gorbachev’s vision of the “Common European Home” as well as on Eastern European reaction to them. In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev tried to found a “unified market” for the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance by introducing a market-oriented reform of the organization. However, this attempt did not materialize because of the East German and Romanian objections. After the collapse of Eastern European socialist regimes in 1989, the Soviet leadership urged the member-states to accelerate the reform of this international organization, hoping to achieve the pan-European economic integration through close cooperation between the totally reformed Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the European Community. Although the Central European countries, namely Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland, aspired to join the EC individually, they agreed to participate in a successor organization of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance because the EC was not ready to accept them. Accordingly, by the beginning of 1991, all the member-states agreed to establish a consultative organization, which would be named the Organization for International Economic Cooperation). However, as the Soviet Union failed to sustain trade with the Central European countries, the three countries lost interest in the project. As a result, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was disbanded without any successor organization. In other words, it did not collapse automatically after 1989 but came to an end as a result of various factors, such as rapidly declining trade between the member-states, Western disinterest in the cooperation with it, and the Central European policy changes.
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KURZER, PAULETTE. "Unemployment in Open Economies." Comparative Political Studies 24, no. 1 (April 1991): 3–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0010414091024001001.

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This article compares variations in the level of unemployment in four small, open economies-Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Sweden. Rather than focusing on the political-institutional differences between these four countries, the article examines international economic variables such as the role of the European Monetary System, the structure of foreign trade, and linkages to international markets to understand the greater deterioration of employment in Belgium and the Netherlands. In turn, the decision to join the European Community and to seek firmer integration into financial markets is attributed to the relatively greater influence of banking capital or the financial sector in the systems of economic policy-making of Belgium and the Netherlands. The article concludes that the detachment of the Austrian and Swedish economies from the European experience in economic integration has greatly helped the Social Democrats in these countries in fulfilling their promises of full employment.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "International trade – European Economic Community countries"

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Perone, Francesco. "Settlement of anti-dumping cases by price undertaking : the European Community and United States practice." Thesis, McGill University, 1995. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=23963.

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The GATT Anti-Dumping Code provides that anti-dumping proceedings may be concluded without the imposition of duties if the exporters of the dumped product offer undertakings which the authorities of the importing country consider acceptable. Undertakings are, in essence, formal commitments by exporters under anti-dumping investigation to abstain from dumping or to ensure that their exports will not injure the domestic producers of the product concerned. In accordance with the GATT rules, he anti-dumping laws of the European Community and the United States contain provisions allowing the anti-dumping authorities to accept price undertakings. In practice, however, the use of undertakings in the two jurisdictions has been considerably different. This thesis analyzes and compares the law and practice of the European Community and the United States with regard to price undertakings.
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Shen, Chyi. "Great power trade competition in East Asian markets /." free to MU campus, to others for purchase, 2000. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/mo/fullcit?p9988699.

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LEAL, ARCAS Rafael. "Theory and practice of EC external trade law and policy." Doctoral thesis, European University Institute, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/13171.

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Defence date: 11 March 2008
Examining board: Prof. Bruno De Witte, European University Institute (Supervisor) ; Prof. Francesca Martines, Faculty of Economics, University of Pisa ; Prof. Petros C. Mavroidis, Columbia Law School, NY and University of Neuchâtel ; Prof. Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, European University Institute
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Both the European Community (EC) and its Member States agree that it is in their best interest to coordinate their action vis-à-vis the rest of the world in international trade agreements. Theory and Practice of EC External Trade Law and Policy looks at the intricacies of the institutional framework of EC trade law, and with special emphasis on services trade, examines the law and practice of EC external trade relations from a policy, economic, legal and an overarching European constitutional perspective. The objective of the author’s analysis is not only to find ways to nurture and preserve the unitary character of EC external trade relations in areas of shared competence between EU Member States and EU institutions, but also to understand the management of the EC’s external trade relations. The book begins with an analysis of the evolution of the EC common commercial policy, through which the author examines the checks and balances at the micro, meso and macro levels. The author then proceeds to analyse the problems faced by the EU in its external relations and the legal complexity of mixed agreements. This unique legal phenomenon is tackled from an intra-EC perspective as well as from an extra-EU perspective taking into account various implications for third parties. The major EU institutions are examined: the Commission as the negotiator of international trade agreements, the role of the EU Council and the European Parliament in concluding and ratifying of agreements and the European Court of Justice in relation to judicial enforcement. The EU’s decision-making process in the trade arena and its relation with national institutions are examined. The book concludes with an analysis of the EC’s contribution to the Doha Round in the area of services trade.
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Gabrielsson-Kjäll, Frida, and Maria Ädel. "The Impact of the EU GSP Agreement on the Andean Countries' Trade Flows." Thesis, Jönköping University, JIBS, Economics, 2010. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-12342.

