Journal articles on the topic 'Inter-household transfers'

In 2005 the Government of Indonesia introduced an unconditional cash transfer program called the ‘Bantuan Langsung Tunai’ (BLT), aimed at assisting poor people who were suffering from the removal of a fuel subsidy. There are concerns, however, that the introduction of a public transfer system can negatively affect inter-household transfers through the crowding-out effect, which exists when donor households reduce the amount of their transfers in line with public transfers received from the government. The poor may not therefore have received any meaningful impact from the public cash transfer, as they potentially receive fewer transfers from inter-household private donors. For the government to design a public transfer system, it is necessary to properly understand the dynamics of private transfer behaviour. Hence, this study evaluates whether there exists a crowding-out effect of public transfers on inter-household transfers in Indonesia.Using data from the Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS) and by applying Coarsened Exact Matching (CEM) and Difference-in-differences (DID) approaches, this study found that the likelihood to receive transfers from other family members (non-co-resident) reduces when the household receives BLT. However, there is no significant impact of BLT on transfers from parents and friends.

Purpose The economic literature identifies two families of motives for private transfers: altruism and exchange. Altruistic models postulates that transfers are unselfish assistance to vulnerable and poor households. Exchange models, however, explain transfers as temporary assistance to households with the expectation of being paid back. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the motives of inter-households transfers in Burkina Faso and identify which model better explains observed transfers’ decisions. The findings can be useful to provide a information on the profile of households receiving and donating transfers and a better understanding of their roles in local communities. Design/methodology/approach The paper uses a nationally representative household survey in Burkina Faso that collects detailed information on inter-household transfers. It combines descriptive analysis with various econometric models to identify the type of behavior that better explain the receipt and donation of private transfers. To account for the non randomness of the receipt and donation of transfers in the population, the study estimates a Heckman model to address selection bias. Findings Preliminary analyses suggest that one-third of households have participated in transfers’ exchange, either as recipients or donors with the amount received or given representing a substantial share of household income or expenditure. The econometric analyses show that the primary driver of the receipt of transfers is households’ degree of vulnerability. This result indicates that altruism is the underlying model explaining the receipt of transfers. However, the authors also find that affluent households tend to give and receive larger amounts of money suggesting that some elements of exchange are also at play. Originality/value The analysis contributes to a large and growing literature on migration, transfers, and remittances in developing countries. It provides insights into the motives of these non-market transactions in the specific context of Burkina Faso, a developing country, where migration and transfers have been historically important social behaviors. The analysis makes an effort to address the potential bias resulting from households’ self-selection into the donation or receipt of transfer. The findings shed additional light on the double role of transfer as a safety net for the vulnerable and social insurance for the non-poor.

COVID-19 outbreak has triggered many economic shocks globally. In this study we estimate the role of inter-households transfer in mitigating the impacts of the outbreak on Indonesian economy using a CGE model. The result shows that commodity prices and enactment of physical distancing measures bring negative impacts on the economy. Government response by lowering direct tax rates and increasing transfer to households could not fully compensate the impacts but enlighten it slightly. Households response by increasing inter-household transfers helps the government policy, particularly in reducing the decrease of households’ income and consumption. The result indicates that inter-household transfer could be regarded as an effective instrument to improve the household income distribution quality and reduce the poverty. Regarding that, stakeholders in the economy should improve the collaborative policies to capitalize the policy instruments optimally. Furthermore, the result also indicates that household consumption is not a sustainable engine to boost the economic growth. Prioritizing consumption over saving in the long run could lead to inability of the economy to engage a self-financed investment.

Combining different data sources to create a balanced panel of rural state units of analysis, we estimate the impact of pensions (public) and inter-household (private) monetary transfers on the dynamics of rural poverty in Brazil between 1996 and 2015. We combine data from the Brazilian National Household Survey and administrative data from State Statistics Bureaus, in order to estimate a Generalized Method of Moments-System dynamic panel model for poverty. Controlling for demographic composition, GSP (Gross State Product) agricultural share, GSP share to GNP (Gross National Product), educational attainment, unemployment rate, and land concentration, we focus on how pensions and inter-household transfers, as well as their interaction, affected the dynamics of poverty in the rural contemporary Brazil through an increase in the investment capacity of households. Our results show a significant and positive impact of both transfers on poverty dynamics, with scale dominance for the retirement income. Despite controls used, poverty persistence is still significant in contemporary rural Brazil, suggesting that both transfers, even when combined, are limited to fight the structural component of poverty.

The objective of this research was to investigate disincentive and crowding-out effect food aid program (public transfer) in household level. Beside the humanitarian roles, there are widespread sceptisms of food assistance regarding its possible influence on disincentive to work and on crowding out of private transfer (inter-household or intergeneration transfer). Based on Indonesia Family Life Survey data and using instrumental variables approach, this paper estimates disincentive effect and crowding out effect “Rice Program for Poor Families” (Raskin) on intergenerational food transfer (child to parents transfer). This research observe significant negative impact on total household income. The decline in income mostly happened through a reduction in head household worker. The paper also find indication of crowding out relation between private and public transfers. It suggests that the Indonesian government should have designed its public transfer scheme carefully in order to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of its social safety net programs.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi dampak peningkatan transfer antar rumah tangga yang merpuakan bagian dari implementasi janji pemerintah melalui semangat Nawa Cita-Revolusi Mental terhadap beberapa aspek ekonomi. Alat analisis yang digunakan adalah model computable general equilibrium (CGE) dan berdasarkan data sistem neraca sosial ekonomi (SNSE) Indonesia tahun 2008. Analisis dampak yang terwujud diasumsikan bersifat jangka panjang. Hasil analisis menunjukan bahwa peningkatan transfer antar rumah tangga berdampak terhadap peningkaan pendapatan rumah tangga, peningkatan penerimaan pemerintah, penurunan tingkat harga, dan peningkatan pemerataan distribusi pendapatan. Lebih lanjut, peningkatan transfer antar rumah tangga juga berpengaruh terhadap struktur ekonomi, terutama konsumsi rumah tangga dan investasi. Kontribusi konsumsi rumah tangga diperkirakan menjadi turun, sedangkan investasi meningkat. Temuan ini mengindikasikan bahwa peningkatan transfer rumah tangga memiliki banyak manfaat, baik dari aspek sosial maupun ekonomi.

