Academic literature on the topic 'Intergenerational Childcare'
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Journal articles on the topic "Intergenerational Childcare"
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Cardia, Emanuela, and Serena Ng. "Intergenerational time transfers and childcare." Review of Economic Dynamics 6, no. 2 (April 2003): 431–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1094-2025(03)00009-7.
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Samsudin, Intan Liana, Syed Iskandar Ariffin, and Maimunah Sapri. "INTERGENERATIONAL PROGRAM AND CARE: ANALYSIS OF MALAYSIA INTERGENERATIONAL MODULES, POLICIES AND GUIDELINES." International Journal of Law, Government and Communication 7, no. 27 (March 10, 2022): 13–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.35631/ijlgc.727002.
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Globally, there is growing interest in strengthening intergenerational connectivity through intergenerational practices. Intergenerational practice is one of the solutions to support the social and emotional needs of a senior citizen. The rationale of intergenerational learning is essential to provide benefits for the young and the older generations while offering mutual benefits through activity. Although the intergenerational exchange exists in Malaysia, there is still a lack of evidence on the program and care modules. The research aims to analyse the evidence of modules, policies, and guidelines related to Malaysia's intergenerational program. The research objectives are to identify intergenerational historical development and modules, review intergenerational policies and care facilities' guidelines. The focus policies and guidelines review are related to social, senior citizen, and childcare scope through the content analysis method. The result shows that the community-based intergenerational module is the preference for intergenerational development in Malaysia. The intergenerational aged care module typology can be further enhanced and extended to childcare facility building as one of the alternatives to the existing intergenerational care module.
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Wang, Ye, and Xindong Zhao. "Grandparental Childcare and Second Birth in China: Evidence from a Dynamic Model and Empirical Study." Complexity 2021 (June 1, 2021): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/6693853.
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The availability of nonparental childcare may be an important factor that influences reproductive decisions. While there is still a shortage of formal childcare service in China, grandparents are one primary source of childcare for their grandchildren. However, impact evaluations regarding the contribution of grandparenting on fertility level in China are still limited; the established evaluation results are not conclusive, especially for the birth of the second child. In this paper, we provide a theoretical justification and an empirical study of the influence of grandparental childcare on the second birth. By introducing a dynamic general equilibrium (DGE) model, this study proves that intergenerational childcare plays a critical role in both boosting the fertility level and maintaining its positive tendency. Drawing on the nationally representative data from the China Migrants Dynamic Survey in 2016, we estimate the treatment effects of grandparental childcare for the first child on the second birth with the Propensity Score Matching method. After controlling the self-selection bias, the results show that intergenerational childcare can positively affect the second birth. Sensitivity analysis results show the relative robustness of our empirical estimates to potential hidden bias attributed to unobserved variables. We also draw policy implications from the analysis, calling for government policies not only to promote sustainable and healthy development of the childcare industry but also to support family life, especially grandparental childcare.
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Samsudin, Intan Liana, Syed Iskandar Ariffin, Maimunah Sapri, and Jamilia Mohd Marsin. "Reviewing Guidelines on Facilities and Practices of Intergenerational Care in Australia and Malaysia." Environment-Behaviour Proceedings Journal 6, no. 16 (March 21, 2021): 71–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.21834/ebpj.v6i16.2720.
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Developed countries like Australia have guidelines to support intergenerational care development for aged citizen. In Malaysia, the current facilities for aged care are single-user facilities and lack intergenerational interaction conducted with the other generations. The study reviewed the care facilities guidelines to support intergenerational interaction in the Malaysian context based on the Australian intergenerational care practice perspective. The qualitative method is employed through a comparative and content analysis of the guidelines. The finding showed that the childcare visitation model had been identified as a promising alternative intergenerational care to enhance intergenerational interaction in the Malaysian context. Keywords: Intergenerational care facilities; Aged Care; Childcare; Guidelines eISSN: 2398-4287© 2021. The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA cE-Bs by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK. This is an open access article under the CC BYNC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians/Africans/Arabians) and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21834/ebpj.v6i16.2720
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Zhong, Xiaohui, and Minggang Peng. "The Grandmothers’ Farewell to Childcare Provision under China’s Two-Child Policy: Evidence from Guangzhou Middle-Class Families." Social Inclusion 8, no. 2 (April 28, 2020): 36–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/si.v8i2.2674.