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The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the impact of the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) agreement on the export from the Andean Community (AC) to the European Union (EU) between the years 1995 to 2000. The GSP agreement enables developing countries to face lower- or no tariffs when exporting to developed countries. According to Ricardian theory, Heckscher-Ohlin theory, and New Trade theory decreased trade barriers tend to have a positive effect on trade. When analyzing the trade flow between these countries using the gravity model the outcome is found to be consistent with the theories i.e the results show that the GSP agreement implemented in 1995 has had a positive impact on trade.

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Notaro, Nicola. "Judicial approaches to trade and environment : the EC and the WTO /." London : Cameron May, 2003. http://lib.hku.hk/hkspc/wto/index.html.

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Müller, Ralf. "Europäische Entwicklungspolitik zwischen gemeinschaftlicher Handelspolitik, intergouvernementaler Außenpolitik und ökonomischer Effizienz /." Frankfurt am Main [u. a.] : Lang, 2007. http://www.gbv.de/dms/zbw/523584253.pdf.

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Horne, Cynthia Michalski. "Are NMEs our enemies? : non-market economies and western trade policies /." Thesis, Connect to this title online; UW restricted, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/1773/10703.

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Marinova, Yona Georgieva. "Bifurcation of parallel trade in the European Community." Thesis, University of Aberdeen, 2008. http://digitool.abdn.ac.uk:80/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=25821.

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This thesis examines the regulation of parallel imports of trade marked goods in the European Community (EC), demonstrates its deficiencies and advocates its amendment by the Community legislator. The thesis identifies as a primary characteristic of the regulation the bifurcation of intra-EC and extra-EC parallel importation, that is to say, the fundamental divergence of the regimes of parallel imports coming from another EC Member State and imports coming from third countries.  The split as to the rationale, justification and outcome of the two regimes is so substantial that it is viewed as the existence of ‘parallel regulations on parallel trade’ in the Community. The study establishes four different manifestations of this bifurcation, the most evident one concerning the fact that while internal imports are lawful under EC law, external ones could be repelled by the mark owner as trade mark infringement.  It is submitted that this variable legal tolerance to parallel trade has been legitimised through the Community rule of limited, regional exhaustion of trade mark rights and the manner in which the European Court of Justice has interpreted its application. Against this background, the thesis raises three groups of legal arguments for reviewing the current Community exhaustion policy and implementing a rule of international trade mark exhaustion.  They relate to trade mark law, competition law and certain proclamations of the importance of free unrestricted global trade, made by the Community on international level and in the EC context as well. Finally, the study complements the above legal arguments with socio-economic justifications in support of international exhaustion.  The research suggests that the Community should consider the implementation of international trade mark exhaustion and carry out the necessary preparatory steps outlined by the study in this regard.
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Marinova, Yona Georgieva. "Bufurcation [sic] of parallel trade in the European Community /." Available from the University of Aberdeen Library and Historic Collections Digital Resources. Restricted access until May 22, 2014, 2008. http://digitool.abdn.ac.uk:80/webclient/DeliveryManager?application=DIGITOOL-3&owner=resourcediscovery&custom_att_2=simple_viewer&pid=25821.

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Cross, Peter John. "Negotiating a comprehensive long-term relationship between South Africa and the European Union: from free trade to trade and development." Thesis, Rhodes University, 1997. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1002978.

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On 10 May 1994 the European Union offeredSouth Africa a package of measures to ... send a strong political signal to the incoming govemment and to the South African population, thus proving its firm determination to support the transition towards democracy and its willingness to contribute to the reconstruction and economic development of South Africa after the elections. This package consisted of two parts: 1. A series of short term implementations to take place with immediate effect to help South Africa's development and transition, and 2. An offer to negotiate a comprehensive long-term relationship with South Africa should the new government so request. South Africa accepted the European Union's offer to negotiate a long-term relationship, and in response requested membership of the structure governing the Union's relations with the rest of the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and some countries in the Caribbean and Pacific, namely the Lomé Convention. Due to various incompatibilities South Africa was not allowed to join this organisation. In its place the European Union offered to negotiate an agreement with South Africa that would lead to a Free Trade Area. This agreement was in keeping with the rules as laid down by the World Trade Organisation. It envisaged the lowering of tariffs and trade barriers between the Union and South Africa over a period not exceeding 12 years, allowing for asymmetry in terms of time constraints in implementation only. South Africa saw this type of agreement as inconsistent with the desire expressed by the European Union to support the countries development and the integration of the Southern African region. In its place South Africa proposed a new concept in trade agreement, this concept, known as the Trade and Development Agreement, embodied both trade liberalisation and support for development. This agreement would introduce a new paradigm of thought to govern trade between developed countries and developing countries within the World Trade Organisation's rules. This paper explores the events that unfolded in these negotiations. It attempts to discover whether, in the current global environment, it is possible, or beneficial, for the developed world to act in an altruistic manner towards another state in order to assist its development.
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Books on the topic "International trade – European Economic Community countries"

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1950-, Harper Timothy, ed. United States-European Community trade resources. New York: J. Wiley, 1993.

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F, Bonser Charles, ed. Security, trade, and environmental policy: A US/European Union transatlantic agenda. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2000.

