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1
Bach, Kent. Reference, intention, and context. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198714217.003.0005.
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This chapter takes up some recently published arguments that purport to show that a demonstrative, as used on a given occasion, refers either on account of certain features of the context or in virtue of a certain speaker intention, which is distinct from the sort of referential intention that is part of the speaker’s total communicative intention. After these arguments are disposed of, it is argued that there is no good rationale for maintaining that demonstratives refer in their own right. Rather, they have meanings that constrain their literal use. Speakers can and do use them to refer and to communicate what they use them to refer to without there being any referential role for demonstratives themselves to play. If this is right, it raises some interesting questions for standard conceptions of semantics.
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Ferrari, G. R. F. Dressed to Communicate—Or Not. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198798422.003.0002.
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Intimation is illustrated with an extended example: how we dress. Full-on communication with clothes is rare. The reason is this: unless the audience is already primed for a communication, your clothes must startle if they are to make your communicative intention unmistakable. Most of the messages we send when we dress, fashionably or otherwise, we send as half-on intimations. The chapter concentrates on the intentions of the individual dresser, contenting itself with the metaphor of the cultural ‘brand’ to explain how an entire culture may communicate with its clothes. The point of intimating with clothes is to get something across to another. Since clothes are the face we present to the world, this will most likely be something about ourselves; we tend to use clothes to offer a sample of ourselves. The chapter resists the idea that our clothes are never more than a social disguise.
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O’Collins, SJ, Gerald. Three ‘Intentions’ to Respect. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198824183.003.0009.
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The inspired books of the Bible should be interpreted integrally. This involves respecting not only the ‘intention’ of the human authors who composed the sacred texts (the intentio auctoris), to the extent that this can be established, but also the ‘intention’ of the readers who take up the texts (the intentio legentis) and the ‘intention’ of the text itself (the intentio textus ipsius). We must respect what the original authors wanted to communicate but also acknowledge the insights of subsequent readers and the multiple meanings that emerge from the texts’ reception history. The historical-critical method, which studies the genesis and authorial meaning of our biblical texts, is necessary but insufficient. Where it lapses into an exegesis that separates itself from the faith community and purports to be impartial and ‘objective’, it may yield some specific results but hardly valuable insights into the inspired Scriptures as a whole.
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Bach, Kent. Exaggeration and Invention. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198791492.003.0003.
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In Imagination and Convention Lepore and Stone make two sweeping claims about language, convention, and communication. One is that linguistic communication is of what is conventionally encoded. The other, complementary, claim is that when speakers use language in nonconventional ways, their intention is not to communicate some specific thing but rather to invite the hearer into a bit of “imaginative engagement.” So understanding an utterance requires no more than disambiguating it; insofar as imaginative interpretation is required, its aim is distinct from understanding the utterance. I agree with L&S that linguistic convention is much more comprehensive than traditionally supposed and that language is often used figuratively without specific communicative intentions, but their two claims go implausibly further. Both are subject to counterexample and counterargument, and rely on reasoning that downplays some distinctions and disregards others, as abetted by casual use of such key terms as “meaning,” “interpretation,” “convention,” and “Gricean.”
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Stokke, Andreas. Communicating Attitudes. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198825968.003.0010.
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This chapter extends the analysis of insincere language use from the last chapter to non-declarative utterances, including imperative, interrogative, and exclamative utterances. It argues that such utterances communicate information about the speaker’s attitudes. The chapter offers an account of insincerity in the non-declarative realm that is shallow. On this view, a non-declarative utterance is insincere when it is made without a conscious intention to avoid communicating information not matching the speaker’s conscious attitudes. A notion of a communicative act is defined, and the chapter argues that only such acts can be evaluated as insincere or not. A framework for understanding the semantics and pragmatics of non-declarative clause types is sketched and the chapter shows how it explains why non-declaratives cannot be used to lie.
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Rollins, Pamela Rosenthal. Developmental Pragmatics. Edited by Yan Huang. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697960.013.6.
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This chapter traces the development of communicative intention, conversation, and narrative in early interaction from infancy to early childhood. True communicative intention commences once the infant acquires the social cognitive ability to share attention and intention with another. The developing child’s pragmatic understanding is reflective of his/her underlying motivations for cooperation and shared intentionality. As children begin to understand others’ mental states, they can take others’ perspectives and understand what knowledge is shared and with whom, moving from joint perceptual focus to more decontextualized communicative intentions. With adult assistance, the young child is able to engage in increasingly more sophisticated conversational exchanges and co-constructed narratives which influence the child’s autonomous capabilities.
