Journal articles on the topic 'Inter-branch organizations'

Purpose: The aim of the study is to investigate extremism as a complex inter-branch concept which complicates law enforcement practice. Methodology: This is an analytic-dialectical research whose data are obtained through the analysis of historical, legal and sociological texts and data. Main Findings: When defining extremism in the basic law of anti-extremist legislation, it is necessary to proceed from the fact that the phenomenon, the concept of which should be formulated, is manifested in different spheres of social and political life. In conclusion, extremism creates an ideological basis for terrorism, but the acts of terrorism go beyond the concept of extremism. Applications: This article can be used by regional schools, cultural organizations and universities. Novelty/Originality: In this study, correlation between the phenomena of terrorism and extremism has been studied on the basis of definition for terrorist act given in part 1 of article 205 of the criminal code of the Russian Federation.

The author of the article explains the advantages of using the method of inter-branch analogy and the use of established civil-law mechanisms to govern unsettled labor relations associated with the need to exercise judicial control over the amount of compensation paid for early dismissal to chief executive officers, their deputies, chief accountants of organizations in cases when dismissal occurs in the absence of any wrongdoing on behalf of an employee due to the change of ownership of the legal entity property or individuals controlling the legal entity. The author argues that lack of clear regulatory criteria applicable to determine the limits of discretion to establish the amount of such payments, legal uncertainty with respect of prior approval necessity and possibility of subsequent challenge of "golden parachutes" agreements on behalf of the beneficiaries of the organization constitute the most significant legal gap in the field in question. Due to the fact that a high degree of similarity was established with respect of the regime of transactions and labor agreements of top managers with regard to "golden parachutes" arrangements and a significant legal similarity was revealed between "golden parachutes" and civil law compensations paid to the creditor when the debtor exercised the right to unilaterally refuse to fulfill of the obligation, the author insists on doctrinal support for the application of rules applied to challenge major transactions and (or) interested party transactions to labor "golden parachutes" agreements, as well as the application of the mechanism of judicial reduction of abusive civil-law compensation to labor disputes in question.

The article deals with the analyzes of foreign investors role in Russian regions based on the data on the investment in fixed assets of organizations with foreign capital and the regions attractiveness for foreign and domestic investors based on non-budgetary investment to GRP. New approaches are suggested to quantitative assessment of branch specialization of regions (first of all for metal and oil and gas industry) and the volume of their markets, which are among the factors explaining inter-regional differences in the role of foreign capital. Also the importance of the state investment policy, the size of regional economy, offshore origin of foreign capital is shown.

The responsibility of states and international organizations is an essential issue of contemporary international law. All other debates in this branch of law seem to follow up on this issue. In fact, whenever a state violates its international obligation, the question of the responsibility of such a state arises. However, in addition to being essential, this issue is also an extremely politically sensitive area, as only some states, guided mainly by demand for respect for their territorial sovereignty and the principle of equality of all states, are willing to accept all the consequences of such behavior in international relations with other subjects of international law, while those that consider themselves more equal than others (primus inter pares), particularly the great world powers, will be largely reluctant to accept legal responsibility for their illegal acts, and especially for the commission of international crimes in the narrow sense, which includes the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. With international organizations, the problems in this regard are perhaps even greater.In this paper we examine the meaning of further survival of the concept of criminal responsibility of states and international organizations, wanting to examine the concept and definition of criminal responsibility of transnational corporations at the international level, while in the second part of the article we try to shed a light on political-legal responsibility. In addition to the fact that this concept is probably unsustainable under international law, it seems that the approach to advocating for the criminal responsibility of the state, as well as international organizations, is unnecessary. Therefore, we should work on building and thoroughly elaborating the concept of international responsibility of the state and the international organization in the conditions of international crimes stricto sensu, in other words, serious breaches of obligations arising from peremptory norms of general international law. In this way, without creating legally unsustainable constructions, essentially the same goal would be achieved.

At present, the possibility of providing qualified medical care anywhere in the world has become a reality thanks to the development of telemedicine technologies. The development and improvement of telemedicine technologies is due to the regulatory and legal regulation and implementation of the national project «Health Care», which was developed on the basis of the Presidential Decree № 204 of 07.05.2018 «On the national goals and strategic objectives of the Russian Federation for the period until 2024». (hereinafter – the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of 07.05.2018 № 204) [9]. The National Medical Research Centers (NMRCs) were tasked with organizing advisory and methodological expert support for specialized regional medical organizations of the 3rd level of RF subjects. Cheboksary branch «The S. Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Federal State Institution» supervises ophthalmological service of 8 subjects of the Russian Federation: Nizhny Novgorod, Kirov, Ulyanovsk regions, Republics of Mordovia, Udmurtia, Mari-El, Tatarstan and Chuvashia. The article presents the experience of Cheboksary branch «The S. Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Federal State Institution» of Health of Russia on the use of telemedicine technologies to improve the provision of specialized, including high-tech medical care in the profile «Ophthalmology». Over the 3-year period of operation, the number of requests for telemedicine consultations at the «doctor-physician» level has increased significantly. In addition, from January 2021, Cheboksary branch «The S. Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Federal State Institution» provides consultative care at the «doctor-patient» level. Purpose of the study is to present the experience of Cheboksary branch «The S. Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Federal State Institution» of Health of Russia on the use of telemedicine consultations (TMC) performed using the «Telemedicine consultations» component of the federal electronic registry subsystem of the unified state information system in healthcare (USGISZ FER TMC component) from 2019 to 2021 and the «MEDTERA Telemedicine» unified secure technological platform from 2021. Material and Methods. Telemedical consultations on the basis of the Cheboksary branch «The S. Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Federal State Institution» are performed by highly qualified specialists – heads of the departments, research workers, leading specialists in different fields of ophthalmology. Telemedical consultations at the «doctor-physician» level are performed as follows: at the initial stage, a request for a consultation is received from specialized medical organizations of the subjects of the Russian Federation, which is processed by the employees of the Department of Telemedical Consultations. Information about the request is registered in the database, its profile is evaluated, as well as the quality, completeness and relevance of the data of the attached medical documentation. For real-time consultation «doctor-patient» through video or audio conferencing, the patient makes an independent appointment for a convenient date and time with a particular specialist. Results. During 3 years of the TMC functioning at the Cheboksary branch «The S. Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Federal State Institution» the number of requests for telemedicine consultations at the “doctor-physician” level in the field of ophthalmology from 8 subjects of the Russian Federation of the Volga Federal District is progressively increasing. The bulk of telemedicine consultations are scheduled requests. During the 3-year period of telemedicine consultations at the Cheboksary branch «The S. Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Federal State Institution» there were 94 TMK from the Republic of Tatarstan, 79 TMK from the Chuvash Republic, 61 TMK from the Republic of Mariy-El, 53 TMK from the Republic of Udmurtia, 46 TMK from the Kirov region, 37 TMK from the Nizhny Novgorod region, 36 TMK from the Ulyanovsk region, 23 TMK from the Republic of Mordovia. Findings. Summarizing the results of the analysis of the structure of telemedicine consultations performed using the IGISZ FER TMC component, it can be summarized that the IGISZ FER TMC component is a convenient, effective tool, which allows to comply with the Russian legislation in conducting telemedicine consultations, as well as to analyze the structure of telemedicine consultations conducted with its use.

Background: The transport industry is leading in the overall structure of the country's economy. In parts of the regions, this industry can be a branch of specialization. Aim: To forecast further development of the industry in the territory of Ugra. Method: Analysis based on a questionnaire survey of organizations related to the transport industry in Ugra. To analyze the further development of the transport industry of Ugra, the methods of SWOT analysis and rating ranking were used. Results: The study revealed the main and secondary factors of the transport industry of Ugra. The analysis allowed to determine the strengths and weaknesses of transport, opportunities and threats to its development. On the basis of the analysis three rows of the forecast of transport development are given: pessimistic, moderate and optimistic. Conclusion: Thus, based on the analysis of the data presented, the following conclusions can be drawn: First, regional or inter-municipal highways, as well as the federal highway, perform a clearly expressed system-forming, supporting role in the common network of Ugra roads - on 8 km of these roads 8.8 km of private and local roads (for example, in Russia this ratio is 2.8 km); These roads, in comparison with the average indicators for regional or intermunicipal motorways of Russia, have higher loads, both from single types of motor transport, and the total load from all types of motor transport. Secondly, measurements of traffic on the bridge over the Ob River in Surgut showed that 44 % of passenger cars and 69 % of trucks, as well as 54 % of buses in the transport stream, consisted of transport from 32 other regions of the country. Taking into account that Rosstat cites the volumes of cargo transportation by organizations in the place of their registration, it is possible to assume with full justification that the actual volume of transported goods along the roads of Yugra is much larger. Above and the dynamics of growth in the volumes of goods transported by road. Thirdly, the industrial orientation of economic development predetermines the vastness of economic ties between Ugra and other regions of the country, which places regional inter-regional importance for the main regional roads, and therefore the construction and maintenance of such highways should be carried out not only at the expense of the budget of the Autonomous Okrug, but also of the federal budget.

The article focuses on the terminology of English law as a system. It deals with the main specific characteristics of the English legal terminology and studies the systemic nature of the terminology of Criminal Law. Nowadays, an increasing role of the study of professional language (Language for Specific Purposes) is obvious since it is a means of dissemination and exchange of professional information and a means of communication in the professional discourse. It is a system of terms that constitutes the core of the Language for Specific Purposes. The study of terminology is of paramount importance for the legal sphere of human activity where the accuracy of interpretation plays a very substantial part. Legal terms have a number of specific characteristics, such as: abstract nature of legal notions; introduction of new terms by regulatory organizations; an important role of judicial interpretation in constituting shades of meaning of a legal terminological unit; and the fact that a legal term may belong to a particular area of Law, which makes it possible to refer it to the category of general legal, branch-wise, or inter-branch vocabulary. Every term has its particular place among other elements of a system and is related to them in a particular way. A terminological system should be considered as a whole, and there are particular hierarchical relations between its elements. Within a terminological system, it is possible to seta hierarchy of generic and specific terms that can form the so-called semantic field. One of the features demonstrating the systemic links within a terminology is the existence of some typical structural models, according to which terms are coined. An important criterion is the predominance ofterminological word-combinations of a certain type. For example, in the terminology of Criminal Law the models Noun + Preposition + Noun and Adjective + Noun are the most common structural models. Another important criterion of a systemic nature of terminology is the existence of antonymous relations between terminological units. Undoubtedly, systemic approach to terminological studies allows optimizing the learning process.

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of the global financial crisis on Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) bank regulation and the impact on the region and the policies adopted by the regulators to avoid financial panic and contagion. Design/methodology/approach – The author examines GCC countries’ financial soundness indicators in terms of capital adequacy, non-performing loans and provisioning rates, including central bank liquidity support, deposit guarantees, capital injections and monetary easing and policies to mitigate risk assessment, and the monitoring and elimination of practices promoting excessive risk. GCC compliance regimes through multinational organizations and the exposure of the region to cross-border financial linkages to test for financial soundness are assessed. Findings – Overall, results indicate that comprehensive regulatory oversight exists in the GCC in conformity with international standards, and Basel capital adequacy requirements, and that the GCC regulators have acted prudently to establish high coverage in all measures but that gaps exit concerning cross-border surveillance and a need for imposition of capital surcharges on banks deemed high systemic risk. The supervision of Islamic financial institutions and a lack of inter-GCC liquidity support mechanism for this segment are highlighted. Practical implications – The paper shows that the GCC regulators need to address cross-border surveillance, as local banks branch internationally and foreign banks operate in the region. Originality/value – The author is not aware of any similar work that compares the regulatory policies of the GCC.