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Peter, Coffey, and Lago, Luiz A. Corrêa do, eds. The EEC and Brazil: Trade, capital investment, and the debt problem. London: Pinter Publishers, 1988.

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EC competition law. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

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G, Goyder D., ed. EC competition law. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993.

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Berhanu, Abegaz, ed. The challenge of European integration: Internal and external problems of trade and money. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1994.

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Davenport, Michael. Europe: 1992 and the developing world. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1991.

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1946-, Page Sheila, and Overseas Development Institute, eds. Europe: 1992 and the developing world. London: Overseas Development Institute, 1991.

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Hayward, David J. International trade and regional economies: The impacts of European integration on the United States. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1995.

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Hayward, David J. International trade and regional economies: The impacts of European integration on the United States. Oxford: Westview Press, 1995.

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Book chapters on the topic "International trade – European Economic Community countries"

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Macbean, A. I., and P. N. Snowden. "The European Economic Community." In International Institutions in Trade and Finance, 145–72. London: Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003226987-8.

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Naef, Tobias. "Restrictions on Data Transfers and Trade Agreements." In European Yearbook of International Economic Law, 367–420. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19893-9_5.

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AbstractIn reaction to the stalemate in the multilateral trading system, international governance of digital trade has gradually shifted toward bilateral and regional trade agreements. This allowed countries to start to regulating cross-border flows of personal data outside the WTO framework. The first section of this chapter traces the development of data flow clauses in the trade agreements of the EU, the US, and other countries. It also looks at the negotiations of the big trade agreements in the late 2010s, such as the TTIP, the TiSA, and the TPP (Sect. 5.1). The second section outlines the scope for data flow clauses in the trade agreements of the EU based on different legal requirements stemming from the architecture of EU law, the GDPR, and other regulations. These requirements include the primacy of fundamental rights over international law with regard to the right to continuous protection of personal data in Article 8 CFR, the accommodation of the legal mechanisms for the transfer of personal data in the GDPR, the inclusion of cooperation mechanisms on the basis of Article 50 GDPR, and the ban of data localization requirements beyond data protection and privacy concerns. These legal requirements are necessary to consider when drafting data flow clauses for EU trade agreements (Sect. 5.2). The third section of this chapter offers and analyzes four potential designs for data flow clauses for EU trade agreements (Sect. 5.3). The fourth section is dedicated to the analysis of the EU model data flow clauses that the European Commission introduced as a template for future trade negotiations in 2018 (Sect. 5.4).
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Opoku Awuku, Emmanuel. "Developing and Least-Developed Countries and Mega-Regional Trade and Investment Agreements." In European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2016, 615–26. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29215-1_28.

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Angwenyi, Vincent. "The Tripartite Free Trade Area: A Step Closer to the African Economic Community?" In European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2016, 589–613. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29215-1_27.

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Rabinovych, Maryna. "EU Free Trade Agreements as an Instrument of Promoting the Rule of Law in Third Countries: A Framework Paper." In European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2019, 285–314. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/8165_2019_31.

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Glejser, Herbert. "The Effect of Prices on Trade during the First Twelve Years of the European Community." In International Trade, Foreign Direct Investment and the Economic Environment, 31–40. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-14030-5_3.

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Desta, Melaku Geboye. "Trade in Agricultural Products: Should Developing Countries Give Up on the WTO Promise for a Fair and Market-Oriented Agricultural Trading System? A Historical and Theoretical Analysis." In European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2016, 67–102. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29215-1_4.

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Deltuvaitė, Vilma. "Consequences of External Macroeconomic Shocks Transmission Through International Trade Channel: The Case of the Central and Eastern European Countries." In Advances in Panel Data Analysis in Applied Economic Research, 631–55. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70055-7_45.

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Jinji, Naoto, Xingyuan Zhang, and Shoji Haruna. "Trade Patterns and International Technology Spillovers: Theory and Evidence from Japanese and European Patent Citations." In Advances in Japanese Business and Economics, 71–97. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5210-3_5.

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AbstractInternational diffusion of knowledge is important to both the speed of the world’s technology frontier expansion and income convergence across countries. For example, Eaton and Kortum (1996) estimate innovation and technology diffusion among 19 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries to test predictions from a quality ladders model of endogenous growth with patenting.
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Lourenço, Paulo B., Jorge M. Branco, and Ana Coelho. "Sustainability and Cultural Heritage Buildings." In Sustainable Structural Engineering, 53–68. Zurich, Switzerland: International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE), 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.2749/sed014.053.

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<p>Conservation of cultural heritage buildings is a demand from society, which recognizes this heritage as a part of their identity, but it is also an economic issue. In Europe, tourism accounts for 10% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and 12% of the employment, if linked sectors are considered. The European Union (EU) is the world’s number one tourist destination, with 40% of arrivals in the world and with seven European countries among the top ten. According to the World Trade Organization (WTO) estimates, international tourist arrivals in Europe will increase signifi cantly. The built European heritage, namely monuments or historical centres, is a main attractor for tourism, with 45% of the United Nations Educational, Scientifi c and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage sites situated within the EU. Therefore, the need for their conservation is unquestionable.</p>
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Conference papers on the topic "International trade – European Economic Community countries"

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Öngel, Volkan. "An Alternative Foreign Trade Market for Turkey: The Eurasian Economic Community." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c01.00222.