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Feldman, Lauren. Assumptions About Science in Satirical News and Late-Night Comedy. Edited by Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dan M. Kahan, and Dietram A. Scheufele. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190497620.013.35.
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Because satirical news programs such as The Daily Show and The Colbert Report pay substantial attention to science, this chapter considers their significance as sources of science attitudes and information. The first section of the chapter discusses general attributes of satirical news and how these may help foster public attention to, active engagement with, and understanding of science. The chapter then highlights limitations on the capacity of satire to communicate science, including the challenge of conveying the seriousness of certain science issues while using humor, the potential for audience misreading of satiric intention, the inherent divisiveness of satire, and the tension between communication goals and the authenticity of satiric performance. The chapter draws on studies that have explicitly analyzed the role of satirical news programs in a science communication context while also raising important unanswered research questions.
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Stokke, Andreas. Shallow Insincerity. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198825968.003.0009.
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This chapter argues for a shallow conception of insincerity. It argues that whether an utterance is insincere depends on the speaker’s conscious attitudes toward what is communicated as well as on his or her conscious intentions in making the utterance. Various ways of speaking spontaneously and of speaking without thinking are considered. A broad characterization of insincerity for declarative utterances is set out, according to which a declarative utterance is when it is made without a conscious intention to contribute an answer to a question under discussion that corresponds to one’s conscious attitudes, while avoiding communicating false information in the process.
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Salter, Diane J. Adolescent understanding of communicative intention in history texts: A developmental analysis. 1997.
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10
Simons, Mandy. Convention, Intention, and the Conversational Record. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198791492.003.0015.
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Lepore and Stone 2015 advocate a view which turns the Gricean picture of meaning on its head: they argue that the most basic type of meaning intention is one which presupposes the notion of conventional meaning. In this essay, I argue that evidence from language acquisition supports the Gricean view, according to which communicative intentions are analytically more basic than linguistic convention. I point out further, though, that Grice’s view recognizes the role of conventionality in meaning, a point neglected in Lepore and Stone’s critique. Lepore and Stone extend their convention-driven view by advocating a model on which the Conversational Record reflects only conventionally licensed conversational updates. I present evidence from conversation that shows that such a view of the record cannot account for certain types of standard conversational events.
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Ferrari, G. R. F. Intimation. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198798422.003.0001.
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The communicative scale is introduced. What is fundamental to communication is the intention of the communicator rather than the codes that languages employ. Following the model first proposed by Paul Grice and developed in Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson’s ‘relevance theory’, the structure of communicative intentionality is understood to be recursive: its underlying form is ‘I want you to know that I want you to know’. This leaves room for a simpler kind of transmission, to be called ‘intimation’, whose underlying form would be ‘I want you to know’. If communication is a transmission at the ‘full-on’ position of the scale, and if the switch is off when no communication is intended, then intimation would be at the intermediate, ‘half-on’ position. Intimation is particularly useful in contexts where discretion, suggestiveness, or plausible deniability are needed. It is strongly connected to self-presentation in social life (as studied by Erving Goffman).
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Medlin, Mark. Preadolescent Spiritual Formation: Familial Communicative Processes Leading to Intentional Discipleship. Independently Published, 2020.
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Wray, Alison. The Dynamics of Dementia Communication. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190917807.001.0001.
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Despite a plethora of good advice, it can be hard to sustain effective communicative behaviours when someone is living with a dementia. This book asks why that is. Part 1 explores how various dementia-causing diseases affect the linguistic, pragmatic (reasoning), and memory systems; how social perceptions and practices exacerbate the underlying biological problems; how people living with a dementia describe their experiences; and how dementia care currently addresses the challenges of communication. Part 2 asks why people communicate and what shapes how they communicate. The Communicative Impact model of communication is introduced and theoretically justified. It is argued that all communication is driven by people’s desire to make beneficial changes to their experiential world by getting the hearer to do, say, think, or feel something. Part 3 applies the model from part 2 to the range of considerations explored in part 1, helping readers see how and why communication is undermined and reshaped by the various biological, social, and emotional factors underlying the dementia experience. The model is used to shed light on how people living with a dementia are perceived and, as a result, treated, with particular attention to the acceptability of (well-intentioned) deception. The final chapter asks what needs to change if communication and well-being are to be optimized for people living with a dementia. In pursuit of truly person- and relationship-centred care, proposals for advanced skills in communication with a person living with a dementia are presented and explained, helping anchor the ubiquitous dos and don’ts in a deeper understanding of why interaction is difficult.