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As China’s one-child policy is replaced by the two-child policy, young Chinese women and their spouses are increasingly concerned about who will take care of the ‘second child.’ Due to the absence of public childcare services and the rising cost of privatised care services in China, childcare provision mainly relies on families, such that working women’s choices of childbirth, childcare and employment are heavily constrained. To deal with structural barriers, young urban mothers mobilise grandmothers as joint caregivers. Based on interviews with Guangzhou middle-class families, this study examines the impact of childcare policy reform since 1978 on childbirth and childcare choices of women. It illustrates the longstanding contributions and struggles of women, particularly grandmothers, engaged in childcare. It also shows that intergenerational parenting involves a set of practices of intergenerational intimacy embedded in material conditions, practical acts of care, moral values and power dynamics. We argue that the liberation, to some extent, of young Chinese mothers from childcare is at the expense of considerable unpaid care work from grandmothers rather than being driven by increased public care services and improved gender equality in domestic labour. Given the significant stress and seriously constrained choices in later life that childcare imposes, grandmothers now become reluctant to help rear a second grandchild. This situation calls for changes in family policies to increase the supply of affordable and good-quality childcare services, enhance job security in the labour market, provide supportive services to grandmothers and, most importantly, prioritise the wellbeing of women and families over national goals.
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Bui, Cindy, Kyungmin Kim, and Karen Fingerman. "INTERGENERATIONAL SUPPORT EXCHANGES AND OLDER PARENTS' CARE RECEIPT AND EXPECTATIONS." Innovation in Aging 6, Supplement_1 (November 1, 2022): 121–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igac059.485.
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Abstract Distinguishing between support and care, this study investigated how different types of past support exchanges with children were associated with older parents’ care receipt and expectations. Older parents (N=190; Mage=79.98) reported on tangible, non-tangible, and childcare support exchanges with each of their adult children (N=709; Mage=52.69) in two waves of the Family Exchanges Study (2008 and 2013). Multilevel, within-family, logistic regression models were estimated. Parents with functional limitations more likely received care from children whom they received more tangible support from at the prior wave. Parents without current limitations more likely named children whom they previously provided childcare support to and received more tangible support from as their expected future caregiver. These findings emphasize continuity in the transition from receiving tangible support to receiving and expecting care from adult children. The importance of older parents’ childcare support given to adult children also highlights reciprocity in intergenerational care exchanges.
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Moussié, Rachel. "Childcare services in cities: challenges and emerging solutions for women informal workers and their children." Environment and Urbanization 33, no. 1 (January 23, 2021): 117–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247820987096.
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Cities present important challenges for the extension of quality childcare services to informal workers, who make up most of the urban poor across the global South. For women, who are disproportionately responsible for childcare in their own households, access to quality childcare services allows for more time to earn an income and seek new employment. This is particularly important as women informal workers struggle to recover their earnings following the economic recession brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic. For children, quality childcare services can contribute to lifelong health, educational and social development benefits. This article explores the key barriers to childcare provision for women informal workers and their children in cities, and assesses the role municipalities can play in the provision of childcare services. Access to quality childcare services in urban areas can help break the cycle of gendered and intergenerational poverty as cities recover from the pandemic.
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Humboldt, Sofia von, Ana Monteiro, and Isabel Leal. "INTERGENERATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS AMONG OLDER ADULTS AND GRANDCHILDREN: SUPPORTIVE AND CONFLICTUAL RELATIONSHIPS." Innovation in Aging 3, Supplement_1 (November 2019): S179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igz038.637.
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Abstract Objectives: To analyze how older adults conceptualize these intergenerational relationships. Methods: In this qualitative study, in-depth interviews were carried out with 316 older adults, aged 65-102, from three different nationalities who lived at home. Verbatim transcripts were examined. Results: Data analysis generated six themes representing intergenerational relationships: affection and reward; interest and integration; grandparent-grandchild interaction quality; privacy and boundaries definition; provision of support; and obligation of providing childcare, on two dimensions of ambivalence concerning their intergenerational relationships (supportive and conflictual). Conclusions: The empirical findings from this research indicate how ambivalence in intergenerational relationships is experienced by older adults and stress the contradictory expectations of older adults with grandchildren. Keywords: Ambivalence; conflict; intergenerational relationships; older adults; support.