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The Eurasian Economic Community (EEC) is an international organization that has been created by five Commonwealth of İndependent States countries (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan) on October 10th,2000. The object of this organization was promote the creation of a customs union and the common economic space. After ten years in 2010, three countries (Belarus, Russia and Kazakhstan) made a custom union agreement as a second step. And the target is to establish a common economic space by 1 January 2012, a single market for goods, investment and labor. This custom union creates a common market of 170 million people with a $2 trillion economy, $900 billion trade and 90 billion barrels of oil reserves. This three countries have a strategic geopolitical position, rich producer goods reserves:especially oil and natural gas. The economic structure of this three countries can be explain as consumer goods importer, producer goods exporter. This is the exact opposite of European Union economic structure. Therefore, this paper argues that The Eurasian Economic Community would be a good foreign trade market alternative of EU for Turkey. Hence this paper tries to analyse the trade opportunities of this market for Turkey’s export. This paper based on the statistical foreign trade datas of relevant countries.
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Sofyalıoğlu, Çiğdem, and Burak Kartal. "A Comparison and some Suggestions for Turkey’s and Eurasian Economic Community Countries’ Logistic Performance Index Scores." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c04.00766.

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Turkey is a bridge between Asia and Europe and this fact provides an opportunity for Turkey, whose exports mostly go to Europe, to diversify its export markets. In this geography, cooperation and integration are needed to sustain and to flourish economic activities. In that sense, Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEc) is one of the most important economic integrations in the world considering the initiatives of becoming a Customs Union. EurAsEc includes five member and three observer countries while some other Eurasian countries are expected to join this community in the years to come due to its potential advantages. The members of are positive towards a cooperation with Turkey which has a strategic role in many important transport corridors within the Western Europe-Asia transit transport framework. Anyway, the development of international trade depends on logistic performance, logistic infrastructure and effectiveness of logistic sectors of the countries in this region. Therefore, Turkey and EurAsEc countries need to cooperate in overcoming logistics problems to develop international trade. Bearing that in mind, we compared logistic performance indexes of Turkey and EurAsEc countries in our study and we discussed what can be done to improve logistic activities in the region within the framework of mutual cooperation. The findings indicate that a better logistics infrastructure should be available throughout the EurAsEC countries and it is essential to adopt transit pass by EurAsEc countries and to improve the information technology infrastructure to accelerate customs transition.
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Aanstoos, Ted A. "Management Challenges in Emerging European Union Eco-Standards." In ASME 2004 Power Conference. ASMEDC, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/power2004-52115.

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The European Union is 450 million citizens in 25 otherwise sovereign countries, but connected in a multinational federal metastate that claims a combined economy in excess of $9 trillion (US), making it one of the world’s largest economies. As a community faced with massive decontamination and re-industrialization from devastating wars, Europe places due emphasis on issues of environmental sustainability and pollution prevention. Under broad policy guidelines of the New Approach and Integrated Product Planning frameworks, the European Commission is drafting legislation that will mandate eco-standards for all energized end-use equipment for sale in the internal market. These proposed standards may raise controversy in many industry sectors and international arenas (including within Europe itself) because they may not be based on sound and accepted scientific analysis, because they may constitute a de-facto violation at least in spirit of the Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement, and because nobody can yet predict their cost impact and other market effect. Compliance with these emerging energy efficiency regulations will impose considerable management requirements on manufacturers as they devise documentation and certification programs for their products that are likely to be of a scope similar to ISO 14000. This paper assesses the new requirements from a product and design management perspective.
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ZHANG, QIAN-NAN, XIAO-NA HE, and MIRAJ AHMED BHUIYAN. "AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF TRADE STATUS AND DETERMINANTS BETWEEN CHINA AND "ONE BELT- ONE ROAD" COUNTRIES-BASED ON TRADE GRAVITY MODEL." In 2021 International Conference on Management, Economics, Business and Information Technology. Destech Publications, Inc., 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.12783/dtem/mebit2021/35616.

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“One Road-One Belt”, (Belt and Road Initiative, BRI) reminiscent of the Silk Road, is a massive infrastructure and trade project, initiated by China; that would stretch from East Asia to Europe, somehow recognized by the international community. Despite of criticism of this project, it is considered as an effective tool for promoting regional and bilateral trade deals. In this paper we have pointed out the problems that hindered the bilateral trades among countries along the route. Based on Trade gravity Model; bilateral trade model between China and the countries along the “Belt and Road” was empirically tested in the article, followed by some suggestions.
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Savrul, Mesut, and Ahmet İncekara. "Do Economic Integrations Improve E-Commerce Performance in Member States? A Study on the European Single Market." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c14.02674.