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Bara, Bruno G. Cognitive Pragmatics. Edited by Yan Huang. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697960.013.14.
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Cognitive pragmatics focuses on the mental states and, to some extent, the mental correlates of the participants of a conversation. The analysis of the mental processes of human communication is based on three fundamental concepts: cooperation, sharedness, and communicative intention. All of the three were originally proposed by Grice in 1975, though each has since been refined by other scholars. The cooperative nature of communication is justified by the evolutionary perspective through which the cooperative reasoning underlying a conversation is explained. Sharedness accounts for the possibility of comprehending non-standard communication such as deceit, irony, and figurative language. Finally, communicative intention presents the unique characteristic of recursion, which is, according to most scientists, a specific trademark of humans among all living beings.
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Krylova, Elvira. COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS OF MODAL PARTICLES IN DANISH. LCC MAKS Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.29003/m2532.978-5-317-06730-4.
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The book focuses on the functional semantics of modal Danish particles in statements varying in structure and lexical content. A comprehensive classification of modal particles, groups of particles and their pragmasemantic invariants is presented based on their speech functions. The functional-semantic analysis enabled to identify the communicative and interactive role of particles which are the most subjective units of the Danish language capable of conveying the subtlest nuances of the speaker's attitude to his own statement, to the interlocutor, to the real situation, or specifying speaker's overt and covert communicative intentions and attitudes. The book is addressed to teachers and researchers of the Scandinavian languages, supporters of the anthropocentric approach in language studies, specialists in the fi of pragmatics and functional grammar of Germanic and Russian languages, as well as to students at humanities colleges and universities.
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Gračanin, Asmir, Lauren M. Bylsma, and Ad J. J. M. Vingerhoets. The Communicative and Social Functions of Human Crying. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190613501.003.0012.
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Why do humans produce emotional tears? We propose that the answer to this question can be found in the interindividual functions of emotional crying. The basic assumption is that emotional tears represent a means of communication, which has evolved from distress or separation calls displayed by other animals as well. The reactions of others are the crucial factor that pushed forward the evolution of this phylogenetically new behavior. We substantiate this claim by discussing the ontogenetic development of crying, which sets the stage for explaining the ways this signal could have evolved. We further evaluate the signal value of tears in the context of the events and emotional states that precede or accompany crying, as well as of the consequences of crying for the crying individual. This allows us to conclude that tears predominantly represent a signal of helplessness and prosocial intentions.
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Roderick, Munday. 6 Ratification. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198784685.003.0006.
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This chapter concerns the ratification of unauthorized acts. The doctrine of ratification is concerned with acts performed without authority by an agent in the name of a principal. In short, ratification occurs whenever the ratifying party clearly manifests that he has adopted the unauthorized transaction effected by his agent purportedly on his behalf. There is no requirement that this intention must be communicated either to the third party or to the agent. Express ratification is self-explanatory. Implied ratification, however, will take place where either the conduct of the principal or the surrounding circumstances invite the inference that the principal has endorsed the agent’s conduct.
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Green, Mitchell S. Assertion. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935314.013.8.
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Assertion is here approached as a social practice developed through cultural evolution. This perspective will facilitate inquiry into questions concerning what role assertion plays in communicative life, what norms it is subject to, and whether every viable linguistic community must have a practice of assertion. The author’s evolutionary perspective will further enable us to ask how assertion relates to other communicative practices such as conversational implicature, indirect speech acts, presupposition, and, more broadly, the kinematics of conversation. It will also motivate a resolution of debates between conventionalist and intentionalist approaches to this speech act by explaining how those who make assertions can embody their intentions to perform an act of a certain kind. The chapter closes with a discussion of how assertoric practice can be compromised by patterns of malfeasance on the part of a speaker and by injustice within her milieu.
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Moran, Richard. Speech, Intersubjectivity, and Social Acts. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190873325.003.0001.
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This chapter uses a discussion of Thomas Reid’s characterization of “social acts of mind” to introduce the main themes of the book. Two ways of considering ordinary speech are contrasted: one, speech as a behavioral sign, indicating the states and attitudes of the speaker, and two, speech as a social act that people perform together. The political aspect of being recognized as a speaking subject is discussed in connection with Hobbes and others. This is contrasted with an understanding of testimony that sees it as not essentially different from perception-based knowledge (Quine, Millikan). The question is introduced: how can it matter to the epistemic status of a phenomenon (someone’s utterance) that it is essentially self-conscious, that the speaker herself understands it in a particular way and produces it with a particular communicative intention?