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Jeon, Sesong, and Katie Walker. "The Role of Maternal Grandmothers’ Childcare Provision for Korean Working Adult Daughters." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 21 (October 31, 2022): 14226. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114226.
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Despite the Korean government’s investment in childcare facilities for dual-earner households, maternal grandmothers are increasingly taking on the responsibility of caring for their grandchildren. This trend is examined in the current research. While many studies have been conducted on grandparents’ experiences providing childcare for their grandchildren, significantly less research has been conducted on adult daughters’ experiences with their mothers’ childcare provision. This study utilized the concepts of intergenerational solidarity and a life-course approach to understand the experiences of 24 working adult daughters in Korea (ages 30–43) whose mothers provide childcare. Three major themes were identified following a grounded theory approach: gratitude vs. guilt, dependence vs. independence, and closeness vs. disagreement. The results indicated that adult daughters were found to have ambivalence toward their mothers, reflecting the lack of alternative options for childcare. The results from this study suggest that not only improving the quality of public childcare services, but also diversifying services to reflect the needs of dual-income families.
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Souralová, Adéla. "Mother–grandmother contracts: Local care loops and the intergenerational transfer of childcare in the Czech Republic." Journal of European Social Policy 29, no. 5 (December 2019): 666–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0958928719873833.
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This article explores the local care loops in the Czech Republic, a country that experienced radical changes in family policies and in the organization of childcare after the fall of Communism in 1989. The aim of this article is to answer the following questions: What is the dominant pattern of childcare organization? What is the nature of the local care loops in the Czech Republic? How are these local care loops reproduced by current social policies? Where are their roots in the pre-1989 period? To answer these questions, the article investigates the local care loops and everyday mobilities of childcare in the Czech Republic. It draws upon secondary analysis of scholarly (sociological and anthropological) works that focus on childcare and its organization and of works that analyse relevant social policies. The article presents the following findings: local care loops in the Czech Republic are endogamous and matrilineal, they follow a gendered care contract between generations of women, and they are thus part of intergenerational solidarity. The analysis illuminates how the care loops are shaped by the social policies that affect care cultures in the Czech Republic.
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Intergenerational Childcare"
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O'Connor, Henrietta Sophie Scarlett. "Women, work and childcare : an intergenerational study of two generations of mothers." Thesis, University of Leicester, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/2381/9129.
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The rapid increase in the rate of female participation in the labour market in the post-war period is a well-documented trend. However, the experiences of mothers balancing paid work and childcare responsibilities have received academic attention only in recent decades. Working class mothers, who have a long history of combining paid work and domestic responsibilities, have been neglected in the literature. There has also been a lack of research examining the impact of intergenerational transmission on the values and practices of mothers within families. This thesis addresses this gap by examining the childcare strategies of two cohorts of working women: grandmothers and mothers. Grandmothers and mothers in fourteen family chains were interviewed and their strategies for combining paid work and domestic responsibilities were examined. It is argued that these strategies have changed across time and the complexity of childcare strategies has declined reflecting changes in government policy. The younger generation have benefited from policy changes aimed at encouraging mothers to return to the labour market. It is also argued that the role of intergenerational transmission is of key importance in understanding mothers' decisions about combining work and childcare responsibilities. Indeed, the behaviour of mothers was influenced by their own mothers' actions, either positively, by 'mimicking' their role or negatively, by avoiding the reproduction of their mothers' behaviour. Whilst intergenerational ties were found to be important, the role of grandmothers as providers of childcare was not as important as argued elsewhere. An important finding of the thesis is that very few grandmothers provided childcare because most continued to be economically active. It is concluded that the changes to policy stemming from the Labour government's National Childcare Strategy have had a positive impact on working mothers' lives but further changes are still necessary to address the childcare needs of all families.
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Svensson, Lembke Mattias. "Tokyo intergenerational day care center." Thesis, KTH, Arkitektur, 2013. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-122911.