We examine the impact of social distance in dictator game giving. The study is conducted in a field setting with high stakes (two days’ wages). The sample is a representative sample from eleven low-income Mexican villages. Subjects make multiple dictator decisions simultaneously, in a comparative dictator game. We show the relationship between social distance and giving using several family members, a member of the same village, and a stranger from a different village. Dictator giving shows substantial variation across recipient types and varies directly with social distance. We find higher giving towards family members than towards community members and strangers. Furthermore, our results indicate that giving to community members and to strangers is not different. In light of our results, it is important to consider the impact of social distance on inter- and intra-household transfers in policy interventions that alleviate poverty, e.g., conditional transfers.

Abstract Childhood circumstances are known to etch an indelible influence on individual outcomes across the life course such as education, income, and health. Yet relatively little is known about how early life exposures influence family outcomes. This study aims to determine how childhood exposures are associated with inter vivos downward intergenerational financial transfers among older adults aged 51-85 with at least one surviving adult child. Using cumulative (dis)advantage theory, I hypothesized that experiences in childhood shape intergenerational transfers patterns – with early-life advantage being able to provide more transfers than their disadvantaged counterparts. I used data from the US Health and Retirement Study waves 1998 to 2018 (n=32,095 individuals, 169,316 person-years) and estimated random effects models. The index of childhood socioeconomic status was constructed by adding the following dichotomized indicators: poor to fair family socioeconomic status, mother / father having less than HS education, father working for service sector, and moved due to financial difficulty. Downward transfers were defined as whether the respondent gave money, helped pay bills, or covered certain costs to children or grandchildren worth ≥US$ 500. The unadjusted model revealed that the probability of providing downward transfers among those with 1 and 2+ childhood socioeconomic status disadvantage was 5.4% and 3.8% less than those without disadvantage. The inverse association of early life disadvantage and downward transfers were preserved when basic demographic controls and household income and wealth were controlled for, although the magnitude slightly declined (4.0% and 3.1% lower probability for those with 1 and 2+ misfortunes, respectively).

Intra-household allocations appear to be quite important in the determination of time use, human resource investments, and intra- and inter-generational transfers in developing countries. The nature of such allocations has important implications for the efficiency, equity, and efficacy of the micro and macro-economic policies. In the past decade and a half, there has been substantial progress in modelling intrahousehold allocations in ways that lead to testable propositions despite enormous data limitations regarding the nature of the allocation of unobserved variables and the impact of unobserved heterogeneous endowments. The parent -child exchange literature is a subset of these studies that advances in two dimensions by allowing children to have different preferences from their parents' and by incorporating a broader notion of interactions, including the attention provided by the children to their parents. Yet this literature has most of the problems that are indicated with regard to the unified household preference models. The exchange literature to date has assumed away het" erogeneity in endowments which plays such a critical role in the studies that assume the unified household preferences. It is also silent on how human resource investments enter into the relations between parents and children. The collective models of household behaviour emphasise that different household members. usually husband and wife. may have different preferences and a different command over resources. Interesting theoretical results have been derived concerning the conditions under which the income-sharing rules and the allocation of non-assignable goods can be derived. But there are many limitations in this literature. The literature on the collective models of household behaviours is static and gives little consideration to the dynamic processes and learning.

The changing nature of family life has become a major issue in contemporary Britain. Concerns that change will bring moral decline and social fragmentation are countered by a more optimistic view which focuses on a future of more equitable and flexible family ties. Research drawing on area-based data in Luton amongst older, middle-aged and younger people with experience of family change suggests that so far as inter-generational relations, caring, and transfers of family wealth are concerned, traditional attitudes towards blood ties, household independence and care and support survive alongside new step relationships. The research also suggests that although several respondents had more than one generation of experience of family change, the language of step relationships is still one which is not yet completely accepted, or one with which people feel completely at ease.

This article surveys the role of grandparents in providing a continuing level of material support in 61 households with dependent children in an inner city area. It concludes that assistance is structured by gender, income level, household financial organisation, residential proximity, need and ideology. In terms of the provision of continuing support to households with young children, grandparents are important but grandmothers give more assistance than grandfathers and they direct it where it is most needed. It is important for grandmothers to have access to paid work. The ideology of assistance is differentiated by class. In professional families the married couple is the unit of transfer but for working class families the solidarity of female relatives, in particular, of daughters and mothers and mothers-in-law, is more important.