Introduction. Formed inter-branch connections in the meat product sub-complex are characterized by complexity and variety of forms and methods, increasing influence on the final results of the functioning of organizations of the meat product sub-complex in general. In addition, the existing inter-industry relations affect the rates of economic growth and prospects for the development of the country's economy. Therefore, the formation of a new system of economic relations in modern conditions necessitates the development of inter-sectoral cooperation in the structure of the agro-industrial complex of Ukraine. Methods. The research was conducted using general scientific methods and techniques: logical and qualitative analysis and synthesis – when substantiating theoretical approaches to the functioning of the meat product sub-complex, system and structural analysis – when analysing the current state of operations of enterprises of the meat product sub-complex; comparative analysis – when comparing foreign and domestic experience of conducting activities in the specified field; the method of cause-and-effect analysis – to identify problems in the development of enterprises of the meat product sub-complex and the industry; logical generalization – for the formation of conclusions and proposals. Results. We believe that the implementation of measures for the development of family livestock farms will contribute to the creation of new permanent jobs. For greater positive dynamics in this direction, it is necessary to develop special credit programs for the creation of both family farms and workshops for the processing of livestock products, which is a measure of the “green basket” and is not subject to restrictions under the terms of Ukraine's membership in the WTO. In our opinion, the amount of grant support for the development of family livestock farms should be directly related to the obligations of the recipients for a certain amount of produced products of the appropriate quality. Only in this case can we talk about the effectiveness of state funds directed to support small businesses. Discussion. Ukraine's membership in the EU will require the development of effective methods of state support for Ukrainian meat producers in order to ensure their competitiveness both on the domestic and global agri-food market in terms of quality and cost indicators, which is the perspective of our further research. Keywords: state support, business entities, meat products, grant support, meat products complex.

The article provides history of setting up the company 'Rostagroexport', one of the biggest producer of dairy produce in Russia. The author shows in detail the evolution of the group strategy development, from aggressive dumping to output of premium produce and offer of exclusive services (sports and recreation) and describes preconditions of their development and conditions of implementation, as well as specific features of designing polar strategies supplementing key lines in the group activity, which are typical of the period of corporate maturity. In its speedy development the group successively passed over from strategy of cost leadership to strategy of vertical integration and differentiation and later to strategy of diversification by minimizing risks, optimizing various business-processes, extending its production and trading potential, creating inter-branch cooperation, including enterprises of agriculture, food industry and trade, sports and tourist sphere, etc. An important place in the article is taken by analyzing rules of doing business, i.e. grounds of efficient management of any enterprise developed by B. Alexandrov, the founder of the group as a result of long experience of developing different corporate businesses and a comparative analysis of 'Rostagroexport' group rules with management principles of other well-known entrepreneurs and their companies. On this basis advantages and shortcomings of their use in management of commercial organizations of a wide sphere of activity were identified. Special attention is paid to study and assessment of such socially important rules of doing business, as 'pay to your employees in good time' and 'motivate people in positive ways'.

Internal marketing is considered as an academic, scientific, and commercial knowledge of improving the level of customer satisfaction. This branch of marketing science is largely influenced by quality management and service marketing, which emphasizes the importance and necessity of creating quality throughout the service delivery process. This field of marketing science discusses the relationship between the customers and internal suppliers of the organization (employees) in creating value for foreign customers, this can be appeared as a chain of value and a tool for developing the quality of products and services and inter-organizational and outsourced interactions within the organization (Ling, 2000). Today, domestic marketing is known as a strategy to improve the performance of the organization. Related studies in this realm show that internal marketing activities will improve the organization’s competitiveness and enhance competency through empowering and motivating employees. Despite the expansion of this concept in the marketing literature, practically little use has been made of it. The internal marketing argument is that the first customers of each organization are its employees. By examining the factors affecting internal marketing, it is clear that there are many factors that affect domestic marketing. Over the past 20 years, many models have evolved from domestic marketing. In this article 12 models of them will be covered in detail. Then, in the end, they will be criticized, and these models will be examined.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to help clarify understanding of the logistic platform concept so as to release its potential for the benefit of the logistics sector. Design/methodology/approach – Cross-sectional research was conducted in Slovenia, Poland and Singapore. Web-based survey responses were obtained from four organization types: logistics companies (LCs); production or service non-LCs; branch associations/state agencies/chambers of commerce; and educational institutions. Findings – Logistics platforms (LPFs) are a very much a multi-level phenomenon which, through macro-level organization, may multiply the micro- and meso-level effects obtained. The joint development of promising inter-organizational concepts which involve different stakeholder groups can be inefficient owing to differences in concept content understanding. Research limitations/implications – The research was limited to Slovenia, Poland and Singapore. Further research in other countries would be beneficial, and the survey can be repeated for other inter-organizational concepts. Practical implications – This paper proposes a general LPF model and seeks to raise awareness of the complexity surrounding the implementation of this particular inter-organizational concept. From the viewpoint of a practitioner, the knowledge that different stakeholder groups may have divergent perceptions of the concept’s content is important and will help strengthen inter-organizational projects by devoting attention to basic fact unification. Originality/value – This paper is the first transparent overview on the understanding and utilization of LPFs in theory and practice. The paper proposes a general LPF model. The authors wish to highlight the need for research into the perceptions held among different stakeholder groups regarding the concept’s content for the implementation of inter-organizational projects.

Stages of formation and development of the Department of Economic and Social Geography of the Faculty of Geography of Ivan Franko National University of Lviv as a scientific center of Lviv humangeographical school are revealed. Special features of the theoretical, methodological, methodical and applied problems’ research of human geography in general and in Western region in particular are characterized. The Department connections with the education and design institutions from the countries of Europe and America are explained. Key words: scientific human-geographical school, the formation and development of the Department, complex-regional direction, inter-branch complexes, geographical studies of Ukraine, scientific connections of the Department.

The term “law of conflict” has firmly entered the categorical apparatus of Russian legal science, but today there is no unified approach to determining its place in the legal system. The article analyzes the scientific discussion, highlights the main points of view in the field of researching law of conflict. Purpose: to analyze the legal nature of law of conflict and determine the main trends in its development. Methods: empirical methods of comparison, description, interpretation; theoretical methods of formal and dialectical logic. Specific scientific methods are used: legal-dogmatic and method of interpretation of legal norms. Results: the legal nature of law of conflict is manifested primarily in conflict of laws dispersed in various branches of law that ensure law consistency and structural organization. Therefore, it does not belong expressly to any branch. The authors propose to consider law of conflict as a complex inter branch-legal institution.

The electric power industry as a fundamental branch of the Russian economy is actively developing, inter alia, through technological and digital capacity expansion. Under the increased sanctions pressure on the Russian economy, the electric power industry, as well as other areas of the fuel and energy complex, is subject to significant risks associated with the need for technology import substitution. Taking into account the significant public and legal impact on the electric power market due to its high social and economic importance, the active introduction and development of technological and digital services in the industry is limited to some extent. Therefore, special legal regulation shall be further improved to expand the civil-law freedoms of electric power industry entities, especially in view of new technological and digital solutions. The attitudes, judgments, and statements presented in this article constitute the author’s personal opinion and may not correspond to the official viewpoint of the organization that employed him or any other organization.

Hsp90 gene of G. lamblia has a split nature comprising two ORFs separated by 777 kb on chromosome 5. The ORFs of the split gene on chromosome 5 undergo transcription to generate independent pre-mRNAs that join by a unique trans-splicing reaction that remains partially understood. The canonical cis-acting nucleotide elements such as 5’SS-GU, 3’SS-AG, polypyrimidine tract and branch point adenine are present in the independent pre-mRNAs and therefore trans-splicing of Hsp90 must be assisted by spliceosomes in vivo. Using an approach of RNA-protein pull down, we showed that an RNA helicase selectively interacts with HspN pre-mRNA. Our experiments involving high resolution chromosome conformation capture technology as well as DNA FISH show that the trans-spliced genes of Giardia are in three-dimensional spatial proximity in the nucleus. Altogether our study provides a glimpse into the in vivo mechanisms involving protein factors as well as chromatin structure to facilitate the unique inter-molecular post-transcriptional stitching of split genes in G. lamblia.

Changes taking place in recent decades in the global economy have led to the formation and development of new highly differentiated inter-branch complexes, rather than separated industries. In the global economy, such reorganization is marked by the formation of new sectors of the economy, one of which is a sector of socio-natural types of economic activity. At the level of regions, new integration formations are developed - regional inter-sectoral recreational complexes (IcRC). The purpose of our study is to substantiate the formation of regional inter-sectoral complexes of recreational and tourist activities (RTA) in the conditions of radical restructuring of the economy of post-industrial civilization. Inter-sectoral complex RTA is a set of different types of activities of the population - economic and non-economic, as well as leisure forms that provide the needs of the population of the region (countries) in recreation services, health improvement, healing and tourism, accompanying social services and recreational and tourist infrastructure. The study presents an author's vision of the composition and structuring of the regional inter-sectoral complex of recreation and tourism activity. The developed model of the inter-sectoral complex RTA covers all varieties of recreational activities with all its forms - tourism, organized recreation, unorganized (amateur) mass recreation, household recreation. The geographical bases for the formation of regional inter-sectoral recreational complexes are serving recreational and tourist resources - destinations that determine the specialization of the region by types of RTA. Depending on the level of development of RTA in the region, the RTA management systems may form. At the local and regional levels, the RTA nodes will be destinations - local and regional concentration of recreational and tourist resources with appropriate infrastructure. On the global (international) level, RTA retains a network form of a territorial organization, whose nodes are world centres and areas of tourism, as well as the main areas of formation of tourist flows.

The article presents the importance of integration processes in the functioning of the inland waterway transport market. The structure of port services was characterized and their individual segments were distinguished. The meaning and differences of intra-and inter-branch integration of inland waterway transport are presented. In addition, two examples of solutions are discussed that are used in the organization and management of transport processes and having a significant impact on the integration of all participants of the inland waterway transport market. These examples are the River Information Services RIS and Single Window. The aim of the article is to analysis the impact of integration processes on the development and changes in the inland waterway transport functioning as an element of integrated transport systems. The features and benefits for the transport system resulting from integration within the inland waterway transport system, but also with other systems and the environment, have been indicated.

The article deals with the logical-linguistic parameters of a narrow-branch term system.The main rationale for the systemic nature of terminology is the system of term-concept relationships: the place of the term in the term-system is determined by the place of the concept in the corresponding system of concepts. In logic, the conceptual system is considered as a set of concepts and relations between them, that is, at the specified level of organization of the term system we can define two basic system parameters: the presence of certain conceptual categories – the broadest in terms of meaning; conceptual connections between terms at the intra-categorical and inter-categorical levels.On the verbal level, it is necessary to distinguish the following system-forming parameters: the structural typology of terms and their term-forming relationships.Understanding the systemic system of the term system as a phenomenon of the dual logico-linguistic plan requires a clearer identification of the relationship between the logical and linguistic factors of its formation.

The purpose of the paper is to study the struggle for economic dominance of Pochaiv branch of the Union of the Russian People and the Orthodox clergy of Volyn at the beginning of the 20th century. The key factors that influenced the activity of economic and financial institutions that were under the influence of the Black Hundreds are analyzed. The scientific novelty of the study: based on archival documents and materials of the Black Hundreds’ press, the peculiarities of the struggle for the economic dominance of the Black Hundreds and the Orthodox clergy in Volyn at the beginning of the 20th century are clarified, and the results of the activities of the Union of the Russian People and their role in the aggravation of international relations are analyzed. Conclusions. It is proven that since the beginning of its activity, Pochaiv branch of the Union of the Russian People had launched an active and purposeful campaign to create a strong network of primary centers in the region. With the support of the imperial authorities and the clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church, which played an active role in the process of formation of the organization, the ‘allies’ managed to achieve their goal quite quickly. They put the struggle against ‘non-Russians’ as one of their priority tasks. Taking into account that during the studied period in Volyn, Poles, Jews, and, to a lesser extent, German agrarian colonists played a key role in the economy, just with those ethnic groups the Black Hundreds began the struggle for economic dominance. They saw one of their main tasks in that field of activity in creating a number of small credit societies and opening consumer stores. Covering up themselves with demagogic slogans about Jewish usury, they actively promoted the organization’s ideology through the named institutions with the help of the influence of parish priests. In 1911, thanks to the persistent efforts of the Head of Pochaiv branch of the Union of the Russian People, Archimandrite Vitalii, the Black Hundreds managed to open their own bank, the main declared purpose of which was to help the peasants purchase land and oppose non-Russians in that. Due to the use of demagogic slogans, the Black Hundreds succeeded in achieving certain positive results in their efforts and strengthened their economic position in the region shortly before the First World War. However, that area of activity of the Union of the Russian People contributed to an even greater aggravation of inter-ethnic relations in Volyn during the period under study.

When economic landscape is changing both ecosystems development and their effective management became very important. The author shows goals, objectives and principles necessary for effective functioning of the mechanism of managing ecosystem development and highlights the sum total of criteria providing digital ecosystem identification. The article underlines that managing ecosystem development can be possible only at the expense of coordinated efforts of macro- and micro-levels. The set of state regulatory tools includes antitrust measures, taxation system, steps aimed at protecting suppliers and customers, support of national ecosystems and suppliers, regulation of work with data and information, development of technological infrastructure and others. As for micro-economic tools the author underlines confidence-building inside the ecosystem, provision of mutual value creation, inter-branch focus, organizational structure, management system, organization culture, availability of relative competences in the ecosystem and flexible partner relations and integration based on API principles. In conclusion the author points out to the importance of developing digital ecosystems for all market participants and for national economy as a whole.