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Many of the international trade theories hold the view that reducing the barriers to foreign trade will result in an increase in welfare in all the countries that are party to the trade. The regional integrations established in different parts of the world in the period following the Second World War enabled this theory to be translated into practice, at least on a regional basis. The European Single Market, which was founded in 1993, is significantly different from the economic integrations established in the aforementioned period by incorporating many innovations. One of these innovations is that the Digital Single Market strategy pursues to guarantee better access for customers and enterprises to online goods and services across Europe, which was put into effect in 2015. The contribution of economic integrations on e-commerce performance of the member countries has been examined in the context of the European Single Market in this study. In the study, e-commerce statistics of the European Single Market countries covering the years 2010-2021 and the Digital Economy and Society Index covering the years 2017-2022 were used. The data is collected from Eurostat, Benchmarking Digital Europe and European Commission, Digital Scoreboard databases. The results of the study present that the Digital Single Market Strategy has contributed to the less developed countries of the Single Market rather than the developed countries.
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Mačiulytė-Šniukienė, Alma, and Aurelija Burinskienė. "Logistics and international trade development relationship: evidence of European Union member states." In 11th International Scientific Conference „Business and Management 2020“. VGTU Technika, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/bm.2020.524.

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International trade (IT) is recognised as one of the driving forces for business and the growth of countries’ economic. The amount of IT flows is contributed by the “logistics revolution”. According to the conceptual approach, the development of transportation modes, logistics infrastructure may facilitate in-ternational trade. However, it remains unclear whether logistic performance changes contribute to IT flows since the number of researches that examine the effect of logistic performance on IT is limited. So, this paper aims to determine whether the flows of IT are contingent on logistics performance. The research re-lies on panel data of 28 European Union (EU) Member States (MS) over 2007–2016. The results of our investigation confirmed that the changes of logistics performance positively related to IT flow of EU MS, but this impact differs across countries.
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Koç, Neslihan. "Analyzing the Foreing Trade Relations of Turkey and Macedonia within the Framework of Free Trade Agreement." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c05.00965.

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Turkey, because of its responsibilities derived from Custom Union with European Union, makes limited Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with those states which have already signed such agreements with EU. As yet Turkey has signed FTAs with 19 countries including Macedonia. It's expected from FTA's that raise awareness of partner countries about each other’s economic and commercial potentials. In this study a general overview will be made to emphasize the relationship between FTAs which Turkey has signed with other countries and increase in Turkey’s trade volume in the same period. Subsequently, with regarding the FTA and commercial relations with Macedonia, an assessment will be made by using the lists of countries imports and exports, based on Republic of Turkey Ministry of Economy statistics for the period of 2001-2012.
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Shalygina, Natalya, Natalya Zaitseva, Maksim Selyukov, and Ol’ga Znajdenova. "Development of Trade and Economic Relations of Russia with the Countries of the European Union: Problems and Prospects." In 8th International Conference on Contemporary Problems in the Development of Economic, Financial and Credit Systems (DEFCS 2020). Paris, France: Atlantis Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/aebmr.k.201215.030.

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Falchenko, Oksana, Irina Savelyeva, and Veronika Vyazovskaya. "Transformation of the Pskov Region`s Border Trade with the European Countries under the Application of Special Economic Measures." In Proceedings of the International Scientific-Practical Conference “Business Cooperation as a Resource of Sustainable Economic Development and Investment Attraction” (ISPCBC 2019). Paris, France: Atlantis Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/ispcbc-19.2019.91.

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Çeştepe, Hamza, and Tamer Güven. "Disincentive Factors for Transformation of the Economic Cooperation Organization to Regional Integration: An Assessment Regarding Intra-regional Trade." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c04.00745.

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In this study, the structure and level of intra-regional trade in Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), which is a movement of regional cooperation founded in the Western and Central Asia region, has been analyzed. In ECO, with a share below its potential at the world trade, intra-regional trade is low relative to other regional integrations such as the European Union. However, the volume of intra-regional trade in the region countries, except a few countries, tend to increase in recent years. In this study, as a result of the evaluation made by the indices calculated, it was found that the region countries is in the position of more complementary economies in context of foreign trade; the countries has generally a high trade intensity with its neighbors; intra-industry trade in the region is at low level. As a result, although the level and structure of intra-regional trade in ECO region seems to be disincentive for the transformation to regional integration as of today, recent developments suggest that this obstacle will gradually diminish in the future. In addition, if some of advantages and potential of the region in terms of regional integration can be valued it does not seem very difficult to reach more advanced stages of integration for this cooperation movement.
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Reports on the topic "International trade – European Economic Community countries"

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Russo, Margherita, Fabrizio Alboni, Jorge Carreto Sanginés, Manlio De Domenico, Giuseppe Mangioni, Simone Righi, and Annamaria Simonazzi. The Changing Shape of the World Automobile Industry: A Multilayer Network Analysis of International Trade in Components and Parts. Institute for New Economic Thinking Working Paper Series, January 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.36687/inetwp173.