Background: Life expectancy in patients with end-stage kidney disease treated with hemodialysis (HD) is limited, and as such, the presence of an advanced care directive (ACD) may improve the quality of death as experienced for patients and families. Strategies to discuss and implement ACDs are limited with little being known about the status of Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) orders in the Canadian HD population. Objectives: Using data from the Dialysis Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study (DOPPS), we set out to (1) examine the variability in DNR orders across Canada and its largest province, Ontario and (2) identify clinical and functional status measures associated with a DNR order. Design: We conducted a retrospective cohort study using data from the DOPPS Canada Phase 4 to 6 from 2009 to 2017. Setting: DOPPS facilities in Canada. Patients: All adults (>18 years) who initiated chronic HD with a documented ACD were included. Measurements: ACD and DNR orders. Methods: Descriptive statistics were compared for baseline characteristics (demographics, comorbidities, medications, facility characteristics, and patient functional status) and DNR status. The crude proportion of patients per facility with a DNR order was calculated across Canada and Ontario. Functional status was determined by activities of daily living and components of the Kidney Disease Quality of Life (KDQOL)-validated questionnaire. We used generalized estimating equations (GEEs) to create sequential multivariable models (demographics, comorbidities, and functional status) of variables associated with DNR status. Results: A total of 1556 (96% of total) patients treated with HD had a documented ACD and were included. A total of 10% of patients had a DNR order. The crude variation of DNR status differed considerably across facilities within Canada, between Ontario and non-Ontario, and within Ontario (interprovince variation = 6.3%-17.1%, Ontario vs non-Ontario = 8.2% vs 11.7%, intraprovincial variation [Ontario] = 1%-26%). Patients with a DNR order were more commonly older, white, with cardiac comorbidities, with less or shorter predialysis care compared with those without a DNR order. Patients with a DNR order reported lower energy, more difficulty with transfers, meal preparation, household tasks, and financial management. In a multivariate model, age, cardiac disease, stroke, dialysis duration, and intradialytic weight gain were associated with DNR status. Limitations: Relatively small number of events or measures in certain categories. Conclusions: A large inter- and intraprovincial (Ontario) variation was observed regarding DNR orders across Canada highlighting areas for potential quality improvement. While functional status did not appear to have a bearing on the presence of a DNR order, the presence of various comorbidities was associated with the presence of a DNR order.

The active land rental market affects inter-household efficiency. Using nationally representative household panel data in China from 2017 to 2019, we estimate rural household efficiency with consideration of diversification, and analyze the effect of land rental market participation on household efficiency using a control function approach. Results show that: (1) the mean technical efficiency and allocative efficiency were 0.45 and 0.64 in 2017 and 0.44 and 0.66 in 2019, respectively, suggesting the existence of efficiency loss; (2) land rented-in activities improve rural households’ technical efficiency but not allocative efficiency; (3) land rented out activities decrease household technical efficiency but increase allocative efficiency. Further analysis showed that farm size heterogeneity might be the main reason for the efficiency difference. Households with large farms and plot sizes on rented land have significant advantages in technical efficiency and insignificant impacts on allocative efficiency. The results explain why the land rental market promotes efficient land transfer, but households with a large farm size are still rare in rural areas. Finally, we provide suggestions on how to stimulate the land rental market under diversification circumstances.

AbstractA farm survey conducted in Wuxi county in the 1950s found that the Chinese Communist Party had successfully “preserved the rich peasant economy” in the “newly liberated areas”: the landlords were indeed the only social class whose properties had been redistributed, yet without compromising on the magnitude of benefits received by the poor peasants. A higher land inequality in that region, coupled with an inter-village transfer of land, allowed these dual goals to be achieved. Our study further reveals that class status was determined both by the amount of land a household owned and whether it had committed certain “exploitative acts,” which explains why some landlords did not own a vast amount of land. Conversely, it was the amount of land owned, not class status, that determined redistributive entitlements, which was why 15 per cent of the poor peasants and half of the middle peasants were not redistributed any land.

AbstractGujarat has made important strides to ensure that most parts of the state become water secure. In 2005, Gujarat was one of the few states that recognized that its urban areas were its ‘engines of growth’ and made significant investments in urban infrastructure. A state-wide water supply grid was constructed to transfer inter-basin water from perennial surface water sources to water-scarce areas. While these schemes have improved household-level access to municipal water supply, service levels have not improved. In this paper, we argue that along with infrastructure creation, there is a need to focus on monitoring, operation and maintenance of existing system and improving efficiency. We analyze information available from the performance assessment system (PAS) setup by the CEPT University for monitoring of urban services in India. It has annual information of water service delivery in all the urban areas of Gujarat from 2010. We assess urban drinking water supply on three key aspects: equity, service quality and financial sustainability. We also identify a few key intervention areas related to increased accountability, efficiency and equity in delivery of water supply services.

Combustion in porous media burners presents considerable advantages over free flame burners due to several outstanding features inter alia clean and highly efficient combustion properties allowing a considerable amount of feedback energy from the flame area to preheat the mixture of fuel and air resulting in a considerable reduction of unavoidable pollutant formations appearing e.g. as the emission of CO and NOX. In addition, porous media burners are manufactured in highly compact small sizes suitable to industrial and household heating characteristic applications. Heat transfer between solid and gas depends mainly on the porous thermophysical properties of the component known as the solid matrix. These systems are characterized by the formation of a combustion flame pulse or wave which can travel inside the burner, depending on the operating conditions at velocities of about 0.1 mm/s. In this paper, a new temperature tracking scheme is proposed based on digital image processing to determine the position and the velocity of the thermal profile. Results showed reduced errors in the estimation of the peak temperature position using digital image analysis compared to conventional thermocouple-based measurements techniques.