Higher education enrolment and graduation rates have increased rapidly inter-generationally across much of the world, offering employers the promise of more knowledgeable recruits and promising individuals new means of social advancement. In the case of Bolivia, the labour force is becoming more heterogeneous over time, which could imply positive effects induced by a closer match between labour supply and recruiters’ needs. However, we show that this is not the case. We revisit the transition mechanisms from college to the workplace, positing recruiters’ interpretations of educational credentials as a crucial determining factor for employability in the formal sector. In a two-branch correspondence study, 2848 fictitious CVs were sent to 1424 formal firms in the three main urban Bolivian areas. We find a large university reputation premium. Applicants from well-valued universities are around 40% more likely to receive a positive response – a 2.25 percentage point advantage from a 7.87% baseline likelihood. Thus, the increasingly heterogeneous labour force is generating additional informational frictions in the labour market, rather than promoting a more efficient matching process. JEL Codes: I25, J24, C93

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to study what motivates small businesses to engage in collective action, especially in high-tech industry. Design/methodology/approach – Application domain is smart living industry, in which installation companies offer ICT-enabled solutions for smart home services. A survey was conducted among 140 small/medium installation companies in smart living industry which are members of a major Dutch branch organization. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used to model and analyse data from the survey. Findings – The paper found that different types of motivations do not significantly increase the collective orientation of small businesses. Moreover, the current involvement of small companies in smart living projects is not directly related to their collective orientation. Research limitations/implications – The lack of collaboration is resulting in market fragmentation and lack of technological interoperability. The paper advise policy makers to provide selective incentives to stimulate collaboration and to facilitate knowledge sharing on best practices and collective business cases. Originality/value – The motivational factors for collective action between small businesses in high-tech sectors have rarely been studied. Although many studies addresses collective action issues on an individual level, the literature lacks an integration of existing theories into a set of testable hypotheses that aim at motivators and inhibitors of inter-organizational collective action.

The presented work is dedicated to research of essence and internal links of transnational cluster systems as a factor contributing to competitiveness of the Black Sea Euroregion in view of advancing integration processes and necessity to increase part played by economy of peripheral territories within cross-border cooperation framework. Strategic priorities of network forms of cooperation within the context of the EU cross-border cooperation policy are identified. Advantages and parameters of cross-border industrial quasi-integration are explained in view of prospects of Ukraine entry into the EU. This work is dedicated to exploration of main features inherent to meso-level of international integration formations representing network structures in intra-branch and inter-branch cooperation in the form of cross-border cluster systems encompassing macro-levels and micro-level of integration of national economy of multiple states. Possibilities of theory synthesis of international economic integration and cluster concept in economic area virtualization environment are revealed. Cluster approach is proved to be the most efficient mechanism to develop cross-border economic relations and represents, finally, a meso-level of competitive international integration systems and mandatory condition of quality advance for Ukrainian European integration.In the article it is stated that cross-border cluster unities in accordance with the worldwide experience become new forms of innovative development of the European regions with the involvement of Ukraine. The essence and inner interrelations of cross-border network cluster is investigated as the growth factor of the European region competitiveness under the conditions of intensifying the integration processes and the necessity of enhancement of the role of periphery regions’ economy in the framework of cross-border cooperation. Within the context of European Union regional politics the strategic priorities of the spatial development of the European regions are stated on the basis of self-organization of “hybrid” network quasi integration institutions. Their role in the competitive recovery of the European regions in the light of Ukrainian perspectives of joining European Union is investigated.

The aim of this article is to present a potential financing model for the maintenance of railway stations (station buildings) with public funds. The article points out that this is an issue that needs to be solved due to the nature of the existing system of fees in the entire transport sector. This issue is also important in the context of the decisions made by the Polish Office of Rail Transport (ORT) with respect to the fees charged by infrastructure managers and operators of infrastructure facilities from railway carriers. The article also describes the current situation of railway station operators in relation to the sources of financing their activities, the ownership structure of operators, and the categories of trains commissioned by public trans-port organizers of different levels. The directions of the EU transport policy concerning the principles of creating a system of fees providing for a level playing field in terms of inter-branch competition are also presented. The article presents solutions in terms of financing the maintenance of station facilities (including station buildings) in the EU Member States with the longest railway networks (excluding the UK, i.e. Germany, Italy and France). The summary of the article highlights some suggestions of possible solutions to this problem within the framework of the Polish legal and financial system. Keywords: railway station, station building, rail yard, maintenance of infrastructure facilities, public aid, organization of rail transport

The article considers the issues of further development of the conceptual apparatus of such a direction as recreation and tourism and the question of determining the various directions and components of recreation and tourism economy. The purpose of this work is to identify the main components of recreational and tourist activity as an integral part of the inter-sectoral complex. It is stressed that tourism activity can be viewed from the standpoint of the economy, because it has all the features of the economy, although this approach is not widespread. It is also possible to study the recreation and tourism sector as a type of economic activity. Recreational and tourist activity is considered as a service market, both as a social system and as an economic system. It was emphasized that in geography and regional economy, recreational and tourist activity is considered as an inter-sectoral complex. A pivotal problem is the definition of objects and entities in systemic relations, where, depending on the nature of the system, tourists can act as objects and subjects. It was established that the formation of the subject area of recreational and tourist activity is based on geographical concepts, including the concept of «touristdestination», the concept of territorial organization of the population and economy, the concept of territorial recreational systems. The position of geographers in the development of the subject area of tourism enhances resource orientation of tourism activity; we note that the resource is both population and tourist destinations. In the article we considered the Ukrainian taxonomy of types of economic activities, which are directly involved in tourism and recreation. It is determined that tourism and recreation sector occupy a special place in the sphere of services. In essence, tourist services are multi–component, and the tourist product itself combines the result of the activities of enterprises that carry out completely different activities. The schematically structured recreation and tourism complex by types of activities indicates the formation of areas of economic activity and industry directly related to recreation and tourism, such as mass recreation of the population – unorganized and organized, and tourism, the sphere of recreation. Thus, the representation ofrecreation and tourism activity as an inter-branch complex offers new possibilities for forecasting its development and formation of new directions of use of recreational and tourist resources.

The aim of the proposed research consists in outlining prospects of cluster mechanism application and verification of the cluster strategy in view of innovative development of cross-border regions against the background on strengthening integration processes. The work is dedicated to research of theoretical, methodical and applicable basis of strategic management of development of international integration associations as network-like structures of intra-branch and inter-branch cooperation on their mesolevel. The research method is based on mesoeconomic synthesis of development concepts in industrial and innovative clusters and international integration associations. To the authors’ opinion, it enables to work out both mechanism and scientific understanding of development trends in modern integration systems. The scientific hypothesis of the proposed work suggests that the cluster approach is the most efficient mechanism of development of international economic cooperation under modern conditions and, finally, is a mesolevel of competitive international integration systems and necessary pre-condition of qualitative progress of integration of Ukraine into the EU. The authors propose to develop integration processes of mesolevel within the framework of unified economic space basing upon clustering. Concept, structure and life cycle of net forms of self-organization of a cross-border economic space in conditions of developing a postmodern economy are considered. Conclusion is drawn to state that the cross-border clusters concept construes an approach adequate to modern challenges to stimulate economic development of peripheral regions with inherent features and advantages taking into account comprehensive dynamic competition and coordination of problems of meso– and macrolevels with conditions accompanying operation and activity of particular business entities. Under such circumstances, cluster policy consists in creating conditions for formation and development of cross-border clusters, but, under no circumstances, in artificial generation of such clusters. Theoretical positions and methodological approaches to the formation of industrial clusters within European regions are systematized. The essence of cross-border and internal relationships of the cluster as a factor in increasing competitiveness in the increasingly Euroregion integration processes and the need to enhance the role of peripheral regions within the framework of crossborder cooperation. The strategic priorities for spatial development of new forms of cross-border cooperation in the context of regional policy of the EU are outlined.

The article examines the theoretical aspects of technological reengineering at an industrial enterprise. The current state of Ukrainian enterprises requires a rethinking of business organization methods and the use of a fundamentally different from functional approach, which would allow to fully realize the advantages of new technologies and human resources. Focusing on individual tasks is outdated in a world of competition and change. The economy needs radical changes, which means its reengineering. Currently, such main types of reengineering are distinguished as bioreengineering, preventive, inter-branch, related reengineering, risk engineering, construction, organizational-production, social direct and reverse reengineering, innovative, complex reengineering, reengineering of financial business processes, ex- reengineering, technological reengineering... The concept of "technological reengineering" is especially highlighted. Technological reengineering is considered as a system of fundamental transformations of technological processes at industrial enterprises, which contribute to their exit from the crisis, accelerated adaptation to market conditions, systematic renewal of production systems, etc. Technological reengineering is understood as a complex procedure that involves the development or purchase and sale of new R&D and technologies, production experience, personnel knowledge, know-how for the purpose of further implementation of new production technologies and their diffusion into production for the commercialization of new goods and new services, for the expansion market presence and strengthening of competitive advantages, or redesign and modernization of existing technologies. An own version of the approach to technological reengineering is proposed, its connection with product quality and business processes is substantiated. Process Quality Management (PQM) has been proven to play an important role in any large-scale reengineering project.

The article analyzes the classification of positions of public servants, which divides positions in the executive branch into two types - administrative and political. It is emphasized that the effectiveness of any organization depends, inter alia, on the staffing of all parts of its internal management. In this regard, it is noted that the executive authorities are no exception in this regard. The overall effectiveness of the executive in Ukraine depends on the quality of the staff that fills all levels of government. It was noted that the process of legal regulation of government formation and distribution of positions in executive bodies was significantly influenced by competition between “technocratic government” and “influence of political parties”, which received public support in implementing their political programs. It is emphasized that determining the features of the legal regulation of political officials, clarifying their differences from public servants who hold administrative positions in the executive branch, is a relevant and promising subject of research in modern administrative law. It is proved that the legal status of public servants holding administrative positions in executive bodies is sufficiently regulated by national legislation, while the legal status of political servants is enshrined in fragments and with numerous gaps. The existence of public positions in executive bodies is mentioned in such normative legal acts as the Code of Administrative Proceeding of Ukraine, the Laws of Ukraine “On the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine”, “On Central Executive Bodies”. However, even today the national legislation does not have a clear list of positions of executive bodies that are political. It is established that the issue of the legal nature of such a position as the head of a local state administration, which was excluded from the list of administrative positions but was not officially recognized as a political position, remains unresolved in the national legislation. It is proved that public servants who hold political positions are characterized by the following features: 1) are appointed to positions according to the procedures provided by the norms of constitutional law; 2) are politicians or persons representing the interests of political forces in the government; 3) the legislation does not impose mandatory requirements on them in terms of practical experience or the appropriate level of professionalism; 4) they maintain contact with society through political technologies and procedures; 5) they are not subject to disciplinary liability.

In present-day conditions, the positioning of energy saving and energy efficiency processes is one of the priorities of the National Strategy for Sustainable Socio-Economic Development of the Republic of Belarus. The article builds an innovation and investment model for managing ener- gy-saving technologies of an energy enterprise based on the analytical research results, reasonable parameters and criteria, which makes it possible to create a framework for industry 4.0 and a basis for sectoral scientific and technological integration within the EAEU. The object of the study is the management of energy-saving technologies at the Mogilev CHP-2 Branch of RUE Mogilevenergo in the system of innovative development. The authors present the organi- zational and economic foundations for the research of an innovative approach to the management of energy-saving technologies at an energy enterprise and conceptual approaches to the construction of an innovation and investment model in the control unit. The results of a retrospective and prospective anal- ysis of energy efficiency in the format of the use of fixed assets of the branch are summarized, which made it possible to identify the need and objects of the innovation and investment activity. Low-cost projects are recommended for implementation, as well as a large- scale project of energy-saving technologies at production sites of equipment with a high level of physical and moral wear and tear, requiring increased efficiency and innovativeness of implemented technologies for generating the energy and providing its flexible release. In the hierarchy of measures, priority is assigned to low-cost technologies of modernization and reconstruction of Mogilev CHP-2. An investment project is developed for the introduction of low-cost technologies for the modernization of Mogilev CHP-2 with a high level of innovation, providing increased capacity, maneuverability and the energy efficiency of the organization. The effect of mutual influence of energy saving, energy efficiency and innovative development of an energy enterprise on achieving the goals of its sustainable development is substantiated. The article treats of the development of the analytical control unit for the energy saving and efficiency improvement in the conditions of innovative development on the basis of a systematic and integrated approach to the inter- relationships and interdependencies between the effective and factor indicators of the information and analytical management environment. An investment project that provides the effect of mutual influence of ener- gy saving, energy efficiency and innovative development with the target vector of sustainable development of the energy enterprise is considered as a result of the practical use of an innovative approach to the management of energy- saving technologies.