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Lyne, Raphael. Relevance Across History. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198794776.003.0003.
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An ostensive-inferential model of communication offers useful tools for organizing our thinking about reading works from the past and practising historicist criticism. Robert Herrick’s ‘Corinna’s going a Maying’ is woven into the religious controversies of its time, but it also accesses more or less timeless traditions in poetry (pastoral; carpe diem). It looks backward into tradition, forward into posterity, and at its immediate context. In order to describe the poem’s different kinds of communication with readers at different temporal and cultural distances, it is useful to see its intentions, the different things it might communicate, and its implicatures as an ‘array’ (a term taken from Sperber and Wilson’s ‘array of implicatures’). A cognitive pragmatics of literary interpretation provides good ways of exploring how writers explore this multiple communication, how they use contemporary readers as a screen for posterity, and how they use posterity as a screen for the contemporary.
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Ferrari, G. R. F. The Messages We Send. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198798422.001.0001.
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This is a book about ‘intimations’: social interactions that approach outright communication but do not quite reach it. The controlling metaphor is that of a communicative scale or switch, which goes from ‘off’ (no communication intended) to fully ‘on’ (outright communication). Intimations lie in between. Three intermediate positions are identified: quarter-on, half-on, and three-quarters-on. The metaphor is cashed by appeal to a Gricean model of communication: progression along the communicative scale is determined by the extent to which what comes across in the transmission is required to come across by recognition of the intention of the transmitting party. At a quarter-on, it is required not to; at half-on, it is neither required to nor required not to; at three-quarters-on, it is required to, but only partially; at full-on, it is required to, and the recognition is complete. The half-on intimation is primarily used for impression-management in social life (Goffman is an important influence here). To illustrate it, the book concentrates on fashion and the ‘messages’ we send with our clothes. With the quarter-on and three-quarters-on intimation, the focus of argument is on the fact that transmissions at the same position of the communicative scale have the same underlying structure, whether they are made in the formal arts or in daily life outside the arts. For the quarter-on intimation, the formal art is lyric poetry; for the three-quarters-on intimation, it is storytelling. Storytelling is discussed at length, and at the end is connected to situational irony.
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Hill, Felicity. Excommunication in Thirteenth-Century England. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198840367.001.0001.
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Excommunication was the medieval church’s most severe sanction, used against people at all levels of society. It was a spiritual, social, and legal penalty: Excommunication in Thirteenth-Century England offers a fresh perspective on medieval excommunication by taking a multi-dimensional approach to discussion of the sanction. Using England as a case study, the book analyzes the intentions behind excommunication, how it was perceived and received at both national and local level, and the effects it had upon individuals and society. This book uses a thematic structure to argue that our understanding of excommunication should be shaped by how it was received within the community as well as the intentions of canon law and clerics. Challenging assumptions about the inefficacy of excommunication, Hill argues that the sanction remained a useful weapon for the clerical elite. Bringing into dialogue a wide range of source material allows ‘effectiveness’ to be judged within a broader context. The complexity of political communication and action are revealed through public, conflicting, accepted, and rejected excommunications. Excommunication was a means by which political events were communicated down the social strata of medieval society. The book discusses pastoral care, cursing, fears about the afterlife, the implications of social ostracism, manipulations of excommunication in political conflicts, shame and reputation, and mass communication.
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Hilary, Putnam. On Content and Context. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198783916.003.0002.
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This chapter explores the ways in which Travis’s ‘context-sensitive semantics’, and the non-reductionist picture of thinking developed in connection with that idea, have influenced some of the central debates in contemporary philosophies of language and mind. The author defends Travis’s occasion-sensitivity against two recent attempts to refute the position. One of these attempts is by Donaldson and Lepore, and the other by Fodor and Lepore. It is argued that semantic atomism and the key role assigned to speakers’ communicative intentions in interpreting utterances, both of which contradict occasion-sensitivity, are not mandatory. The author shows that Fodor and Lepore’s position is compatible with the idea that thought may be occasion-sensitive.
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Gallagher, Shaun. Action and Interaction. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198846345.001.0001.