In recent yean, due to a virtual unanimity about the critical role of hmnan capital in economic development, increased efforts are being made in the developing countries to eradicate illiteracy. Despite a significant increase over time in the number of educational institutions and the government's expenditure on education in Pakistan, the performance of the education sector in terms of output has been at best meagre. This non-correspondence between the growth in the educational institutions and the resultant output implies that failure to enlist the participation of the population in education can hardly be attributed exclusively to an insufficiency of the schools. To the extent that child schooling reflects parental capacity to invest in hmnan capital formation, there is a need to reckon with factors bearing parental decision regarding child schooling. This paper investigates family's decision regarding child schooling through an assessment of the determinants of child school-enro1ment, using choice theoretic framework. The regression results are indicative of the influence of household status, both economic and social, on the propensity to invest in child schooling. A positive association between the household income, parental education, and tenurial status as land-owner bear out the importance of these factors in shaping the household's decision regarding investment in human capital formation. The study also fmds traces of the quantity-quality trade-off in family's preferences regarding the nmnber of children, and it is found to be male-specific. The most disturbing fmding of the study appears to be the predominance of the influence originating from parental education. It is this inter-generational transfer of human capital which needs more attention as it also implies that illiteracy, and hence poverty, of the parents gets transmitted to the off-spring. The analysis also brings out the fact that the labour market hiring practices serve as an important feedback to the household's human capital formation behaviour.

Liquid products applied on material surfaces and human skin, including many household cleaning products and personal care products, can lead to intermittent emissions of chemicals and peak concentrations in indoor air. The existing case-based models do not allow inter-comparison of different use scenarios and emission mechanisms. In this context, the present work developed a mechanistic model based on mass transfer theories, which allowed emissions into the air from the liquid product to be characterized. It also allowed for diffusion into the applied surface during product use and re-emission from the applied surface after the depletion of the liquid product. The model was validated using literature data on chemical emissions following floor cleaning and personal care product use. A sensitivity analysis of the model was then conducted. The percentage of the chemical mass emitted from the liquid to the air varied from 45% (applied on porous material) to 99% (applied on human skin), and the rest was absorbed into the applied material/skin. The peak gas-phase concentration, the time to reach the peak concentration, and the percentage of the liquid-to-air emission depended significantly on the chemical’s octanol/gas and material/gas partition coefficients and the diffusion coefficient of the chemical in the applied material/skin.

This inter-lab study aimed to evaluate the comparability of heavy metal concentrations in the same samples using three X-ray fluorescence spectrometers (XRFs) in three different global re-search institutions, namely a collaboration lab between Soonchunhyang University (Asan, Korea). and PAN (a branch of Malvern PANalytical, Seoul, Korea), RTI (Research Triangle Institute, NC, U.S.A), and Aerosol laboratory in Harvard University, Boston, U.S.A. Indoor air filter samples were collected from 8 homes using 3 filters in each household (n = 24) of individuals with asthma, and the same filter samples were sequentially analyzed separately in the collaboration lab Soonchunhyang-PAN, Harvard University, and RTI. Results showed the detection rates of most heavy metals (n = 25 metals) across the three institutions to be approximately 90%. Of the 25 metals, 16 showed coefficient of determination (R²) 0.7 or higher (10 components had 0.9 or higher) implying high correlation among institutions. Therefore, this study demonstrated XRF as a useful device, ensuring reproducibility and compatibility in the measurement of heavy metals in PM2.5, collected from indoor air filters of asthmatics’ residents.

Achieving water security in South Asian cities will require a realistic and holistic understanding of the challenges that are growing in extent and severity. These challenges include the rapid rise in urban household water demand due to both overall population growth and increasing urbanization rate. Additionally, surface water supply in closed river basins is fully utilized, and there is little opportunity in these regions to increase the extraction of surface water to meet rising demands. Furthermore, groundwater extraction in most regions exceeds natural recharge rates, leading to rapidly falling annual water tables and seasonal depletion in hard rock regions and to gradually declining water tables requiring deeper wells and increased pumping effort in alluvial regions. Additionally, even in cities with abundant water resources, poorer segments of the population often face economic water scarcity and lack the means to access it. Nevertheless, there are important potential engineering opportunities for achieving water security in South Asian cities. Much withdrawn water is lost due to urban water distribution inefficiency, and a range of proven techniques exist to improve distribution. Metering of urban water can lead to structural improvements of management and billing, though the water needs of the poorest city residents must be ensured. Industrial water-use efficiency can be significantly improved in manufacturing and electricity generation. The quantities of wastewater generated in South Asia are large, thus treating and reusing this water for other purposes is a strong lever in enhancing local water security. There is limited potential for rooftop rainwater harvesting and storage, though capture-enhanced groundwater recharge can be important in some areas. Some individual inter-basin transfer projects may prove worthwhile, but very-large-scale projects are unlikely to contribute practically to urban water security. Overall, the water challenges facing South Asian cities are complex, and although no single intervention can definitively solve growing problems, numerous actions can be taken on many fronts to improve water security.