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In 2018, after 25 years of the North America Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the United States requested new rules which, among other requirements, increased the regional con-tent in the production of automotive components and parts traded between the three part-ner countries, United States, Canada and Mexico. Signed by all three countries, the new trade agreement, USMCA, is to go into force in 2022. Nonetheless, after the 2020 Presi-dential election, the new treaty's future is under discussion, and its impact on the automo-tive industry is not entirely defined. Another significant shift in this industry – the acceler-ated rise of electric vehicles – also occurred in 2020: while the COVID-19 pandemic largely halted most plants in the automotive value chain all over the world, at the reopen-ing, the tide is now running against internal combustion engine vehicles, at least in the an-nouncements and in some large investments planned in Europe, Asia and the US. The definition of the pre-pandemic situation is a very helpful starting point for the analysis of the possible repercussions of the technological and geo-political transition, which has been accelerated by the epidemic, on geographical clusters and sectorial special-isations of the main regions and countries. This paper analyses the trade networks emerg-ing in the past 25 years in a new analytical framework. In the economic literature on inter-national trade, the study of the automotive global value chains has been addressed by us-ing network analysis, focusing on the centrality of geographical regions and countries while largely overlooking the contribution of countries' bilateral trading in components and parts as structuring forces of the subnetwork of countries and their specific position in the overall trade network. The paper focuses on such subnetworks as meso-level structures emerging in trade network over the last 25 years. Using the Infomap multilayer clustering algorithm, we are able to identify clusters of countries and their specific trades in the automotive internation-al trade network and to highlight the relative importance of each cluster, the interconnec-tions between them, and the contribution of countries and of components and parts in the clusters. We draw the data from the UN Comtrade database of directed export and import flows of 30 automotive components and parts among 42 countries (accounting for 98% of world trade flows of those items). The paper highlights the changes that occurred over 25 years in the geography of the trade relations, with particular with regard to denser and more hierarchical network gener-ated by Germany’s trade relations within EU countries and by the US preferential trade agreements with Canada and Mexico, and the upsurge of China. With a similar overall va-riety of traded components and parts within the main clusters (dominated respectively by Germany, US and Japan-China), the Infomap multilayer analysis singles out which com-ponents and parts determined the relative positions of countries in the various clusters and the changes over time in the relative positions of countries and their specialisations in mul-tilateral trades. Connections between clusters increase over time, while the relative im-portance of the main clusters and of some individual countries change significantly. The focus on US and Mexico and on Germany and Central Eastern European countries (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia) will drive the comparative analysis.
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Jones, Emily, Beatriz Kira, Anna Sands, and Danilo B. Garrido Alves. The UK and Digital Trade: Which way forward? Blavatnik School of Government, February 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.35489/bsg-wp-2021/038.

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The internet and digital technologies are upending global trade. Industries and supply chains are being transformed, and the movement of data across borders is now central to the operation of the global economy. Provisions in trade agreements address many aspects of the digital economy – from cross-border data flows, to the protection of citizens’ personal data, and the regulation of the internet and new technologies like artificial intelligence and algorithmic decision-making. The UK government has identified digital trade as a priority in its Global Britain strategy and one of the main sources of economic growth to recover from the pandemic. It wants the UK to play a leading role in setting the international standards and regulations that govern the global digital economy. The regulation of digital trade is a fast-evolving and contentious issue, and the US, European Union (EU), and China have adopted different approaches. Now that the UK has left the EU, it will need to navigate across multiple and often conflicting digital realms. The UK needs to decide which policy objectives it will prioritise, how to regulate the digital economy domestically, and how best to achieve its priorities when negotiating international trade agreements. There is an urgent need to develop a robust, evidence-based approach to the UK’s digital trade strategy that takes into account the perspectives of businesses, workers, and citizens, as well as the approaches of other countries in the global economy. This working paper aims to inform UK policy debates by assessing the state of play in digital trade globally. The authors present a detailed analysis of five policy areas that are central to discussions on digital trade for the UK: cross-border data flows and privacy; internet access and content regulation; intellectual property and innovation; e-commerce (including trade facilitation and consumer protection); and taxation (customs duties on e-commerce and digital services taxes). In each of these areas the authors compare and contrast the approaches taken by the US, EU and China, discuss the public policy implications, and examine the choices facing the UK.
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Dudoit, Alain, Molivann Panot, and Thierry Warin. Towards a multi-stakeholder Intermodal Trade-Transportation Data-Sharing and Knowledge Exchange Network. CIRANO, December 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.54932/mvne7282.