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Japan is facing a great demographic shift, where by 2050 more than 40% of it's inhabitants will be over the age of 65 years. The womens emencipation from the role of stay at home mothers has allowed them to have careers of their own, although a good thing it does not leave a lot of room for starting a family in Japan's hard working climate. This new cultural norm has collided with the the long tradition of family care and Japan is now facing a large cultural collision, where there is a great lack of working solutions for child and senior care. The project suggests a prototypical intergenerational day care center for elderly and children in Tokyos dense now-rise residential neighborhoods. This form of care started being built in America during the 90's and has prooven to provide some of the best care availible for elderly and children.Japan möter i dagsläget ett stort demografiskt skifte, till år 2050 kommer mer än 40% av befolkningen att vara över 65 år gamla. Kvinnornas frigörelse från hemmet har tillåtit dem att påbörja egna arbetsliv och karriärer, vilket inte lämnar mycket rum för att starta egen familj i Japans hårda arbetsklimat. Denna nya kulturella norm har kolliderat med den traditionella familjevården och Japan står idag utan en bra lösning för barn- och äldrevård. Det föreslagna projektet är ett prototypiskt intergenerationellt dagvårdscenter för barn och seniorer i Tokyos täta lågbebyggda bostadsområden. Intergenerationell vård började byggas under 90-talet i USA och har visat sig ge bland den bästa vården tillgänglig för barn och äldre.
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Silberman, Stephanie G. "Effects of Grandmother Childcare Involvement, Supportiveness, and Acceptance on Latina Adolescent Mother-Child Dyadic Synchrony." Kent State University / OhioLINK, 2016. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=kent1469737222.
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Bruckauf, Zlata. "Parental human investment : economic stress and time allocation in Russia." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2013. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:99cf2f7a-7bd0-4931-9efa-14f67bf85cc1.
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A decade of growth and wealth generation in Russia ended in 2009 with the collapse in GDP and rising unemployment. This Great Recession added new economic challenges to the ‘old’ problems facing children and families, including widening income inequalities and the phenomenon of social orphanage. One question is how the new and existing material pressures affect parent–child relationships. This research contributes to the answer by examining, in aggregate terms, the role poverty plays in the allocation of parental time in this emerging economy. Utilising a nationally representative sample of children, it explores how child interactions with parents are affected by aggregate and idiosyncratic shocks. Drawing on the rational choice paradigm and its critique, we put forward the Parental Time Equilibrium as an analytical guide to the study. This theoretical approach presents individual decisions concerning time spent with children over the long term as the product of a defined equilibrium between resources and demands for involvement. We test this approach through pooled cross-sectional and panel analyses based on the Russian Longitudinal Monitoring Survey dataset from 2007 to 2009. Children in low-income households face the double disadvantage of a lack of money and time investments at home, with both persistent and transient poverty being associated with lower than average parental time inputs in the sample. Moreover, while on average, we find that children do maintain the amount of time they spend with their parents under conditions of severe financial strain, low–income children lose out on play time with the mother. Material resources cannot be considered in isolation from structural disadvantages, of which rural location in particular is detrimental for parent–child time together. The study demonstrates that the cumulative stress of adverse macro-economic conditions and depleted material resources makes it difficult for parents to sustain their human investment in children. The evidence this study provides on the associations between economic stress and pa-rental time allocations advances our knowledge of the disparities of in the childhood experience in modern Russian society. The findings strongly support the equal importance of available resources and basic demand for involvement, thus drawing policy attention to the need to address both in the best interests of children.
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Modh, Sandra Violeta. "Lamaholot of East Flores : a study of a boundary community." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2012. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:b7693f46-3a18-4b1a-ba96-0f17e91f0282.