The article deals with travel guides in German language about current territory of Ukraine at the end of 19th – first half of 20th centuries. It is noted that they represent quite a small group of literary sources. Major part of their content is reference information about geography, history, specific features of daily life and household traditions of one region or another, but major function is imposing of normative perception of foreign, alien culture. The most well-known are those, which were issued by publishing house “Baedeker”, as well as those, published in the times of Austrian-Hungarian monarchy. The author analyses image of Jews as ethnic community in the regions of Eastern Galicia and so-called Great Ukraine before the First World War, in the interwar period and during the Second World War. It is emphasized that thorough consideration of image of the Jews through prism of travel guides during dramatic and tragic events of the end of XIX – the first half of XX centuries may open to the readers of the XXI century new perspectives in understanding of such socio-political phenomena, as a state policy towards ethnic minorities; collective auto- and hetero-stereotypes; dynamics of antisemitism from common level of everyday life to discrimination and extermination of Jews. Moreover, travel guides contain various materials for analysis of issues, related to cultural transfer, models of journeys, attractiveness of certain destinations and objects of cultural and historical heritage at the territory of regions, which for centuries were known by coexistence of various ethnic groups and frequent changes of borders. Necessity of usage of interdisciplinary approach was an additional stimulus for research on the subject under consideration. The author stressed that the book of Franz Obermeyer “Ukraine. Land der schwarzen Erde”, as well as the travel guide by Baedeker, 1943, and the travel guide for Kyiv, 1942, were instruments of the criminal Nazi-Propaganda, contrary to publications during Austrian-Hungarian monarchy, which to certain measure can be considered as a source of knowledge about inter-cultural communications and tolerance. But in both cases the character of these books depended on a political and ideological conjuncture. While in the books, published before the WWI, the image of a Jew was presented mainly from the ethnographic perspective, but in Nazi publications during WWII it was transformed into the image of an enemy. But the authors avoided usage of formulations like “judo-bolshevism” or “worldwide Jewish conspiracy”. Most likely, the traditional format of a travel guide as an instrument of inter-cultural communication limited its actual transformation into a primitive racial or anti-Semitic propaganda. Certain attention in the article is given to the soviet travel guides, edited by Alexander Rado and published by All-Union Society of Cultural Relations in the 1920-ies, which were and are still little known.

The importance of generation-old local knowledge in advancing agriculture is well recognized worldwide. However, such knowledge is continually eroding together with the extinction of locally evolved genetic materials. Consequently, the knowledge gap between different age groups is widening. The knowledge gap is also widening between male and female due to continuous shift in gender roles in agriculture. Using responses collected from 120 male and female farmers from Bara, the lowland Terai of Nepal, we assessed inter-generational and gender-based knowledge gap of smallholders on agricultural biodiversity by taking rice crop as an example. Based on the standard definition of younger and older generation, the age group was divided into two: ≤ 34 (15-34) years old and > 34 years old. Information was collected on: i) rice varieties recalled by respondents, ii) rice varieties recognized by observing standing crop on-farm, iii) rice varieties recognized by observing seed samples, and iv) respondent’s experiences and knowledge about selected cultivars. Descriptive analysis, t-test, and Pearson’s Correlation were used to analyze the data. Respondents of age group > 34 years old named and identified significantly (p < 0.01) more varieties than age group ≤ 34 in overall, indicating that the older generation is more knowledgeable and the knowledge hasn’t been adequately inherited to younger generations resulting in the erosion of knowledge. Similarly, males are significantly more knowledgeable than females in overall and among the higher age group category (p < 0.01), likely because males from Madhesi community have wider social networks both within and outside their villages than females. Females are more knowledgeable than males in the lower age group category because girls are engaged more in household chores and farming activities, while boys attain higher grades and travel for off-farm jobs. There was a strong correlation among the three techniques, namely, naming, recognizing standing crops, and recognizing the seeds (p < 0.01). This suggests that all the techniques are robust and can be interchangeably used for such type of studies depending on time and resource availability. This study finally infers that proper knowledge transfer is necessary to reduce the gulf of the knowledge gap between males and females as well as between generations if agrobiodiversity is to be conserved and utilized for growth and development of agriculture in the long run.

<pre><strong><em>Purpose</em></strong><strong><em>. </em></strong><em>The purpose of this study is to prove the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising in the education / formation of the readership on the example of the </em><em>«</em><em>Ukrainian Press</em><em>»</em><em> media concern, which can be updated in modern media.</em></pre><pre><strong><em>Research methodology</em></strong><em>. The basis of the research is informational, cultural, and systemic approaches; the methods of analysis, synthesis, generalization are used – to detect the «technology» of shaping the new readers’</em><em> </em><em>environment </em><em>in terms of inter-war Galicia; extrapolation method – to demonstrate the possibilities to transfer some elements of the experience earned by Tyktor (the influence of advertising on the audience of recipients) to activity of modern media.</em></pre><pre><strong><em>Results</em></strong><em>. The place of advertising among other methods having been used by the outstanding Ukrainian publisher Ivan Tyktor in 20–30^th years of XX cent. to shape the new readers’ audience is determined, and the</em><em> </em><em>effectiveness of his advertising strategy in the modern terms is shown.</em></pre><pre><strong><em>Novelty</em></strong><em>. The effective «technologies» of education and gradual shaping of progressive readers’ audience – with new social settings, cultural requests, household habits – which used means of direct and indirect advertising in publications having been appeared at Ivan Tyktor’s «Ukrainian Press» concern are exposed and illustrated with samples. As it was shown these «technologies» after some technical «upgrade» and according to modern gustative «tuning» can be used in the modern terms, with the need for the effective co-action among participants of the «author–media–recipient» communicative chain and the problem of certain «discourtesy» of great part of the audience caused with gaps of education, selectivity of sources of information and massive «non-reading» in general at all was outlined.</em></pre><pre><strong><em>The practical significance</em></strong><em>. The research results can be used at the activity of various segments of mass media infrastructure (advertising agencies, publishers, media).</em></pre><pre><strong><em>Key words:</em></strong><em> advertising, advertising technologies, advertising strategy, reader, readership, publisher, publication, publishing concern</em></pre>