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Action and Interaction is divided into three parts. The first part focuses on the nature of action, starting with questions about action individuation, context, the notion of ?basic action? and the temporal structure of action. The importance of circumstance for understanding action is stressed. These topics lead to questions about intention and the sense of agency and ultimately to the idea that we need to consider action in the social contexts of interaction. The second part looks at the role of interaction in discussions of social cognition, building a contrast between standard theory- of-mind approaches and embodied/enactive accounts. Gallagher defends an enactive-interactionist account drawing on evidence from both phenomenology and empirical studies of development, ecological psychology, and studies of communicative and narrative practices, especially in more complex social practices. The third part transitions from considerations that focus on social-cognitive issues to understanding their implications for concepts that are basic to the development of a critical theory that addresses social and political issues, especially with respect to basic concepts of autonomy, recognition and justice, and the effects of norms and social institutions on our actions and interactions
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Mihas, Elena. Imperatives in Ashaninka Satipo (Kampa Arawak) of Peru. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198803225.003.0004.
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This chapter’s goal is to survey Ashaninka Satipo (Arawak) commanding communicative moves. It argues that imperatives form a paradigm consisting of the first person cohortative construction with the discourse particle tsame ‘come on’, second person canonical imperative construction characterized by a special intonation, and the third person jussive construction formed either with the intentional =ta on the lexical verb or on the copula kant ‘be this way’. In positive commands, the verbs are inflected for irrealis. The canonical imperative has a negative counterpart, whereas the cohortative and jussive verb forms lack them. While commanding, conversationalists tend to select specific linguistic resources which reflect their group membership status. Social equals have recourse to the same linguistic means as conversationalists in superior roles, but they also use the ‘want’ and ‘wish’ constructions and counter-assertive pronouns. The basic second person imperative forms are employed irrespective of the social status.
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Pettit, Philip. The Birth of Ethics. Edited by Kinch Hoekstra. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190904913.001.0001.
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The Birth of Ethics begins from a counterfactual world, Erewhon, where the residents are like us in various respects, including the use of natural language, but lack any sense of ethics or morality. The claim is that the inhabitants of that society would more or less inevitably develop certain practices and concepts, and that this development would effectively make them into moral creatures: agents versed in concepts like those of good and bad, right and wrong, and ready to apply them in assessing and regulating their own behavior and that of others. Anxious to establish their reputations with one another, they would use language to communicate their attitudes, making commitments not to prove misleading in the avowal of beliefs and desires, and in the pledging of intentions and actions. And as a result of doing that, they would inevitably evolve evaluative, regulative concepts like those of moral desirability and responsibility. This narrative, if persuasive, serves a number of important purposes. It naturalizes morality insofar as it explains how people could enter ethical space as a result of cumulative, naturalistically intelligible steps. It provides the basis for analyzing various moral concepts, since the referents of the concepts that emerge in Erewhon offer plausible candidates for the referents of our corresponding terms. And, finally, it gives morality a distinctive rationale and cast. The practices of commitment that the narrative places at the source of morality are associated with the practices, arguably, that make us persons: they require each of us to speak for a self that we invite others to rely on, and to organize our lives around that bespoken, beholden persona. Morality, in the emerging story, goes hand in hand with personhood in that sense; they are two sides of the one coin.
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Cave, Terence, and Deirdre Wilson, eds. Reading Beyond the Code. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198794776.001.0001.
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This book explores the value for literary studies of relevance theory, an inferential approach to communication in which the expression and recognition of intentions plays a major role. Drawing on a wide range of examples from lyric poetry and the novel, nine of the ten chapters are written by literary specialists and use relevance theory both as an overall framework and as a resource for detailed analysis. The final chapter, written by the co-founder of relevance theory, reviews the issues addressed by the volume and explores their implications for cognitive theories of how communicative acts are interpreted in context. Originally designed to explain how people understand each other in everyday face-to-face exchanges, relevance theory—described in an early review by a literary scholar as ‘the makings of a radically new theory of communication, the first since Aristotle’s’—sheds light on the whole spectrum of human modes of communication, including literature in the broadest sense. Reading Beyond the Code is unique in using relevance theory as a prime resource for literary study, and is also the first to apply the model to a range of phenomena widely seen as supporting an ‘embodied’ conception of cognition and language where sensorimotor processes play a key role. This broadened perspective serves to enhance the value for literary studies of the central claim of relevance theory: that the ‘code model’ is fundamentally inadequate to account for human communication, and in particular for the modes of communication that are proper to literature.