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The performance of supply chains used to be mainly the concern of academics and professionals who studied the potential efficiencies and risks associated with this aspect of globalisation. In 2021, major disruptions in this critical sector of our economies are making headlines and attracting the attention of policy makers around the world. Supply chain bottlenecks create shortages, fuel inflation, and undermine economic recovery. This report provides a transversal and multidisciplinary analysis of the challenges and opportunities regarding data interoperability and data sharing as they relate to the ‘Great Lakes - St. Lawrence Seaway Trade Corridor’ (GLSLTC)’s intermodal transportation and trade data strategy. The size and scope of this trade corridor are only matched by the complexity of its multimodal freight transportation systems and growing urbanization on both sides of the Canada-US border. This complexity is exacerbated by the lack of data interoperability and effective collaborations between the different stakeholders within the various jurisdictions and amongst them. Our analytical work relies on : 1) A review of the relevant documentation on the latest challenges to supply chains (SC), intermodal freight transport and international trade, identifying any databases that are to be used.; 2) A comparative review of selected relevant initiatives to give insights into the best practices in digital supply chains implemented in Canada, the United States, and the European Union.; 3) Interviews and discussions with experts from Transport Canada, Statistics Canada, the Canadian Centre on Transportation Data (CCTD) and Global Affairs Canada, as well as with CIRANO’s research community and four partner institutions to identify databases and data that they use in their research related to transportation and trade relevant data availabilities and methodologies as well as joint research opportunities. Its main findings can be summarized as follow: GLSLTC is characterized by its critical scale, complexity, and strategic impact as North America’s most vital trade corridor in the foreseeable further intensification of continental trade. 4% of Canadian GDP is attributed to the Transportation and Logistics sector (2018): $1 trillion of goods moved every year: Goods and services imports are equivalent to 33% of Canada’s GDP and goods and services exports equivalent to 32%. The transportation sector is a key contributor to the achievement of net-zero emissions commitment by 2050. All sectors of the Canadian economy are affected by global supply chain disruptions. Uncertainty and threats extend well beyond the COVID-19 Pandemic. “De-globalization” and increasing supply chains regionalization pressures are mounting. Innovation and thus economic performance—increasingly hinges on the quantity and quality of data. Data is transforming Canada’s economy/society and is now at the center of global trade “Transport data is becoming less available: Canada needs to make data a priority for a national transportation strategy.” * “How the Government of Canada collects, manages, and governs data—and how it accesses and shares data with other governments, sectors, and Canadians—must change.”
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Braithwait, Samuel, Ricardo Rozemberg, and Jesica De Angelis. CARICOM Report: Progress and Challenges of The Integration Agenda. Inter-American Development Bank, December 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0002912.

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The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) was established in 1973 as a customs union and nowadays consists of 15 member countries. CARICOM includes member and non-members of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), an economic union with free movement of people and goods, a single currency, and a common central bank. This report is the third in a series of INTAL publications on regional integration on the CaribbeanREPORT Community and covers the period 2005 to 2020. After a brief background to the CARICOM integration project and a look at the economy and international trade, this report focuses on the main issues and developments relating to the deepening of integration within CARICOM and crucial relationships with external partners. The final section concludes with an assessment of the short-term adverse impacts of the pandemic and summarizes a set of recommendations to tackle the main issues.
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Monetary Policy Report - July 2022. Banco de la República, October 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.32468/inf-pol-mont-eng.tr3-2022.