1. Introduction This Special Issue (Part 2) expands upon the theme “Building Local Capacity for Long-term Disaster Resilience” presented in Special Issue Part 1 (JDR Volume 5, Number 2, April 2010) by examining the evolving concept of disaster resilience and providing additional reflections upon various aspects of its meaning. Part 1 provided a mixed set of examples of resiliency efforts, ranging from administrative challenges of integrating resilience into recovery to the analysis of hazard mitigation plans directed toward guiding local capability for developing resiliency. Resilience was broadly defined in the opening editorial of Special Issue Part 1 as “the capacity of a community to: 1) survive a major disaster, 2) retain essential structure and functions, and 3) adapt to post-disaster opportunities for transforming community structure and functions to meet new challenges.” In this editorial essay we first explore in Section 2 the history of resilience and then locate it within current academic and policy debates. Section 3 presents summaries of the papers in this issue. 2. Why is Resilience a Contemporary Theme? There is growing scholarly and policy interest in disaster resilience. In recent years, engineers [1], sociologists [2], geographers [3], economists [4], public policy analysts [5, 6], urban planners [7], hazards researchers [8], governments [9], and international organizations [10] have all contributed to the literature about this concept. Some authors view resilience as a mechanism for mitigating disaster impacts, with framework objectives such as resistance, absorption, and restoration [5]. Others, who focus on resiliency indicators, see it as an early warning system to assess community resiliency status [3, 8]. Recently, it has emerged as a component of social risk management that seeks to minimize social welfare loss from catastrophic disasters [6]. Manyena [11] traces scholarly exploration of resilience as an operational concept back at least five decades. Interest in resilience began in the 1940s with studies of children and trauma in the family and in the 1970s in the ecology literature as a useful framework to examine and measure the impact of assault or trauma on a defined eco-system component [12]. This led to modeling resilience measures for a variety of components within a defined ecosystem, leading to the realization that the systems approach to resiliency is attractive as a cross-disciplinary construct. The ecosystem analogy however, has limits when applied to disaster studies in that, historically, all catastrophic events have changed the place in which they occurred and a “return to normalcy” does not occur. This is true for modern urban societies as well as traditional agrarian societies. The adoption of “The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015” (also known as The Hyogo Declaration) provides a global linkage and follows the United Nations 1990s International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction effort. The 2005 Hyogo Declaration’s definition of resilience is: “The capacity of a system, community or society potentially exposed to hazards to adapt by resisting or changing in order to reach and maintain an acceptable level of functioning and structure.” The proposed measurement of resilience in the Hyogo Declaration is determined by “the degree to which the social system is capable of organizing itself to increase this capacity for learning from past disasters for better future protection and to improve risk reduction measures.” While very broad, this definition contains two key concepts: 1) adaptation, and 2) maintaining acceptable levels of functioning and structure. While adaptation requires certain capacities, maintaining acceptable levels of functioning and structure requires resources, forethought, and normative action. Some of these attributes are now reflected in the 2010 National Disaster Recovery Framework published by the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) [13]. With the emergence of this new thinking on resilience related to disasters, it is now a good time to reflect on the concept and assess what has recently been said in the literature. Bruneau et al. [1] offer an engineering sciences definition for community seismic resilience: “The ability of social units (e.g., organizations, communities) to mitigate hazards, contain the effects of disasters when they occur, and carry out recovery activities in ways that minimize social disruption and mitigate the effects of future earthquakes.” Rose [4] writes that resiliency is the ability of a system to recover from a severe shock. He distinguishes two types of resilience: (1) inherent – ability under normal circumstances and (2) adaptive – ability in crisis situations due to ingenuity or extra effort. By opening up resilience to categorization he provides a pathway to establish multi-disciplinary approaches, something that is presently lacking in practice. Rose is most concerned with business disruption which can take extensive periods of time to correct. In order to make resource decisions that lower overall societal costs (economic, social, governmental and physical), Rose calls for the establishment of measurements that function as resource decision allocation guides. This has been done in part through risk transfer tools such as private insurance. However, it has not been well-adopted by governments in deciding how to allocate mitigation resources. We need to ask why the interest in resilience has grown? Manyena [11] argues that the concept of resilience has gained currency without obtaining clarity of understanding, definition, substance, philosophical dimensions, or applicability to disaster management and sustainable development theory and practice. It is evident that the “emergency management model” does not itself provide sufficient guidance for policymakers since it is too command-and-control-oriented and does not adequately address mitigation and recovery. Also, large disasters are increasingly viewed as major disruptions of the economic and social conditions of a country, state/province, or city. Lowering post-disaster costs (human life, property loss, economic advancement and government disruption) is being taken more seriously by government and civil society. The lessening of costs is not something the traditional “preparedness” stage of emergency management has concerned itself with; this is an existing void in meeting the expanding interests of government and civil society. The concept of resilience helps further clarify the relationship between risk and vulnerability. If risk is defined as “the probability of an event or condition occurring [14]#8221; then it can be reduced through physical, social, governmental, or economic means, thereby reducing the likelihood of damage and loss. Nothing can be done to stop an earthquake, volcanic eruption, cyclone, hurricane, or other natural event, but the probability of damage and loss from natural and technological hazards can be addressed through structural and non-structural strategies. Vulnerability is the absence of capacity to resist or absorb a disaster impact. Changes in vulnerability can then be achieved by changes in these capacities. In this regard, Franco and Siembieda describe in this issue how coastal cities in Chile had low resilience and high vulnerability to the tsunami generated by the February 2010 earthquake, whereas modern buildings had high resilience and, therefore, were much less vulnerable to the powerful earthquake. We also see how the framework for policy development can change through differing perspectives. Eisner discusses in this issue how local non-governmental social service agencies are building their resilience capabilities to serve target populations after a disaster occurs, becoming self-renewing social organizations and demonstrating what Leonard and Howett [6] term “social resilience.” All of the contributions to this issue illustrate the lowering of disaster impacts and strengthening of capacity (at the household, community or governmental level) for what Alesch [15] terms “post-event viability” – a term reflecting