The article analyzes the specifics of the relationship between religion and law in modern conditions. The nature of the influence of globalization/glocalization transformations on the phenomena of religion and law is revealed, and the current vector of their interrelationship, the guarantee and provision of the realization of religious rights and freedoms, is established. The peculiarities of the relationship between the norms of international, European and national law and their role in ensuring and protecting religious rights and freedoms are clarified. It has been established that the recognition of democracy as a key form of organization of modern societies contributes to the implementation of effective legal tools for guarantees, ensuring the implementation and protection of religious rights and freedoms, and restoring the value of the religious-legal connection. In this context, problematic issues were considered: defining the limits of religious rights and freedoms; resolution of religious rights conflicts; restoring the value of religious rights and freedoms; correlations of individual and collective religious rights and freedoms; guarantees and provision of religious rights and freedoms of minorities; correlations of national and international law of religious rights and freedoms; restoring the value of religious rights and freedoms. Organizational, normative, procedural and other obstacles that prevent the solution of these problems in Ukraine are identified: a) external (full-scale war with the Russian Federation); b) internal (insufficient institutional capacity of executive authorities; low level of effectiveness of judicial branch reform; high level of corruption; politicization of the legal space and the preference of political expediency and populist slogans over the rule of law and the rule of law; conflicts of legislation, etc. It has been established that overcoming these obstacles and solving the outlined problematic issues at different levels of the legal field (international, European, nationwide (Ukrainian)) will determine the establishment of inter-church dialogue and dialogue between the state and the church, which would be based on the principles of tolerance, mutual respect, understanding, observance of freedom of conscience and the right to choose, which will contribute to the democratic progress of Ukraine and its entry into the European family of nations with equal and full rights.

The purpose of the study was to substantiate and develop the improved model of the specialized nephrology care for the children with infectious inflammatory diseases of the urinary system at the regional level. Materials and methods. The official statistical data have been studied (reports on the state of medical care for children in the Chernivtsi region and data from the Center of medical statistics of the Ministry of Healthcare from 2006 to 2017), information-analytical and statistical methods have been used. The modern etiological structure of uropathogens – urinary tract infection pathogens among the children of the Chernivtsi region (2009-2016) was studied. Clinical and laboratory examination of 3,089 children (0-17 years old) was conducted in the region; the regional spectrum of sensitivity to antibacterial drugs was determined among the main groups of urinary tract infection pathogens; their age, gender and administrative-territorial differences among the children's population of the region are analyzed. Results and discussion. During 2012-2017 there was a significant increase (by 23.0%) in the incidence of infectious and inflammatory groups of the urinary system diseases among children of 0-14 years old, while among adolescents there was simultaneously an intensive decrease in indicators (by 40.0%) compared to 8.7% in 2006-2011. The ratio of indicators and their dynamics suggests that the growth of sick adolescents is largely due to the insufficient effectiveness of medical care, while children of 0-14 years old is due to their low and insufficient prevention. The data formed the foundation for substantiation and development of an improved functional-organizational model of the system. In addition to the existing and functionally changed elements the model contains new elements: regional/inter-regional center of specialized medical aid for children with infectious-inflammatory diseases of the urinary system. Conclusion. Implementation of the elements of the suggested improved model in a part of a rational approach in distribution of functions concerning medical observation of patients at the stages of providing medical aid enabled to make the period of hospitalization of nephrological patients by 11.40% shorter and an average period of treatment of patients with infectious-inflammatory diseases of the urinary system by 2.93% shorter. Efficiency of implementation of certain elements of the suggested model with its positive evaluation by independent experts and its compliance with the strategy of branch reforms enables to recommend the improved functional-organization model of providing medical aid for children with infectious-inflammatory diseases of the urinary system at the regional level to be introduced into the health care system of Ukraine

Objective – To examine the human resources environment in Canadian libraries in order to assess readiness to accommodate change and to identify opportunities for human resources planning. The “8Rs” of the study were defined as recruitment, retirement, retention, remuneration, repatriation, rejuvenation, re-accreditation, and restructuring. Design – This study was undertaken in three phases over nearly three years through the use a variety of methods including literature review, analyses of existing data (Statistics Canada and library school graduate data), telephone interviews (with senior library administrators), focus groups (with representatives from Canadian Association of Research Libraries, Canadian Urban Libraries Council and Alberta Association of Library Technicians), print surveys (library institutions) and web-based surveys (of professional librarians and paraprofessional library staff). Setting – Canadian libraries that are not component branches of a system, and that employ professional librarians. Subjects – Stage I: 17 senior library administrators participated in telephone interviews and three focus groups were conducted. Stage II: Surveyed library administrators representing institutions. A multi-stage stratified random sampling technique was used to ensure geographical representation from each of Canada’s provinces and territories. Full census participation was conducted for members of the Canadian Association of Research Libraries and the Canadian Urban Libraries Council. The print survey instrument was distributed to 1,357 subjects; 461 completed surveys were returned (response rate of 34% with results for the total sample accurate within plus or minus 3.8 per centage points, 95 times out of 100). Stage III: Surveyed professional librarians and paraprofessional staff. Multi-stage random sampling was used to ensure representation of library staff from all library sectors and sufficient sub-sample sizes. Of the 12,472 individuals in the sampling frame, 8,626 were notified of their selection to participate in the web-based survey. Corrections were made to e-mail addresses and 7,569 e-mail invitations with the survey URL were sent successfully. Of the 8,626 potential respondents, 3,148 librarians and paraprofessionals participated (for a response rate of 37%). A non-random Canada-wide call for participation was distributed to library staff who had not been represented in the sampling frame via the listservs of 56 library associations. This provided an additional 1,545 respondents and the total sample size increased to 4,693 for a confidence interval of plus or minus 1.2%, 95 times out of 100. The non-random data from the Canada-wide call was kept in a separate dataset file. Methods – Stage I began with a literature review and analysis of existing Statistics Canada and library school graduate data. Three focus group sessions with representatives from Canadian Association of Research Libraries, Canadian Urban Libraries Council and Alberta Association of Library Technicians were held and in-depth telephone interviews were conducted in May 2003 with 17 senior library administrators. Transcripts were thematically coded and summarised. The interview guide is available as Appendix E of the report. The results of Stage I were used to inform the design of the two survey instruments (Stages II and III). Stage II was a 17-page print survey informed by insights gathered in Stage I and was sent to library directors in the summer of 2003. The print mail-out of the institutional survey was sent to libraries that employed at least one librarian and were not a component branch of another system. A copy of the institutional survey is available as Appendix C of the report. Stage III was a web-based survey of librarians and paraprofessional library staff undertaken in the summer of 2004 using random and non-random sampling methods. This survey was developed from insights gathered in Stages I and II. A copy of the individual survey is available as Appendix D of the report. Main results – The analytical focus of the 275-page report is on the broad Canadian library sector. Data and analysis are provided by type of library, type of staff, and by geographical regions where sufficient response rates have allowed reporting. Although the role of the paraprofessional is examined in many sections of the report, the principal focus is on the professional librarian. Nine sections of the report present results, analysis and strategic human resource planning implications. Highlights for the broad Canadian library environment are briefly described below. Each section of the report provides further breakdown by library sector, type of position, career stage and other variables that provide significant insight. Workplace Demographic Characteristics (Section C) This section provides demographic information about those in supervisory or management roles (62% of librarians), union density (67% of librarians and 79% of paraprofessional staff), longevity in career, part-time employment, and gender, along with other characteristics. Results conclude that visible minorities and Aboriginal staff are under-represented across all types of libraries and that few libraries recognise the credentials of immigrant librarians. Recruitment to the Profession and to the Organization (Section D) Positive exposure to libraries and librarians is the best predictor of librarianship as a career choice and there were no significant differences in the original motivations for choosing the professional librarian career between new professionals and senior librarians. In response to the open-ended question about motivation for choosing librarianship, none of the librarian respondents (n=1,823) indicated leadership, managing libraries or supervising others as their reason (p. 52). Many respondents indicated reasons for choosing the profession that are in alignment with the values of librarianship, but few indicated reasons that reflect the real nature of the librarians’ role. The average age of new librarian recruits is 37 (with little variation between sectors). Thirty per cent of paraprofessionals are interested in pursuing an MLIS degree; 29 per cent are not interested because they are satisfied with their current role. The major barriers for paraprofessionals wishing to pursue the MLIS degree are inadequate or unrecognised credentials (21% - although 45% of paraprofessionals have an undergraduate degree), geographic distance (33%), lack of money (48%), and lack of time (49%). Eighty per cent of libraries report that the major barrier to recruiting is budget constraints; other barriers include small size of library (60%), organizational hiring freeze (54%), inadequate librarian pay (54%), geographic location (52%), inadequate pool of qualified candidates (51%), and inadequate pool of interested candidates (50%). The ten most important and difficult-to-fill competencies when recruiting varied significantly for each sector: leadership potential, ability to respond flexibly to change, and ability to handle high-volume workload were the three highest-ranked competencies across all libraries. Retirement (Section E) Canadian libraries experienced librarian retirements (11% of total current workforce) and paraprofessional retirements (7% of total current workforce) between 1997 and 2002. During this period, 79 per cent of librarians retired before age 65. Forty per cent of librarians over age 50 estimate that they will retire between 55 and 60. Only 9 per cent of libraries have a succession plan. Staff Retention: Inter- and Intra-organizational Mobility (Section F) Librarians are satisfied with their work and stay in their organization because they like the job (85%), co-workers (84%), and workplace (79%). Seventy-seven per cent of senior librarians and 87% of senior paraprofessionals have been at their current library for more than 10 years. Sixty-nine per cent of librarians believe they are qualified to move to higher level positions, but 69% of institutions state that limited librarian turnover contributes to a lack of promotional opportunities. Education (Section G) Seventy-five per cent library administrators agree that MLIS programs equip graduates with needed competencies, but 58% recommended that the programs provide more management, business and leadership training. Seventy-six per cent of administrators believe that they have little or no input into curriculum content of MLIS programs. Overall evaluation of MLIS education by recent librarian entrants is not positive. Only forty-four per cent indicated that the program provided a realistic depiction of the job, while only 36% said the program provided a realistic expectation of work in their library sector. Recent librarian entrants (67%) were satisfied with the overall quality of their MLIS program, but few indicated that their program provided them with the necessary management skills (25%), leadership skills (20%), or business skills (12%) for their position. Recent library technician entrants were more satisfied (81%) with their programs’ success in providing general skills (87%), and providing a realistic depiction of the job (72%). Continuing Education (Section H) New librarians (72%) need a significant amount of ongoing training, but only 56% believe that their institution provides sufficient training opportunities. Only 30% of libraries have a routine method for determining training needs of librarians and fewer (13 %) have an evaluation method for training outcomes. In most cases, about half of those who received training reported that it improved their job performance. Quality of Work and Job Satisfaction (Section I) Librarians and paraprofessionals are satisfied with their jobs (79% for each) and librarians (72%) and paraprofessionals (61%) agree that their salary is fair. Most libraries offer a wide range of benefits to their employees, including life insurance (95%), pension plan (92%), and medical benefits (88%). Librarians (80%) and paraprofessionals (70%) are satisfied with their benefits. Although a low percentage of librarians agreed that they have little job stress (24%) and only 39% found their workload to be manageable, 62% of librarians agree that their work allows work, family and personal life balance. The statistics are slightly more positive for paraprofessionals. There is a gap between the desire to be treated with respect (98% for all workers) and the perception that respect is conveyed (77% of librarians and 75% of paraprofessionals). A similar gap exists between desire to be involved in decision-making and actual involvement. The two most important factors for job satisfaction for all library workers are respectful treatment and a job that allows them to learn new skills and grow. Numerical Librarian Demand-Supply Match (Section J) Libraries hired more librarians than they lost in 2002, for a net three per cent increase. Many library administrators believe that there will be a five-year increased demand for librarians (77%) and paraprofessionals (81%). The short-term supply (next 5 years) of new librarians to replace departures due to retirements is predicted to have the capacity to fill 98 per cent of the current librarian positions; the capacity to replace library technicians is 99 per cent. The long-term supply (next 10 years) of new librarians to replace departures due to retirements is predicted to have the capacity to fill 89 per cent of the current librarian positions; the capacity to fill technician positions is identical. These predictions are based on no growth in the number of positions in the future. Match Between Organizational Job Function Demand and Individual Staff Supply of Skills, Abilities, Talents, Interests (Section K) Libraries report that increased use of information technologies (87%) and re-engineering (61%) have contributed the greatest change in the roles of librarians. Libraries report that more librarians have been required to perform a wider variety of tasks in the past five years (93%) and that this trend will continue over the coming five years (94%). A high percentage of libraries (86%) reported that over the past five years librarians have been expected to perform more management functions and 56% of mid-career and senior librarians believed this had occurred. Libraries (88%) believe that this trend will continue; only 44% of librarians indicate interest in performing management functions. Mid-career and senior librarians report that job stress has increased over five years ago. Requirements to work harder (55%), perform more difficult tasks (56%), perform a wider variety of tasks (69%), and perform more managerial functions (56%) are the contributing factors. The performance of a wider variety of tasks and more difficult tasks was significantly related to the assessment by librarians that their jobs were more enjoyable, interesting, rewarding and challenging. Institutions (78%) reported the increased need for paraprofessionals to perform librarian tasks over the past five years and believe that this will continue (77%). Only 28% of paraprofessionals believe they are currently required to perform more librarian tasks. Conclusion – The need to confirm the existence and magnitude of the crisis that will be created by upcoming retirements in Canadian libraries was a primary motivator for this study. Conclusive results were obtained that should inform each sector and geographic area in Canada. The percentages of staff over the age of 55 (librarians: 25%; paraprofessionals: 21%) is much greater than that of the Canadian workforce (11%). If there is no growth in the number of positions needed, there will be no short-term supply-demand crisis to fill the gaps left by retirements. There will be a librarian and technician shortage in ten years (a shortfall of 11% of the current supply) and a more significant crisis if the predicted growth in staffing is factored in. Recruitment to the librarian and technician professions is critical and the paraprofessional staff may be a potential pool of future MLIS candidates if the accessibility issues associated with the programs are addressed. Only nine per cent of organizations have a succession plan in place. There is great opportunity for the development of strategic solutions. In response to the open-ended question about motivation for choosing librarianship, no respondent indicated leadership, managing libraries or supervising others as their reason. This is of concern when 62% of librarians today work in a managerial role. Management and leadership skills are a significant concern for recent graduates, administrators, and librarians, with all indicating that the workplace needs are greater than the current preparedness. More cooperation with MLIS programs and professional associations is essential to ensure that leadership and management skill development are supported through the curricula and continuing education planning. Organizations must also develop and support a culture where leadership is encouraged and expected, and recognised. There is a need for further development of continuing education opportunities, and training needs assessment and outcome assessment programs may be beneficial. Paraprofessionals and new librarians are less satisfied with the workplace training opportunities available to them than librarians in later stages of their careers. Role change will continue in libraries and planning will be essential to ensure that restructuring reflects the competencies that will be needed in the new mix. Workload and job stress appear to be rising and will require careful monitoring. There may be opportunity to define roles for “other” professionals in libraries. Library staff have a tendency to stay in their institution for much of their career, making decisions in the recruitment and hiring processes of critical importance. Loss of employees due to turnover is not a problem for most libraries, but the lack of turnover has affected the promotional opportunities for those who desire upward mobility. An interesting recommendation was made that two or more libraries may realise both cost savings and benefits through the sharing of staffing resources. If issues surrounding credentials can be addressed, there may be a potential pool of future immigrant librarians.