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In the second quarter, annual inflation (9.67%), the technical staff’s projections and its expectations continued to increase, remaining above the target. International cost shocks, accentuated by Russia's invasion of Ukraine, have been more persistent than projected, thus contributing to higher inflation. The effects of indexation, higher than estimated excess demand, a tighter labor market, inflation expectations that continue to rise and currently exceed 3%, and the exchange rate pressures add to those described above. High core inflation measures as well as in the producer price index (PPI) across all baskets confirm a significant spread in price increases. Compared to estimates presented in April, the new forecast trajectory for headline and core inflation increased. This was partly the result of greater exchange rate pressure on prices, and a larger output gap, which is expected to remain positive for the remainder of 2022 and which is estimated to close towards yearend 2023. In addition, these trends take into account higher inflation rate indexation, more persistent above-target inflation expectations, a quickening of domestic fuel price increases due to the correction of lags versus the parity price and higher international oil price forecasts. The forecast supposes a good domestic supply of perishable foods, although it also considers that international prices of processed foods will remain high. In terms of the goods sub-basket, the end of the national health emergency implies a reversal of the value-added tax (VAT) refund applied to health and personal hygiene products, resulting in increases in the prices of these goods. Alternatively, the monetary policy adjustment process and the moderation of external shocks would help inflation and its expectations to begin to decrease over time and resume their alignment with the target. Thus, the new projection suggests that inflation could remain high for the second half of 2022, closing at 9.7%. However, it would begin to fall during 2023, closing the year at 5.7%. These forecasts are subject to significant uncertainty, especially regarding the future behavior of external cost shocks, the degree of indexation of nominal contracts and decisions made regarding the domestic price of fuels. Economic activity continues to outperform expectations, and the technical staff’s growth projections for 2022 have been revised upwards from 5% to 6.9%. The new forecasts suggest higher output levels that would continue to exceed the economy’s productive capacity for the remainder of 2022. Economic growth during the first quarter was above that estimated in April, while economic activity indicators for the second quarter suggest that the GDP could be expected to remain high, potentially above that of the first quarter. Domestic demand is expected to maintain a positive dynamic, in particular, due to the household consumption quarterly growth, as suggested by vehicle registrations, retail sales, credit card purchases and consumer loan disbursement figures. A slowdown in the machinery and equipment imports from the levels observed in March contrasts with the positive performance of sales and housing construction licenses, which indicates an investment level similar to that registered for the first three months of the year. International trade data suggests the trade deficit would be reduced as a consequence of import levels that would be lesser than those observed in the first quarter, and stable export levels. For the remainder of the year and 2023, a deceleration in consumption is expected from the high levels seen during the first half of the year, partially as a result of lower repressed demand, tighter domestic financial conditions and household available income deterioration due to increased inflation. Investment is expected to continue its slow recovery while remaining below pre-pandemic levels. The trade deficit is expected to tighten due to projected lower domestic demand dynamics, and high prices of oil and other basic goods exported by the country. Given the above, economic growth in the second quarter of 2022 would be 11.5%, and for 2022 and 2023 an annual growth of 6.9% and 1.1% is expected, respectively. Currently, and for the remainder of 2022, the output gap would be positive and greater than that estimated in April, and prices would be affected by demand pressures. These projections continue to be affected by significant uncertainty associated with global political tensions, the expected adjustment of monetary policy in developed countries, external demand behavior, changes in country risk outlook, and the future developments in domestic fiscal policy, among others. The high inflation levels and respective expectations, which exceed the target of the world's main central banks, largely explain the observed and anticipated increase in their monetary policy interest rates. This environment has tempered the growth forecast for external demand. Disruptions in value chains, rising international food and energy prices, and expansionary monetary and fiscal policies have contributed to the rise in inflation and above-target expectations seen by several of Colombia’s main trading partners. These cost and price shocks, heightened by the effects of Russia's invasion of Ukraine, have been more prevalent than expected and have taken place within a set of output and employment recovery, variables that in some countries currently equal or exceed their projected long-term levels. In response, the U.S. Federal Reserve accelerated the pace of the benchmark interest rate increase and rapidly reduced liquidity levels in the money market. Financial market actors expect this behavior to continue and, consequently, significantly increase their expectations of the average path of the Fed's benchmark interest rate. In this setting, the U.S. dollar appreciated versus the peso in the second quarter and emerging market risk measures increased, a behavior that intensified for Colombia. Given the aforementioned, for the remainder of 2022 and 2023, the Bank's technical staff increased the forecast trajectory for the Fed's interest rate and reduced the country's external demand growth forecast. The projected oil price was revised upward over the forecast horizon, specifically due to greater supply restrictions and the interruption of hydrocarbon trade between the European Union and Russia. Global geopolitical tensions, a tightening of monetary policy in developed economies, the increase in risk perception for emerging markets and the macroeconomic imbalances in the country explain the increase in the projected trajectory of the risk premium, its trend level and the neutral real interest rate1. Uncertainty about external forecasts and their consequent impact on the country's macroeconomic scenario remains high, given the unpredictable evolution of the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, geopolitical tensions, the degree of the global economic slowdown and the effect the response to recent outbreaks of the pandemic in some Asian countries may have on the world economy. This macroeconomic scenario that includes high inflation, inflation forecasts, and expectations above 3% and a positive output gap suggests the need for a contractionary monetary policy that mitigates the risk of the persistent unanchoring of inflation expectations. In contrast to the forecasts of the April report, the increase in the risk premium trend implies a higher neutral real interest rate and a greater prevailing monetary stimulus than previously estimated. For its part, domestic demand has been more dynamic, with a higher observed and expected output level that exceeds the economy’s productive capacity. The surprising accelerations in the headline and core inflation reflect stronger and more persistent external shocks, which, in combination with the strength of aggregate demand, indexation, higher inflation expectations and exchange rate pressures, explain the upward projected inflation trajectory at levels that exceed the target over the next two years. This is corroborated by the inflation expectations of economic analysts and those derived from the public debt market, which continued to climb and currently exceed 3%. All of the above increase the risk of unanchoring inflation expectations and could generate widespread indexation processes that may push inflation away from the target for longer. This new macroeconomic scenario suggests that the interest rate adjustment should continue towards a contractionary monetary policy landscape. 1.2. Monetary policy decision Banco de la República’s Board of Directors (BDBR), at its meetings in June and July 2022, decided to continue adjusting its monetary policy. At its June meeting, the BDBR decided to increase the monetary policy rate by 150 basis points (b.p.) and its July meeting by majority vote, on a 150 b.p. increase thereof at its July meeting. Consequently, the monetary policy interest rate currently stands at 9.0% . 1 The neutral real interest rate refers to the real interest rate level that is neither stimulative nor contractionary for aggregate demand and, therefore, does not generate pressures that lead to the close of the output gap. In a small, open economy like Colombia, this rate depends on the external neutral real interest rate, medium-term components of the country risk premium, and expected depreciation. Box 1: A Weekly Indicator of Economic Activity for Colombia Juan Pablo Cote Carlos Daniel Rojas Nicol Rodriguez Box 2: Common Inflationary Trends in Colombia Carlos D. Rojas-Martínez Nicolás Martínez-Cortés Franky Juliano Galeano-Ramírez Box 3: Shock Decomposition of 2021 Forecast Errors Nicolás Moreno Arias
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