how well a person, business, community, or government functions after a disaster in addition to what they might do prior to a disaster to lessen its impact. Viability might become the definition of recovery if it can be measured or agreed upon. 3. Contents of This Issue The insights provided by the papers in this issue contribute greater clarity to an understanding of resilience, together with its applicability to disaster management. In these papers we find tools and methods, process strategies, and planning approaches. There are five papers focused on local experiences, three on state (prefecture) experiences, and two on national experiences. The papers in this issue reinforce the concept of resilience as a process, not a product, because it is the sum of many actions. The resiliency outcome is the result of multiple inputs from the level of the individual and, at times, continuing up to the national or international organizational level. Through this exploration we see that the “resiliency” concept accepts that people will come into conflict with natural or anthropogenic hazards. The policy question then becomes how to lower the impact(s) of the conflict through “hard or soft” measures (see the Special Issue Part 1 editorial for a discussion of “hard” vs. “soft” resilience). Local level Go Urakawa and Haruo Hayashi illustrate how post-disaster operations for public utilities can be problematic because many practitioners have no direct experience in such operations, noting that the formats and methods normally used in recovery depend on personal skills and effort. They describe how these problems are addressed by creating manuals on measures for effectively implementing post-disaster operations. They develop a method to extract priority operations using business impact analysis (BIA) and project management based business flow diagrams (BFD). Their article effectively illustrates the practical aspects of strengthening the resiliency of public organizations. Richard Eisner presents the framework used to initiate the development and implementation of a process to create disaster resilience in faith-based and community-based organizations that provide services to vulnerable populations in San Francisco, California. A major project outcome is the Disaster Resilience Standard for Community- and Faith-Based Service Providers. This “standard” has general applicability for use by social service agencies in the public and non-profit sectors. Alejandro Linayo addresses the growing issue of technological risk in cities. He argues for the need to understand an inherent conflict between how we occupy urban space and the technological risks created by hazardous chemicals, radiation, oil and gas, and other hazardous materials storage and movement. The paper points out that information and procedural gaps exist in terms of citizen knowledge (the right to know) and local administrative knowledge (missing expertise). Advances and experience accumulated by the Venezuela Disaster Risk Management Research Center in identifying and integrating technological risk treatment for the city of Merida, Venezuela, are highlighted as a way to move forward. L. Teresa Guevara-Perez presents the case that certain urban zoning requirements in contemporary cities encourage and, in some cases, enforce the use of building configurations that have been long recognized by earthquake engineering as seismically vulnerable. Using Western Europe and the Modernist architectural movement, she develops the historical case for understanding discrepancies between urban zoning regulations and seismic codes that have led to vulnerable modern building configurations, and traces the international dissemination of architectural and urban planning concepts that have generated vulnerability in contemporary cities around the world. Jung Eun Kang, Walter Gillis Peacock, and Rahmawati Husein discuss an assessment protocol for Hazard Mitigation Plans applied to 12 coastal hazard zone plans in the state of Texas in the U.S. The components of these plans are systematically examined in order to highlight their respective strengths and weaknesses. The authors describe an assessment tool, the plan quality score (PQS), composed of seven primary components (vision statement, planning process, fact basis, goals and objectives, inter-organizational coordination, policies & actions, and implementation), as well as a component quality score (CQS). State (Prefecture) level Charles Real presents the Natural Hazard Zonation Policies for Land Use Planning and Development in California in the U.S. California has established state-level policies that utilize knowledge of where natural hazards are more likely to occur to enhance the effectiveness of land use planning as a tool for risk mitigation. Experience in California demonstrates that a combination of education, outreach, and mutually supporting policies that are linked to state-designated natural hazard zones can form an effective framework for enhancing the role of land use planning in reducing future losses from natural disasters. Norio Maki, Keiko Tamura, and Haruo Hayashi present a method for local government stakeholders involved in pre-disaster plan making to describe performance measures through the formulation of desired outcomes. Through a case study approach, Nara and Kyoto Prefectures’ separate experiences demonstrate how to conduct Strategic Earthquake Disaster Reduction Plans and Action Plans that have deep stakeholder buy-in and outcome measurability. Nara’s plan was prepared from 2,015 stakeholder ideas and Kyoto’s plan was prepared from 1,613 stakeholder ideas. Having a quantitative target for individual objectives ensures the measurability of plan progress. Both jurisdictions have undertaken evaluations of plan outcomes. Sandy Meyer, Eugene Henry, Roy E. Wright and Cynthia A. Palmer present the State of Florida in the U.S. and its experience with pre-disaster planning for post-disaster redevelopment. Drawing upon the lessons learned from the impacts of the 2004 and 2005 hurricane seasons, local governments and state leaders in Florida sought to find a way to encourage behavior that would create greater community resiliency in 2006. The paper presents initial efforts to develop a post-disaster redevelopment plan (PDRP), including the experience of a pilot county. National level Bo-Yao Lee provides a national perspective: New Zealand’s approach to emergency management, where all hazard risks are addressed through devolved accountability. This contemporary approach advocates collaboration and coordination, aiming to address all hazard risks through the “4Rs” – reduction, readiness, response, and recovery. Lee presents the impact of the Resource Management Act (1991), the Civil Defence Emergency Management Act (2002), and the Building Act (2004) that comprise the key legislation influencing and promoting integrated management for environment and hazard risk management. Guillermo Franco and William Siembieda provide a field assessment of the February 27, 2010, M8.8 earthquake and tsunami event in Chile. The papers present an initial damage and life-loss review and assessment of seismic building resiliency and the country’s rapid updating of building codes that have undergone continuous improvement over the past 60 years. The country’s land use planning system and its emergency management system are also described. The role of insurance coverage reveals problems in seismic coverage for homeowners. The unique role of the Catholic Church in providing temporary shelter and the central government’s five-point housing recovery plan are presented. A weakness in the government’s emergency management system’s early tsunami response system is noted. Acknowledgements The Editorial Committee extends its sincere appreciation to both the contributors and the JDR staff for their patience and determination in making Part 2 of this special issue possible. Thanks also to the reviewers for their insightful analytic comments and suggestions. Finally, the Committee wishes to again thank Bayete Henderson for his keen and thorough editorial assistance and copy editing support.