Purpose. The purpose of this article is to single out some specific problems of English terms translation used in poultry farming into the Ukrainian language, special attention paid topolysemic and homonymous poultry terminological units.Methods. The research material is about 700 English zootechnical terms of the poultry farming field. The words were selected from the relevant English texts on the corresponding professional topics (scientific articles and didactic materials, manuals for specialists). The research is methodologically based on the systemic-structural approach, so it enables synchronous analysis of linguistic phenomena that are based on connections and relationships between these elements. The analysis of the paradigmatic terminological relations is based on the principles of semantic fields and the thematic organization of terminology. Descriptive and comparative methods are also applied.Results. The review of the relevant scientific literature confirmed the ambiguity in interpretation of homonymy and polysemy in terminology. Problems in the translation of homonymous and polysemic poultry terms are identified and possible ways of solving the problems are proposed. The types of terminological homonymy and polysemy of simple units and abbreviations are described. It has been found out that the most difficulties arise in the translation of intra-industry simple terms.Conclusions. The analysis of the notion “term” has shown that terms can be scientific and technical words used only in certain field, as well as widely used words that have commonly known meanings; when translating polysemous and homonymous terms, intra-industry ones are the most difficult to interpret adequately, since their translation completely depends on the context. The translation of a homonymous or polysemic term requires good knowledge in the poultry farming field as well as clear understanding of the English term volume, awareness of the relevant Ukrainian terminology is necessary. In the long term development of the Ukrainian translation studies it is important to accumulate, work out and systematize the terminological apparatus of the zootechnical industry in general, and poultry farming one in particular; bilingual reference books and dictionaries for this branch of agriculture should also be a priority.Key words: terminology, homonymy, polysemy, inter-sectoral and intra-industry terms. Мета. Метою цієї статті є виявлення специфіки перекладу англомовних термінів, які вживаються у межах підмови птахівництва українською мовою, особлива увага приділена багатозначним та омонімічним термінологічним одиницям.Методи. Матеріалом дослідження є близько 700 англійських зоотехнічних термінів птахівницького напряму, які були відібрані з відповідних англійських фахових текстів (наукових статей та науково-дидактичних матеріалів, інструкцій для фахівців). Дослідження методологічно базується на системно-структурному підході, що дозволяє провести синхронний аналіз мовних явищ на основі зв’язків і відношень між цими елементами. Аналіз парадигматичних відношень термінології проводився на основі принципів семантичного поля та тематичної організації терміно-понять. Було також застосовано описовий та порівняльний методи.Результати. Проведений огляд літератури підтвердив неодностайність дослідників у тлумаченні омонімії та багатознач-ності в термінології. Окреслено проблеми під час перекладу омонімічних та багатозначних термінів підмови птахівництва та запропоновані можливі шляхи вирішення цих проблем. Описано види термінологічної омонімії та полісемії простих одиниць та абревіатур. З’ясовано, що найбільші складності виникають у перекладі внутрішньогалузевих простих термінів.Висновки. Проведений аналіз показав, що під поняттям «термін» розуміють одиниці, що застосовуються виключно в науково-технічному контексті чи в певній галузі, загальнонародні слова, які мають загальновідомі значення; у роботі з полісемічними та омонімічними термінами найбільшу складність становлять внутрішньогалузеві слова та словосполучення, оскільки їх переклад цілком визначається контекстом. Коректність перекладу омонімічного чи багатозначного терміна вимагає обізнаності у галузі птахівництва та розуміння змісту англійського терміна, а також знання відповідної термінології української мови. Українське перекладознавство має накопичувати, обробляти та систематизувати термінологічний апарат зоотехнічної галузі загалом та птахівництва зокрема; укладання двомовних довідників та словників для цієї галузі сільського господарства також має бути пріоритетним. Ключові слова: термінологія, омонімія, полісемія, міжгалузеві та внутрішньогалузеві терміни.

Topicality. The urgency of the article is substantiated by an excessive centralization of powers and financial and material resources of the executive branch, the inability of territorial communities at the district level to exercise their powers, limited access to public services due to lack of funding and deterioration of local government infrastructure as well as reduced professionalism of officials. There is a need for scientific substantiation of scenarios for further implementation of the decentralization reform in terms of determining the rational balance of powers and tasks to be allocated to the district level of government with an appropriate financial support. The experience of forming enlarged administrative-territorial entities at the district level in Ukraine is a modern interpretation and development of European approaches to the definition of functional areas and statistical units according to NUTS-3, which determines the relevance of this study not only at the national but also at the Pan-European level within the context of development of applied principles of the regional development theory.Aim and tasks. The objectives of this study are: to analyze the state of the reform of local self-government at the district level, to consider possible options and scenarios for further implementation of this process, to determine a list of powers that should be transferred to the district level, and to propose measures of material, financial and organizational support.Research results. The peculiarity of a new districts formation in Ukraine is that the districts, which include regional centers, have a number of population several times higher than in other districts of the region. This does not comply with the European standard NUTS-3, which specifies a number of population in districts from 150 thou people to 800 thou people. The concept of local self-government reforming and territorial organization of power provides for the transfer of powers at the district level from executive power bodies to executive bodies of district councils; however the executive bodies of district councils have not been created yet, given that the relevant adjustments to the legislation have not been made. On September 17, 2020, the Verkhovna Rada adopted the Law of Ukraine "On Amendments to the Budget Code of Ukraine to Align the Provisions of Budget Legislation in Connection with the Completion of Administrative and Territorial Reform." This legislative act abolishes personal income tax revenues directed to district budgets, which is the main source of their funding. The district level is also excluded from the system of horizontal equalization, hence district budgets will not receive a basic subsidy and will not be engaged in direct inter-budgetary relations with the state budget and they are excluded from the list of "recipients" of educational and medical subventions. The revenues structure of district budgets’ general fund, which is enshrined in the new Article 64 of the Budget Code of Ukraine, narrows their revenue base dramatically. The district level of local self-government is almost leveled, and it is deprived of most powers and financial resources, as a result, it cannot represent common interests of territorial communities at the basic level, which contradicts a principle of subsidiarity, and an issue of expediency of further existence of the district level of local self-government will be raised in the near future. The article considers possible options for further reform of the district level of local self-government, namely: (1) liquidation of the district level of local self-government, (2) preservation of existing state of the district level of local self-government, (3) preservation of the district level of local self-government, while giving it authority and financial resources to represent the common interests of territorial communities of the basic level. A draft of powers, which should be transferred to the district level of local self-government, has been proposed.Conclusions. The amendments to the legislation made in 2020 have led to a situation where the district level of local self-government was deprived of a larger share of its revenues and was significantly limited in its powers. As a result, the local self-government at the district level cannot fully represent common interests of territorial communities of the basic level in accordance with Article 140 of the Constitution of Ukraine and the principle of subsidiarity. This raised a question on expediency of the existence of the local self-government at the district level. Possible options for its further reform have been considered in the article. The most expedient option is to preserve the district level of local self-government and provide it with powers and financial resources so that it would be able to represent common interests of territorial communities of the basic level. The list of powers to be transferred to the district level has been determined.