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Lamaholot is a population found on Flores and in the Solor Archipelago of Eastern Indonesia. The population is village-based and divided into patrilineal descent groups. Marriage is coupled with bridewealth and follows a pattern of asymmetric marriage alliance between descent groups. This thesis shows that a small group of Lamaholot in the administrative regency of East Flores shares certain traditions with a neighbouring population called Ata Tana ‘Ai. Ata Tana ‘Ai are a sub-group of the Sikka population in the administrative regency of Sikka. Descent group among Ata Tana ‘Ai are matrilineal and households were traditionally based in scattered gardens. Marriage is not coupled with bridewealth and instances of asymmetric marriage alliance between descent groups are here a consequence rather than a cause of marriage. The current fieldsite seems to have been part of the ceremonial system of Ata Tana ‘Ai and also to have shared a tradition of dispersed settlement in the gardens. The descent groups might initially have been matrilineal, but in the recent past there was also a habit of dividing children between the parental descent groups. Recent traditions of dividing children can be found throughout central-east Flores, but seemingly not to same extent as at the fieldsite. The payment of elephant’s tusks was a central feature in the acquisition of group members at the fieldsite and could be paid by both men and women. These payments were not necessarily tied to marriage and did not serve as bridewealth. In the last century outer social factors, such as the Catholic mission and the creation of the Dutch colonial state, have resulted in that many of the traditional practices at the fieldsite have been replaced with traditions from Lamaholot elsewhere. The residence pattern is now village-based, but gardens retain a central social and ritual position. The role of the elephant’s tusks has taken different expressions throughout this period of social change, and alongside the changing role of tusks, the traditional social and material authority of women at the fieldsite has declined, whereas that of men has increased. This thesis examines the current and the traditional practices in and around the fieldsite, and focuses on local definitions of descent group, kinship, and inheritance, looking at both biological and social perspectives.
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Mai, Dan T. "Sustaining family life in rural China : reinterpreting filial piety in migrant Chinese families." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2015. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:8e679650-a857-4f3c-a5c1-770a1bff848e.
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This study explores the changing nature of filial piety in contemporary society in rural China. With the economic, social and political upheavals that followed the Revolution, can 'great peace under heaven' still be found for the rural Chinese family as in the traditional Confucian proverb,"make yourself useful, look after your family, look after your country, and all is peaceful under heaven"? This study explores this question, in terms not so much of financial prosperity, but of non-tangible cultural values of filial piety, changing familial and gender roles, and economic migration. In particular, it examines how macro level changes in economic, social and demographic policies have affected family life in rural China. The primary policies examined were collectivisation, the hukou registration system, marketization, and the One-Child policy. Ethnographic interviews reveal how migration has affected rural family structures beyond the usual quantifiable economic measures. Using the village of Meijia, Sichuan province, as a paradigmatic sample of family, where members have moved to work in the cities, leaving their children behind with the grandparents, the study demonstrates how migration and modernization are reshaping familial roles, changing filial expectations, reshuffling notions of care-taking, and transforming traditional views on the value of daughters and daughters-in-law. The study concludes that the choices families make around migration, child-rearing and elder-care cannot be fully explained by either an income diversification model or a survival model, but rather through notions of filial piety. Yet the concept of filial piety itself is changing, particularly in relation to gender and perceptions about the worth of daughters and the mother/ daughter-in-law relationship. Understanding these new family dynamics will be important for both policy planners and economic analysts.
Book chapters on the topic "Intergenerational Childcare"
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"Digital Media and Intergenerational Migration." In Childcare Workers, Global Migration and Digital Media, 75–92. Routledge, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315107301-5.
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Qi, Xiaoying. "Floating Grandparents." In Remaking Families in Contemporary China, 52–81. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197510988.003.0003.
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The chapter supplements the conventional image of vulnerable “left behind” children and elderly in the villages and towns in China from which mobile young adults depart to seek employment in urban areas. By showing an increasing propensity of aged parents to provide childcare in the cities where their adult children are employed, it identifies an intergenerational dimension of the floating population of migratory workers. The chapter provides a more complete representation of internal migration and urbanization in contemporary China by examining the childcare provided by grandparents as a form of reproductive labor that enables the labor-force participation of their adult children and thus contributes to social reproduction. The change in the notions of family obligation initiated by young people has received much research attention; the chapter shows, however, that grandparents frequently initiate renegotiations of filial obligation. The chapter reconceptualizes intergenerational support by considering the importance of pre-exchange obligation, emotional attachment, and symbolic values in intergenerational interactions, factors conventional approaches typically ignore.
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Goh, Esther C. L., and Sheng-li Wang. "Can Chinese grandparents say no? A comparison of grandmothers in two Asian cities." In Grandparenting Practices around the World, 233–52. Policy Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781447340645.003.0012.