The effects of interactions between private transfer behaviour and income redistribution policies depend on the motives underlying private income transfers. This paper tests for two different potential motives: pure altruism versus simple exchange, in the presence of capital market imperfections. Using household survey data for Bulgaria, microeconometric evidence is found that both motives are in effect. We also find evidence that capital market imperfections are likely to be binding for consumption smoothing, and hence are an important cause of private transfers. The results indicate that social security benefits "crowd out" the amount of private transfers received but not the incidence of private transfers. Finally, private transfers play an important role as a safety net as they significantly decrease poverty rates and the inequality of income distribution.

Abstract Conditional cash transfer (CCT) programs have become an important component of social assistance in developing countries. CCTs, as well as other cash subsidies, have been criticized for allegedly crowding out private transfers. Whether social programs crowd out private transfers is an important question with worrisome implications, as private support represents an important fraction of households’ income and works as a risk sharing mechanism in developing countries. Furthermore, empirical evidence on the effect of public transfers on private transfers is mixed. This paper contributes to the literature by using a unique dataset from the quasi-experimental evaluation of a CCT in Colombia and an empirical strategy that allows us to correct for pre-existing differences between treated and control groups. Our results suggest that the public transfer did not crowd out private transfers, neither in the short-run nor in the middle-run. Instead, it increased the probability of receiving support in cash, in kind, and in non-paid labor from different private sources by approximately 10 percentage points. Moreover, we find that the monetary value of private transfers increased by 32-38% for treated households.

The aim of this article is to identify the main determinants of Italians’ leaving-home decisions. We use data from the Survey of Household Income and Wealth (SHIW) by the Bank of Italy. The empirical study is performed by cross-section probit and panel-probit estimation. Contrary to the predominant literature’s claim, our findings unveil the positive and statistically significant effects of both children’s and parents’ income on the departure probability. We interpret this positive parents’ income effect as a signal for inter-household transfers. Finally, we distinguish by gender and find that while the young men’s leaving home is strongly dependent on such transfers, the same does not hold for young women. Keywords: leaving home, intergenerational

Remittance arrangements, or inter-household transfers in cash or kind, have been identified as an influential factor in funeral insurance purchase decisions of South African households. On the one hand, remittances can alter income and higher levels of income are associated with more insurance purchases. On the other hand, remittances can act as an informal insurance arrangement reducing formal insurance purchases. It was found using data from the fifth wave of the National Income Dynamics Study that remittances did not have a strong effect on life insurance purchases generally although for young, low-income, unbanked African and other households, receiving remittances may have discouraged life insurance purchases.

The study is undertaken to analyze the farm household income, income sources, economic inequality, and determinants of income of farm households in Bihar which is based on five-year panel data (2010–11 and 2014–15). Findings of the study show that the income level of farm households in the selected villages of Bihar is low, but exhibited an impressive annual growth rate of 6% from 2010–11 to 2014–15. The income level showed a positive relation with the size of landholding. Further, the sources of household income are quite diverse, and cultivation contributes only one-fourth to the total income of farm households. The level of remittances showed signs of decline, while the share of transfer payments and non -farm activities increased from 2010–11 to 2014–15. Inter- and intra-class inequality in farm household income is also prominent but diminishing with time. Farm assets, diversification, and education level have turned out to be important drivers of farm household income. These findings have significant implications and call for holistic rural development strategies for enhancing farmers’ income.