Formulation of the problem. In the chamber-vocal genre, the composer exists in two images: he is both the interpreter of the poetic composition and the author of a new synthetic music and poetic composition. The experience of the style analysis of one of the best examples of Ukrainian vocal lyrics of the first third of the 20th century shows that the cycle op. 20 characterizes the mature style of the composer, which was formed, on the one hand, under the influence of European Romanticism. On the other hand, the essence of the Ukrainian “branch” of the Western European song-romance (“solo-singing”) is revealed by the prominent national song-romance intonation, filled with not only a romantic worldview, but also with some personal sincerity, chastity, intimate involvement with the great in depth and simplicity poetry line, read from the individual position of the musician. The paradox is as follows. Although Pushkin’s poetry is embodied in a “holistic adequacy” (A. Khutorskaya), and the composer found the fullest semantic analogue of the poetic source, however, in terms of translating the text into the Ukrainian language, the musical semantics changes its intonation immanence, which naturally leads to inconsistency of the listeners’ position and ideas about the style of Russian romance. We are dealing with inter-specific literary translation: Pushkin’s discourse creates the Ukrainian romance style and system of figurative thinking. The purpose of the article is to reveal the principle of re-semantization of the intonation-figurative concept of the vocal composition by V. Kosenko (in the context of translating Pushkin’s poetry into the Ukrainian language) in light of the theory of interspecific art translation. Analysis of recent publications on the topic. Among the most recent studies of Ukrainian musicology, one should point out the dissertation by G. Khafizova (Kyiv, 2017), in which the theory of modelling of the stylistic system of the vocal composition as an expression of Pushkin’s discourse is described. The basis for the further stylistic analysis of V. Kosenko’s compositions is the points from A. Hutorska’s candidate’s thesis; she develops the theory of interspecific art translation. The types of translation of poetry into music are classified according to two parameters. The exact translation creates integral adequacy, which involves the composer’s finding a maximally full semantic analogue of the poetic source. The free translation is characterized by compensatory, fragmentary, generalized-genre adequacy. Presenting the main material. The Zhitomir period for Viktor Kosenko was the time of the formation of his creative style. Alongside the lyrical imagery line, the composer acquired one more – dramatic, after his mother’s death. It is possible that the romances on the poems of A. Pushkin are more late reflection of this tragic experience (op. 20 was created in 1930). “I Loved You” opens the vocal cycle and has been dedicated by A. V. Kosenko. The short piano introduction contains the intonation emblem of the love-feeling wave. The form of the composition is a two part reprising (А А1) with the piano Introduction and Postlude. The semantic culmination is emphasized by the change of metro-rhythmic organization 5/4 (instead of 4) and the plastic phrase “as I wish, that the other will love you” sounding in the text. Due to these melodies (with national segments in melo-types, rhythm formulas and harmony) V. Kosenko should be considered as “Ukrainian Glinka”, the composer who introduced new forms and “figures” of the love language into the romantic “intonation dictionary”. In general, V. Kosenko’s solo-singing represents the Ukrainian analogue of Pushkin’s discourse – the theme of love. The melos of vocal piece “I Lived through My Desires” is remembered by the broad breath, bright expression of the syntactic deployment of emotion. On the background of bass ostinato, the song intonation acquires a noble courage. This solo-singing most intermediately appeal to the typical examples of the urban romance of Russian culture of the 19th century. “The Raven to the Raven” – a Scottish folk ballad in the translation by A. Pushkin. V. Kosenko as a profound psychologist, delicately transmits the techniques of versification, following each movement of a poetic phrase, builds stages of the musical drama by purely intonation means. The semantics of a death is embodied through the sound imaging of a black bird: a marching-like tempo and rhythm of the accompaniment, with a characteristic dotted pattern in a descending motion (like a raven is beating its wings). The middle section is dominated by a slow-motion perception of time space (Andante), meditative “freeze” (size 6/4). The melody contrasts with the previous section, its profile is built on the principle of descending move: from “h1” to “h” of the small octave (with a stop on S-harmony), which creates a psychologically immersed state, filled by premonition of an unexpected tragedy. In general, the Ukrainian melodic intonation intensified the tragic content of the ballad by Pushkin. The musical semantics of V. Kosenko’s romances is marked by the dependence on the romantic “musical vocabulary”, however, it is possible to indicate and national characteristics (ascending little-sixth and fifth intervals, which is filled with a gradual anti-movement; syllabic tonic versification, and other). Conclusion. The romances (“solo-singings”) by V. Kosenko belongs to the type of a free art translation with generalized-genre adequacy. There is a re-semantization of poetic images due to the national-mental intonation. Melos, rhythm, textural presentation (repetitions), stylization of different genre formulas testify to the rare beauty of Kosenko’s vocal style, spiritual strength and maturity of the master of Ukrainian vocal culture. Entering the “Slavic song area”, the style of Ukrainian romance, however, is differenced from the Russian and common European style system of figurative and intonation thinking (the picture of the world).

Recently, various Central and Eastern European countries have experienced a regression of democratic quality, often resulting in the emergence of competitive (semi‐)authoritarian regimes with an illiberal governing ideology. This has often been accompanied by a closing political space for civil society groups. Based on a survey of more than 400 Polish, Hungarian, Czech, and Slovenian interest organizations, we explore, in the context of backsliding, the conditions under which organized interests shift their lobbying activities to alternative, i.e., EU or regional levels. Our statistical analyses indicate that it is rather exclusive policy‐making in general than a lack of individual group access to domestic policy networks that motivate organizations to engage in multilevel lobbying. However, it appears that organizational self‐empowerment and inter‐group cooperation are the “name of the game.” Even under the adverse conditions of democratic backsliding, organizations that are accumulating expertise, professionalizing their operations, and cooperating with other organizations not only can sustain access to (illiberal) national governments but also branch out their operations to the European and regional levels.

Significant advances in knowledge of lamellae and their organization in meltcrystallized polymers have stemmed from the ability to examine internal morphologies systematically with the transmission electron microscope. Spherulites form because the first-forming (dominant) lamellae branch repetitively, often at giant screw dislocations, then diverge substantially creating a skeleton to which later-forming lamellae must accommodate. This sequence promotes chain-folding, invites fractional crystallization and modulates chemical, mechanical and thermal properties of spherulites at the inter-dominant spacing. The key feature of lamellar divergence at screw dislocations is present in individual crystals, probably deriving from pressure of uncrystallized molecular cilia; growing lamellae will also distort very substantially to gain material. If necessary, spacefilling is achieved without lamellar and crystallographic continuity by nucleating new growth at large misorientations. Individual melt-grown crystals have been studied both after extraction from a quenched matrix and in situ in thinned specimens. For polyethylene different lamellar profiles have been placed in context while their fine structure provides insights into molecular mechanisms of growth.

Crassulaceae are the largest family in the angiosperm order Saxifragales. Species of this family are characterized by succulent leaves and a unique photosynthetic pathway known as Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). Although the inter- and intrageneric relationships have been extensively studied over the last few decades, the infrafamilial relationships of Crassulaceae remain partially obscured. Here, we report nine newly sequenced chloroplast genomes, which comprise several key lineages of Crassulaceae. Our comparative analyses and positive selection analyses of Crassulaceae species indicate that the overall gene organization and function of the chloroplast genome are highly conserved across the family. No positively selected gene was statistically supported in Crassulaceae lineage using likelihood ratio test (LRT) based on branch-site models. Among the three subfamilies of Crassulaceae, our phylogenetic analyses of chloroplast protein-coding genes support Crassuloideae as sister to Kalanchoideae plus Sempervivoideae. Furthermore, within Sempervivoideae, our analyses unambiguously resolved five clades that are successively sister lineages, i.e., Telephium clade, Sempervivum clade, Aeonium clade, Leucosedum clade, and Acre clade. Overall, this study enhances our understanding of the infrafamilial relationships and the conservation of chloroplast genomes within Crassulaceae.

Resume. Global social shifts are requiring qualitative growth of staffing education at all levels. In the period of changes, the system of certification training and postgraduate education of managerial, pedagogical and scientific-pedagogical workers of the branch identified as a priority in implementing innovative approaches to the formation of a new generation of educators, development of new strategies, forms, the content of their professional growth. The study proposes to consider diversification of advanced training for education workers at all levels using the consortium resource as a new institutional form of an educational organization. The effectiveness of the proposed model in ensuring the systematic coordination of inter-institutional cooperation in the fields of academic mobility, research, technological development, and innovation, enhancing the competitiveness of national education at the international level had been proved. Following the example of the activities of the Consortium of Postgraduate Education Institutions and the Ukrainian Open University of Postgraduate Education new opportunities for the qualitative development of postgraduate education have been opened. These opportunities are sharing open educational technologies, resources, and repositories, creating new models of collaboration to develop and disseminate educational resources, the purpose of which is to ensure the quality of education and to implement educational activities based on new technology, didactics and the organization of training. The basic directions and models of innovative approach are analysed for education workers training at all education levels in the context of sustainable development goals, the need for diversification of professional development of pedagogical, scientifically pedagogical and managerial education workers in the context of multi-vector interaction of educational institutions through a consortium is investigated and substantiated. It is proved that the introduction of diversified models of institutional organization of education in the digital society is a crucial component of the continuity of professional development of management, pedagogical and scientific-pedagogical workers and education as a whole.