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This chapter examines two dominant research constructs namely, ‘cultural obligation’ and ‘intergenerational reciprocity’ in caring for grandchildren in Chinese societies – Fuzhou and Singapore. Drawing on Social Relational Theory (SRT), it examines the agency of grandmothers through unpacking the rationales for their involvement or non-involvement in childcare, and the goals and meanings they ascribe to their decisions. Grandparents are viewed as agents: capable of setting goals, devising plans, strategies and taking actions to achieve their goals in the relational contexts with their adult children and grandchildren. The key research questions addressed in this chapter are : (1) to what extent do grandmothers in Fuzhou and Singapore are influenced in their decisions to provide childcare by similar yet diverse Confucian roots; (2) understanding the socio-cultural discourses of grandparenthood in Fuzhou and Singapore; and (3) whether such discourses will constrain or facilitate their sense of agency in decision making.
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Zhou, Yanqiu Rachel. "Transnational grandparenting: the intersection of transnationalism and translocality." In Grandparenting Practices around the World, 113–30. Policy Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781447340645.003.0006.
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Using the case of transnational childcare by Chinese grandparents in Canada, this chapter presents a perspective on transnational grandparenting beyond a narrow cultural lens. Drawing on theories of transnationalism and translocality, it analyses three interconnected aspects of transnational grandparenting: (1) intergenerational love in the context of neoliberal care restructuring; (2) intergenerational families in the context of border control; and (3) generational reciprocity in the context of cultural rupture. It is concluded that an exploration of the intersection of transnationalism and translocality can contribute to a broader, contextualised perspective from which to understand the dynamics, dissonance, and effects of transnational grandparenting. This approach shows promise for revealing the complex intersections, including tensions, between mobility and locality, and thus allows a less linear and more open and inclusive conceptualisation of the manifold ways in which transnational grandparenting is constituted.
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Knodel, John, and Bussarawan Teerawichitchainan. "Grandparenting in developing South East Asia: comparative perspectives from Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam." In Grandparenting Practices around the World, 65–88. Policy Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781447340645.003.0004.
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This chapter examines the critical roles played by demographic trends and development levels in explaining cross-country variations in grandparental care in Southeast Asia. Based on analyses of recent national-level surveys of older persons in Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam, we examine the extent and circumstances of grandparenting and their consequences from the perspective of grandparents. Results indicate that substantial proportions of older persons live in households with coresident grandchildren and commonly provide grandparental childcare. Although skip-generation households remain uncommon in all three countries, in accordance with development levels they are by far most common in Thailand and least in Myanmar. Differences in economic development and fertility trends account for much of the observed differences in grandparental care by affecting grandchildren availability and migration of adult children. The chapter concludes by discussing the implications of changing grandparenting patterns for the renegotiation and reinterpretation of the intergenerational contract in the coming decades..
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Sterelny, Kim. "Epilogue: Why Only Us?" In The Pleistocene Social Contract, 157–62. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197531389.003.0005.
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The last four chapters have charted the development in our lineage of a coevolutionary loop linking intergenerational information flow and ecological/economic cooperation. The upshot has transformed both human lifeways and the world in which we live. That leaves us with an inevitable question. Once defection is controlled, the profits of information sharing, collective action, the division of labour and exchange are immense. So why have so few species of vertebrates evolved the capacity to exploit those profits? With marginal exceptions, sustained, expensive and extensive cooperation is confined to the hominins. The problem seems to be with the initial establishment of cooperation. As this book shows, once a fairly modest platform of informational and ecological cooperation is built, there are positive feedback loops that can stabilize that cooperation, and in some circumstances expand it. While there is no guarantee that this loop will kick in, once rudimentary cultural learning and cooperation were linked in our lineage, it was not difficult to explain their stabilization and expansion. But cooperative niches are difficult to enter. There are, for example, remarkably few well attested examples of direct reciprocation amongst animals in nature (that is, between animals that are not closely related), even though theory suggests that the conditions under which direct reciprocation are stable should be fairly widespread. All that is necessary is that the two individuals have a high probability of regular future interaction in which each could benefit from the other, plus an environment in which help is cheap to give and valuable to receive (like reciprocal childcare)....