“The intellect must not only desire surreptitious delights; it must become completely free and celebrate Saturnalia.” (Nietzsche 6) Theory-jamming suggests an array of eclectic methods, deployed in response to emerging conditions, using traditional patterns to generate innovative moves, seeking harmony and syncopation, transparent about purpose and power, aiming for demonstrable certainties while aware of their own provisional fragility. In this paper, theory-jamming is suggested as an antidote for the confusion and disarray that typifies communication theory. Communication theory as the means to conceptualise the transmission of information and the negotiation of meaning has never been a stable entity. Entrenched divisions between ‘administrative’ and ‘critical’ tendencies are played out within schools and emerging disciplines and across a range of scientific/humanist, quantitative/qualitative and political/cultural paradigms. “Of course, this is only the beginning of the mischief for there are many other polarities at play and a host of variations within polar contrasts” (Dervin, Shields and Song). This paper argues that the play of contending schools with little purchase on each other, or anything much, has turned meta-discourse about communication into an ontological spiral. Perhaps the only way to ride out this storm is to look towards communication practices that confront these issues and appreciate their theoretical underpinnings. From its roots in jazz and blues to its contemporary manifestations in rap and hip-hop and throughout the communication industries, the jam (or improvised reorganisation of traditional themes into new and striking patterns) confronts the ontological spiral in music, and life, by taking the flotsam flung out of the spiral to piece together the means to transcend the downward pull into the abyss. Many pretenders have a theory. Theory abounds: language theory, number theory, game theory, quantum theory, string theory, chaos theory, cyber-theory, queer theory, even conspiracy theory and, most poignantly, the putative theory of everything. But since Bertrand Russell’s unsustainable class of all classes, Gödel’s systemically unprovable propositions and Heisenberger’s uncertainty principle, the propensity for theories to fall into holes in themselves has been apparent. Nowhere is this more obvious than in communication theory where many schools contend without actually connecting to each other. From the 1930s, as the mass media formed, there have been administrative and critical tendencies at war in the communication arena. Some point to the origins of the split in the Institute of Social Research’s Radio Project where pragmatic sociologist, Paul Lazarsfeld broke with Frankfurt School critical theorist, Theodor Adorno over the quality of data. Lazarsfeld was keen to produce results while Adorno complained the data over-simplified the relationship between mass media and audiences (Rogers). From this split grew the twin disciplines of mass communication (quantitative, liberal, commercial and lost in its obsession with the measurement of minor media effects) and cultural/media studies (qualitative, post-Marxist, radical and lost in simulacra of their own devising). The complexity of interactions between these two disciplines, with the same subject matter but very different ways of thinking about it, is the foundation of the ontological black hole in communication theory. As the disciplines have spread out across universities, professional organizations and publishers, they have been used and abused for ideological, institutional and personal purposes. By the summer of 1983, the split was documented in a special issue of the Journal of Communication titled “Ferment in the Field”. Further, professional courses in journalism, public relations, marketing, advertising and media production have complex relations with both theoretical wings, which need the student numbers and are adept at constructing and defending new boundaries. The 90s saw any number ‘wars’: Journalism vs Cultural Studies, Cultural Studies vs Cultural Policy Studies, Cultural Studies vs Public Relations, Public Relations vs Journalism. More recently, the study of new communication technologies has led to a profusion of nascent, neo-disciplines shadowing, mimicking and reacting with old communication studies: “Internet studies; New media studies; Digital media studies; Digital arts and culture studies; Cyberculture studies; Critical cyberculture studies; Networked culture studies; Informatics; Information science; Information society studies; Contemporary media studies” (Silver & Massanari 1). As this shower of cyberstudies spirals by, it is further warped by the split between the hard science of communication infrastructure in engineering and information technology and what the liberal arts have to offer. The early, heroic attempt to bridge this gap by Claude Shannon and, particularly, Warren Weaver was met with disdain by both sides. Weaver’s philosophical interpretation of Shannon’s mathematics, accommodating the interests of technology and of human communication together, is a useful example of how disparate ideas can connect productively. But how does a communications scholar find such connections? How can we find purchase amongst this avalanche of ideas and agendas? Where can we get the traction to move beyond twentieth century Balkanisation of communications theory to embrace the whole? An answer came to me while watching the Discovery Channel. A documentary on apes showed them leaping from branch to branch, settling on a swaying platform of leaves, eating and preening, then leaping into the void until they make another landing, settling again… until the next leap. They are looking for what is viable and never come to ground. Why are we concerned to ground theory which can only prove its own impossibility while disregarding the certainty of what is viable for now? I carried this uneasy insight for almost five years, until I read Nietzsche on the methods of the pre-Platonic philosophers: “Two wanderers stand in a wild forest brook flowing over rocks; the one leaps across using the stones of the brook, moving to and fro ever further… The other stands there helplessly at each moment. At first he must construct the footing that can support his heavy steps; when this does not work, no god helps him across the brook. Is it only boundless rash flight across great spaces? Is it only greater acceleration? No, it is with flights of fantasy, in continuous leaps from possibility to possibility taken as certainties; an ingenious notion shows them to him, and he conjectures that there are formally demonstrable certainties” (Nietzsche 26). Nietzsche’s advice to take the leap is salutary but theory must be more than jumping from one good idea to the next. What guidance do the practices of communication offer? Considering new forms that have developed since the 1930s, as communication theory went into meltdown, the significance of the jam is unavoidable. While the jam session began as improvised jazz and blues music for practice, fellowship and fun, it quickly became the forum for exploring new kinds of music arising from the deconstruction of the old and experimentation with technical, and ontological, possibilities. The jam arose as a spin-off of the dance music circuit in the 1930s. After the main, professional show was over, small groups would gather together in all-night dives for informal, spontaneous sessions of unrehearsed improvisation, playing for their own pleasure, “in accordance with their own esthetic [sic] standards” (Cameron 177). But the jam is much more than having a go. The improvisation occurs on standard melodies: “Theoretically …certain introductions, cadenzas, clichés and ensemble obbligati assume traditional associations (as) ‘folkways’… that are rarely written down but rather learned from hearing (“head jobs”)” (Cameron 178-9). From this platform of tradition, the artist must “imagine in advance the pattern which unfolds… select a part in the pattern appropriate to the occasion, instrument and personal abilities (then) produce startlingly distinctive sound patterns (that) rationalise the impossible.” The jam is founded on its very impossibility: “the jazz aesthetic is basically a paradox… traditionalism and the radical originality are irreconcilable” (Cameron 181). So how do we escape from this paradox, the same paradox that catches all communication theorists between the demands of the past and the impossibility of the future? “Experimentation is mandatory and formal rules become suspect because they too quickly stereotype and ossify” (Cameron 181). The jam seems to work because it offers the possibility of the impossible made real by the act of communication. This play between the possible and the impossible, the rumbling engine of narrative, is the dynamo of the jam. Theory-jamming seeks to activate just such a dynamo. Rather than having a group of players on their instruments, the communication theorist has access a range of theoretical riffs and moves that can be orchestrated to respond to the question in focus, to latest developments, to contradictions or blank spaces within theoretical terrains. The theory-jammer works to their own standards, turning ideas learned from others (‘head jobs’) into their own distinctive patterns, still reliant on traditional melody, harmony and syncopation but now bent, twisted and reorganised into an entirely new story. The practice of following old pathways to new destinations has a long tradition in the West as eclecticism, a Graeco-Roman, particularly Alexandrian, philosophical tradition from the first century BC to the end of the classical period. Typified by Potamo who “encouraged his pupils instead to learn from a variety of masters”, eclecticism sought the best from each school, “all that teaches righteousness combined, the complete eclectic unity” (Kelley 578). By selecting the best, most reasonable, most useful elements from existing philosophical beliefs, polymaths such as Cicero sought the harmonious solution of particular problems. We see something similar to eclecticism in the East in the practices of ‘wild fox zen’ which teaches liberation from conceptual fixation (Heine). The 20th century’s most interesting eclectic was probably Walter Benjamin whose method owes something to both scientific Marxism and the Jewish Kabbalah. His hero was the rag-picker who had the cunning to create life from refuse and detritus. Benjamin’s greatest work, the unfinished Arcades Project, sought to create history from the same. It is a collection of photos, ephemera and transcriptions from books and newspapers (Benjamin). The particularity of eclecticism may be contrasted with the claim to universality of syncretism, the reconciliation of disparate or opposing beliefs by melding together various schools of thought into a new orthodoxy. Theory-jammers are not looking for a final solution but rather they seek what will work on this problem now, to come to a provisional solution, always aware that other, better, further solutions may be ahead. Elements of the jam are apparent in other contemporary forms of communication. For example bricolage, the practice from art, culture and information systems, involves tinkering elements together by trial and error, in ways not originally planned. Pastiche, from literature to the movies, mimics style while creating a new message. In theatre and TV comedy, improvisation has become a style in itself. Theory-jamming has direct connections with brainstorming, the practice that originated in the advertising industry to generate new ideas and solutions by kicking around possibilities. Against the hyper-administration of modern life, as the disintegration of grand theory immobilises thinkers, theory-jamming provides the means to think new thoughts. As a political activist and communications practitioner in Australia over the last thirty years, I have always been bemused by the human propensity to factionalise. Rather than getting bogged down by positions, I have sought to use administrative structures to explore critical ideas, to marshal critical approaches into administrative apparatus, to weld together critical and administrative formations in ways useful to both sides, bust most importantly, in ways useful to human society and a healthy environment. I've been accused of selling-out by the critical camp and of being unrealistic by the administrative side. My response is that we have much more to learn by listening and adapting than we do by self-satisfied stasis. Five Theses on Theory-Jamming Eclecticism requires Ethnography: the eclectic is the ethnographer loose in their own mind. “The free spirit surveys things, and now for the first time mundane existence appears to it worthy of contemplation…” (Nietzsche 6). Enculturation and Enumeration need each other: qualitative and quantitative research work best when they work off each other. “Beginners learned how to establish parallels, by means of the Game’s symbols, between a piece of classical music and the formula for some law of nature. Experts and Masters of the Game freely wove the initial theme into unlimited combinations.” (Hesse) Ephemera and Esoterica tell us the most: the back-story is the real story as we stumble on the greatest truths as if by accident. “…the mind’s deeper currents often need to be surprised by indirection, sometimes, indeed, by treachery and ruse, as when you steer away from a goal in order to reach it more directly…” (Jameson 71). Experimentation beyond Empiricism: more than testing our sense of our sense data of the world. Communication theory extends from infra-red to ultraviolet, from silent to ultrasonic, from absolute zero to complete heat, from the sub-atomic to the inter-galactic. “That is the true characteristic of the philosophical drive: wonderment at that which lies before everyone.” (Nietzsche 6). Extravagance and Exuberance: don’t stop until you’ve got enough. Theory-jamming opens the possibility for a unified theory of communication that starts, not with a false narrative certainty, but with the gaps in communication: the distance between what we know and what we say, between what we say and what we write, between what we write and what others read back, between what others say and what we hear. References Benjamin, Walter. The Arcades Project. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard UP, 2002. Cameron, W. B. “Sociological Notes on the Jam Session.” Social Forces 33 (Dec. 1954): 177–82. Dervin, B., P. Shields and M. Song. “More than Misunderstanding, Less than War.” Paper at International Communication Association annual meeting, New York City, NY, 2005. 5 Oct. 2006 http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p13530_index.html>. “Ferment in the Field.” Journal of Communication 33.3 (1983). Heine, Steven. “Putting the ‘Fox’ Back in the ‘Wild Fox Koan’: The Intersection of Philosophical and Popular Religious Elements in The Ch’an/Zen Koan Tradition.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 56.2 (Dec. 1996): 257-317. Hesse, Hermann. The Glass Bead Game. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972. Jameson, Fredric. “Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism.” New Left Review 146 (1984): 53-90. Kelley, Donald R. “Eclecticism and the History of Ideas.” Journal of the History of Ideas 62.4 (Oct. 2001): 577-592 Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Pre-Platonic Philosophers. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001. Rogers, E. M. “The Empirical and the Critical Schools of Communication Research.” Communication Yearbook 5 (1982): 125-144. Shannon, C.E., and W. Weaver. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1949. Silver, David, Adrienne Massanari. Critical Cyberculture Studies. New York: NYU P, 2006. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Stockwell, Stephen. "Theory-Jamming: Uses of Eclectic Method in an Ontological Spiral." M/C Journal 9.6 (2006). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0612/09-stockwell.php>. APA Style Stockwell, S. (Dec. 2006) "Theory-Jamming: Uses of Eclectic Method in an Ontological Spiral," M/C Journal, 9(6). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0612/09-stockwell.php>.

The Digital TurnMuch of the 19th century disappeared from public view during the 20th century. Historians recovered what they could from archives and libraries, with the easy pickings-the famous and the fortunate-coming first. Latterly, social and political historians of different hues determinedly sought out the more hidden, forgotten, and marginalised. However, there were always limitations to resources-time, money, location, as well as purpose, opportunity, and permission. 'History' was principally a professionalised and privileged activity dominated by academics who had preferential access to, and significant control over, the resources, technologies and skills required, as well as the social, economic and cultural framework within which history was recovered, interpreted, approved and disseminated.Digitisation and the broader development of new communication technologies has, however, transformed historical research processes and practice dramatically, removing many constraints, opening up many opportunities, and allowing many others than the professional historian to trace and track what would have remained hidden, forgotten, or difficult to find, as well as verify (or otherwise), what has already been claimed and concluded. In the 21st century, the SEARCH button has become a dominant tool of research. This, along with other technological and media developments, has altered the practice of historians-professional or 'public'-who can now range deep and wide in the collection, portrayal and dissemination of historical information, in and out of the confines of the traditional institutional walls of retained information, academia, location, and national boundaries.This incorporation of digital technologies into academic historical practice generally, has raised, as Cohen and Rosenzweig, in their book Digital History, identified a decade ago, not just promises, but perils. For the historian, there has been the move, through digitisation, from the relative scarcity and inaccessibility of historical material to its (over) abundance, but also the emerging acceptance that, out of both necessity and preference, a hybridity of sources will be the foreseeable way forward. There has also been a significant shift, as De Groot notes in his book Consuming History, in the often conflicted relationship between popular/public history and academic history, and the professional and the 'amateur' historian. This has brought a potentially beneficial democratization of historical practice but also an associated set of concerns around the loss of control of both practice and product of the professional historian. Additionally, the development of digital tools for the collection and dissemination of 'history' has raised fears around the commercialised development of the subject's brand, products and commodities. This article considers the significance and implications of some of these changes through one protracted act of recovery and reclamation in which the digital made the difference: the life of a notorious 19th century professional agitator on both sides of the Atlantic, John De Morgan. A man thought lost, but now found."Who Is John De Morgan?" The search began in 1981, linked to the study of contemporary "race riots" in South East London. The initial purpose was to determine whether there was a history of rioting in the area. In the Local History Library, a calm and dusty backwater, an early find was a fading, but evocative and puzzling, photograph of "The Plumstead Common Riots" of 1876. It showed a group of men and women, posing for the photographer on a hillside-the technology required stillness, even in the middle of a riot-spades in hand, filling in a Mr. Jacob's sandpits, illegally dug from what was supposed to be common land. The leader of this, and other similar riots around England, was John De Morgan. A local journalist who covered the riots commented: "Of Mr. De Morgan little is known before or since the period in which he flashed meteorlike through our section of the atmosphere, but he was indisputably a remarkable man" (Vincent 588). Thus began a trek, much interrupted, sometimes unmapped and haphazard, to discover more about this 'remarkable man'. "Who is John De Morgan" was a question frequently asked by his many contemporary antagonists, and by subsequent historians, and one to which De Morgan deliberately gave few answers. The obvious place to start the search was the British Museum Reading Room, resplendent in its Victorian grandeur, the huge card catalogue still in the 1980s the dominating technology. Together with the Library's newspaper branch at Colindale, this was likely to be the repository of all that might then easily be known about De Morgan.From 1869, at the age of 21, it appeared that De Morgan had embarked on a life of radical politics that took him through the UK, made him notorious, lead to accusations of treasonable activities, sent him to jail twice, before he departed unexpectedly to the USA in 1880. During that period, he was involved with virtually every imaginable radical cause, at various times a temperance advocate, a spiritualist, a First Internationalist, a Republican, a Tichbornite, a Commoner, an anti-vaccinator, an advanced Liberal, a parliamentary candidate, a Home Ruler. As a radical, he, like many radicals of the period, "zigzagged nomadically through the mayhem of nineteenth century politics fighting various foes in the press, the clubs, the halls, the pulpit and on the street" (Kazin 202). He promoted himself as the "People's Advocate, Champion and Friend" (Allen). Never a joiner or follower, he established a variety of organizations, became a professional agitator and orator, and supported himself and his politics through lecturing and journalism. Able to attract huge crowds to "monster meetings", he achieved fame, or more correctly notoriety. And then, in 1880, broke and in despair, he disappeared from public view by emigrating to the USA.LostThe view of De Morgan as a "flashing meteor" was held by many in the 1870s. Historians of the 20th century took a similar position and, while considering him intriguing and culturally interesting, normally dispatched him to the footnotes. By the latter part of the 20th century, he was described as "one of the most notorious radicals of the 1870s yet remains a shadowy figure" and was generally dismissed as "a swashbuckling demagogue," a "democratic messiah," and" if not a bandit … at least an adventurer" (Allen 684). His politics were deemed to be reactionary, peripheral, and, worst of all, populist. He was certainly not of sufficient interest to pursue across the Atlantic. In this dismissal, he fell foul of the highly politicised professional culture of mid-to-late 20th-century academic historians. In particular, the lack of any significant direct linkage to the story of the rise of a working class, and specifically the British Labour party, left individuals like De Morgan in the margins and footnotes. However, in terms of historical practice, it was also the case that his mysterious entry into public life, his rapid rise to brief notability and notoriety, and his sudden disappearance, made the investigation of his career too technically difficult to be worthwhile.The footprints of the forgotten may occasionally turn up in the archived papers of the important, or in distant public archives and records, but the primary sources are the newspapers of the time. De Morgan was a regular, almost daily, visitor to the pages of the multitude of newspapers, local and national, that were published in Victorian Britain and Gilded Age USA. He also published his own, usually short-lived and sometimes eponymous, newspapers: De Morgan's Monthly and De Morgan's Weekly as well as the splendidly titled People's Advocate and National Vindicator of Right versus Wrong and the deceptively titled, highly radical, House and Home. He was highly mobile: he noted, without too much hyperbole, that in the 404 days between his English prison sentences in the mid-1870s, he had 465 meetings, travelled 32,000 miles, and addressed 500,000 people. Thus the newspapers of the time are littered with often detailed and vibrant accounts of his speeches, demonstrations, and riots.Nonetheless, the 20th-century technologies of access and retrieval continued to limit discovery. The white gloves, cradles, pencils and paper of the library or archive, sometimes supplemented by the century-old 'new' technology of the microfilm, all enveloped in a culture of hallowed (and pleasurable) silence, restricted the researcher looking to move into the lesser known and certainly the unknown. The fact that most of De Morgan's life was spent, it was thought, outside of England, and outside the purview of the British Library, only exacerbated the problem. At a time when a historian had to travel to the sources and then work directly on them, pencil in hand, it needed more than curiosity to keep searching. Even as many historians in the late part of the century shifted their centre of gravity from the known to the unknown and from the great to the ordinary, in any form of intellectual or resource cost-benefit analysis, De Morgan was a non-starter.UnknownOn the subject of his early life, De Morgan was tantalisingly and deliberately vague. In his speeches and newspapers, he often leaked his personal and emotional struggles as well as his political battles. However, when it came to his biographical story, he veered between the untruthful, the denial, and the obscure. To the twentieth century observer, his life began in 1869 at the age of 21 and ended at the age of 32. His various political campaign "biographies" gave some hints, but what little he did give away was often vague, coy and/or unlikely. His name was actually John Francis Morgan, but he never formally acknowledged it. He claimed, and was very proud, to be Irish and to have been educated in London and at Cambridge University (possible but untrue), and also to have been "for the first twenty years of his life directly or indirectly a railway servant," and to have been a "boy orator" from the age of ten (unlikely but true). He promised that "Some day-nay any day-that the public desire it, I am ready to tell the story of my strange life from earliest recollection to the present time" (St. Clair 4). He never did and the 20th century could unearth little evidence in relation to any of his claims.The blend of the vague, the unlikely and the unverifiable-combined with an inclination to self-glorification and hyperbole-surrounded De Morgan with an aura, for historians as well as contemporaries, of the self-seeking, untrustworthy charlatan with something to hide and little to say. Therefore, as the 20th century moved to closure, the search for John De Morgan did so as well. Though interesting, he gave most value in contextualising the lives of Victorian radicals more generally. He headed back to the footnotes.Now FoundMeanwhile, the technologies underpinning academic practice generally, and history specifically, had changed. The photocopier, personal computer, Internet, and mobile device, had arrived. They formed the basis for both resistance and revolution in academic practices. For a while, the analytical skills of the academic community were concentrated on the perils as much as the promises of a "digital history" (Cohen and Rosenzweig Digital).But as the Millennium turned, and the academic community itself spawned, inter alia, Google, the practical advantages of digitisation for history forced themselves on people. Google enabled the confident searching from a neutral place for things known and unknown; information moved to the user more easily in both time and space. The culture and technologies of gathering, retrieval, analysis, presentation and preservation altered dramatically and, as a result, the traditional powers of gatekeepers, institutions and professional historians was redistributed (De Groot). Access and abundance, arguably over-abundance, became the platform for the management of historical information. For the search for De Morgan, the door reopened. The increased global electronic access to extensive databases, catalogues, archives, and public records, as well as people who knew, or wanted to know, something, opened up opportunities that have been rapidly utilised and expanded over the last decade. Both professional and "amateur" historians moved into a space that made the previously difficult to know or unknowable now accessible.Inevitably, the development of digital newspaper archives was particularly crucial to seeking and finding John De Morgan. After some faulty starts in the early 2000s, characterised as a "wild west" and a "gold rush" (Fyfe 566), comprehensive digitised newspaper archives became available. While still not perfect, in terms of coverage and quality, it is a transforming technology. In the UK, the British Newspaper Archive (BNA)-in pursuit of the goal of the digitising of all UK newspapers-now has over 20 million pages. Each month presents some more of De Morgan. Similarly, in the US, Fulton History, a free newspaper archive run by retired computer engineer Tom Tryniski, now has nearly 40 million pages of New York newspapers. The almost daily footprints of De Morgan's radical life can now be seen, and the lives of the social networks within which he worked on both sides of the Atlantic, come easily into view even from a desk in New Zealand.The Internet also allows connections between researchers, both academic and 'public', bringing into reach resources not otherwise knowable: a Scottish genealogist with a mass of data on De Morgan's family; a Californian with the historian's pot of gold, a collection of over 200 letters received by De Morgan over a 50 year period; a Leeds Public Library blogger uncovering spectacular, but rarely seen, Victorian electoral cartoons which explain De Morgan's precipitate departure to the USA. These discoveries would not have happened without the infrastructure of the Internet, web site, blog, and e-mail. Just how different searching is can be seen in the following recent scenario, one of many now occurring. An addition in 2017 to the BNA shows a Master J.F. Morgan, aged 13, giving lectures on temperance in Ledbury in 1861, luckily a census year. A check of the census through Ancestry shows that Master Morgan was born in Lincolnshire in England, and a quick look at the 1851 census shows him living on an isolated blustery hill in Yorkshire in a railway encampment, along with 250 navvies, as his father, James, works on the construction of a tunnel. Suddenly, literally within the hour, the 20-year search for the childhood of John De Morgan, the supposedly Irish-born "gentleman who repudiated his class," has taken a significant turn.At the end of the 20th century, despite many efforts, John De Morgan was therefore a partial character bounded by what he said and didn't say, what others believed, and the intellectual and historiographical priorities, technologies, tools and processes of that century. In effect, he "lived" historically for a less than a quarter of his life. Without digitisation, much would have remained hidden; with it there has been, and will still be, much to find. De Morgan hid himself and the 20th century forgot him. But as the technologies have changed, and with it the structures of historical practice, the question that even De Morgan himself posed – "Who is John De Morgan?" – can now be addressed.SearchingDigitisation brings undoubted benefits, but its impact goes a long way beyond the improved search and detection capabilities, into a range of technological developments of communication and media that impact on practice, practitioners, institutions, and 'history' itself. A dominant issue for the academic community is the control of "history." De Groot, in his book Consuming History, considers how history now works in contemporary popular culture and, in particular, examines the development of the sometimes conflicted relationship between popular/public history and academic history, and the professional and the 'amateur' historian.The traditional legitimacy of professional historians has, many argue, been eroded by shifts in technology and access with the power of traditional cultural gatekeepers being undermined, bypassing the established control of institutions and professional historian. While most academics now embrace the primary tools of so-called "digital history," they remain, De Groot argues, worried that "history" is in danger of becoming part of a discourse of leisure, not a professionalized arena (18). An additional concern is the role of the global capitalist market, which is developing, or even taking over, 'history' as a brand, product and commodity with overt fiscal value. Here the huge impact of newspaper archives and genealogical software (sometimes owned in tandem) is of particular concern.There is also the new challenge of "navigating the chaos of abundance in online resources" (De Groot 68). By 2005, it had become clear that:the digital era seems likely to confront historians-who were more likely in the past to worry about the scarcity of surviving evidence from the past-with a new 'problem' of abundance. A much deeper and denser historical record, especially one in digital form seems like an incredible opportunity and a gift. But its overwhelming size means that we will have to spend a lot of time looking at this particular gift horse in mouth. (Cohen and Rosenzweig, Web).This easily accessible abundance imposes much higher standards of evidence on the historian. The acceptance within the traditional model that much could simply not be done or known with the resources available meant that there was a greater allowance for not knowing. But with a search button and public access, democratizing the process, the consumer as well as the producer can see, and find, for themselves.Taking on some of these challenges, Zaagsma, having reminded us that the history of digital humanities goes back at least 60 years, notes the need to get rid of the "myth that historical practice can be uncoupled from technological, and thus methodological developments, and that going digital is a choice, which, I cannot emphasis strongly enough, it is not" (14). There is no longer a digital history which is separate from history, and with digital technologies that are now ubiquitous and pervasive, historians have accepted or must quickly face a fundamental break with past practices. However, also noting that the great majority of archival material is not digitised and is unlikely to be so, Zaagsma concludes that hybridity will be the "new normal," combining "traditional/analogue and new/digital practices at least in information gathering" (17).ConclusionA decade on from Cohen and Rozenzweig's "Perils and Promises," the digital is a given. Both historical practice and historians have changed, though it is a work in progress. An early pioneer of the use of computers in the humanities, Robert Busa wrote in 1980 that "the principal aim is the enhancement of the quality, depth and extension of research and not merely the lessening of human effort and time" (89). Twenty years later, as Google was launched, Jordanov, taking on those who would dismiss public history as "mere" popularization, entertainment or propaganda, argued for the "need to develop coherent positions on the relationships between academic history, the media, institutions…and popular culture" (149). As the digital turn continues, and the SEARCH button is just one part of that, all historians-professional or "amateur"-will take advantage of opportunities that technologies have opened up. Looking across the whole range of transformations in recent decades, De Groot concludes: "Increasingly users of history are accessing the past through complex and innovative media and this is reconfiguring their sense of themselves, the world they live in and what history itself might be about" (310). ReferencesAllen, Rob. "'The People's Advocate, Champion and Friend': The Transatlantic Career of Citizen John De Morgan (1848-1926)." Historical Research 86.234 (2013): 684-711.Busa, Roberto. "The Annals of Humanities Computing: The Index Thomisticus." Computers and the Humanities 14.2 (1980): 83-90.Cohen, Daniel J., and Roy Rosenzweig. Digital History: A Guide to Gathering, Preserving, and Presenting the Past on the Web. Philadelphia, PA: U Pennsylvania P, 2005.———. "Web of Lies? Historical Knowledge on the Internet." First Monday 10.12 (2005).De Groot, Jerome. Consuming History: Historians and Heritage in Contemporary Popular Culture. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2016.De Morgan, John. Who Is John De Morgan? A Few Words of Explanation, with Portrait. By a Free and Independent Elector of Leicester. London, 1877.Fyfe, Paul. "An Archaeology of Victorian Newspapers." Victorian Periodicals Review 49.4 (2016): 546-77."Interchange: The Promise of Digital History." Journal of American History 95.2 (2008): 452-91.Johnston, Leslie. "Before You Were Born, We Were Digitizing Texts." The Signal 9 Dec. 2012, Library of Congress. <https://blogs.loc.gov/thesignal/292/12/before-you-were-born-we-were-digitizing-texts>.Jordanova, Ludmilla. History in Practice. 2nd ed. London: Arnold, 2000.Kazin, Michael. A Godly Hero: The Life of William Jennings Bryan. New York: Anchor Books, 2006.Saint-Clair, Sylvester. Sketch of the Life and Labours of J. De Morgan, Elocutionist, and Tribune of the People. Leeds: De Morgan & Co., 1880.Vincent, William T. The Records of the Woolwich District, Vol. II. Woolwich: J.P. Jackson, 1890.Zaagsma, Gerban. "On Digital History." BMGN-Low Countries Historical Review 128.4 (2013): 3-29.