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Published: 10 March 2023

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1

Hartley, Trevor C. "The European Union and the Systematic Dismantling of the Common Law of Conflict of Laws." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 54, no. 4 (October 2005): 813–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iclq/lei038.

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English conflict of laws is the creation of the common law. Prior to Britain's entry into the European Union, legislation played only a limited role. The few legislative measures concerning choice of law were narrowly targeted to remedy specific problems—for example the formal validity of wills, or torts. The rules for service outside the jurisdiction were a more important exception, but their practical operation largely depended on judge-made concepts and remedies, such as forum non conveniens and antisuit injunctions. The common law also provided a complete system for the recognition of foreign judgments that operated untrammelled with regard to judgments from many countries, including some of the most important, while the relevant legislation, where applicable, did little more than provide a simpler procedure.

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2

Rantasaari, Krista. "Growth companies and procedural safeguards in European patent litigation." Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law 25, no. 2 (April 2018): 168–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1023263x18773966.

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The unitary patent system with the establishment of the Unified Patent Court will lead to unitary patent protection covering most European Union countries. Moreover, it will lead to litigation with the same geographical reach. One potential concern related to increasing litigation is the so-called ‘patent trolls’ (non-practicing entities) that purchase patents for the purpose of portfolio building or company financing. One of the key expressed justifications of the unitary patent system was to support small- and medium-sized enterprises by securing them easier and wider access to patents. The aim of this article is to examine procedural safeguards from the perspective of the start-up and growth companies. These safeguards protect start-up and growth companies when acting as defendants. As a corollary, they weaken the enforcement mechanisms from the perspective of the plaintiff. The safeguards addressed in this article are fee shifting, preliminary injunctions, and bifurcation. As the Unified Patent Court system is still evolving, the current state of European patent litigation in key jurisdiction countries (Germany, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands) is analysed. This article explores how these safeguards evolve in the unitary patent regime and their potential to reduce uncertainty for start-up and growth companies when acting as defendants.

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3

Urbanek, Anna. "The possibility of using representative actions to pursue claims resulting from the Dieselgate scandal – the future of redress for infringements of collective consumer interests." Vilnius University Open Series, no. 6 (December 28, 2020): 252–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/os.law.2020.21.

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Since the disclosure of unethical and illegal solutions used by Volkswagen A.G. during exhaust emission tests in many countries, proceedings are underway to impose an appropriate penalty on the company and to compensate the victims. On a global scale, the USA, Australia, South Korea and Canada can be mentioned. The European Union is not standing still. Until mid-February 2020, national courts and administrative bodies imposed various types of sanctions in Spain, Germany, Portugal, the Netherlands, Austria and Poland, among others. However, although the Volkswagen case is an infringement of collective consumer interests on a pan-European scale, Member States are resolving the problem through internal proceedings. Does this ensure effective and adequate compensation of affected consumers? The increase in protection would ensure, among other things, that there is a valid injunction for adequate compensation and that the proceedings are international in nature. The paper aims to show how the representative actions mechanism proposed in the “New Deal for Consumers” package could affect the effectiveness of decisions taken in the Volkswagen case by Member States’ competent authorities.

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Bilohur, Vlada, and Roman Oleksenko. "THE EUROPEAN SPORT MODELS MANAGEMENT IN THE EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES EUROPEAN UNION." HUMANITIES STUDIES 90, no. 13 (2022): 59–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.26661/hst-2022-13-90-07.

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5

Fields, D. "Injunctions granted in one EU Member State have pan-European Union effect." Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice 6, no. 9 (June 30, 2011): 597–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jiplp/jpr105.

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6

Stec, Małgorzata. "Innovation in European Union Countries." Gospodarka Narodowa 236, no. 11-12 (December 31, 2009): 45–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.33119/gn/101233.

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7

Rodríguez-Gulías, María Jesús, Vítor Manuel de Sousa Gabriel, and David Rodeiro-Pazos. "Effects of governance on entrepreneurship: European Union vs non-European Union." Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal 28, no. 1 (January 15, 2018): 43–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/cr-06-2016-0035.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyse the effect of six governance indicators on the rate of creation of new companies between countries that are members of the European Union (EU) and those that are not. H1 states that the various dimensions of governance help to explain the immediate creation of new businesses in European and non-European countries. H2 states that the various dimensions of governance help to explain the deferred creation of new businesses in European and non-European countries. Design/methodology/approach The paper uses two types of analyses: firstly, univariate analysis, which is a descriptive statistics of the dependent, independent and control variables, and the results of a t-test; and secondly, multivariate analysis, which estimates using the fixed-effects estimator under the specifications previously raised for the subsample of 28 EU countries and for the subsample of 103 non-EU countries during the period 2004-2014. Findings The results show that the variables of governance are not significantly higher in the EU, although the density of the enterprises is. Within the governance indicators, government effectiveness is significant in the EU. The results obtained for the EU confirmed H1and H2, with a significant positive effect of government effectiveness on entrepreneurship, while the other governance variables were not significant in the EU subsample. The results obtained for non-EU countries suggest no significant immediate effects (H1) and a slightly significant delayed effect of rule of law on the entrepreneurship (H2) concerned. Research limitations/implications Future research in this area could consider introducing another regional division or other types of methodology as variables affect models. Practical implications Governance can be defined as the ability of a government and its public institutions to provide services and design, and implement rules, which is a factor that affects the creation of new companies. However, the effect of governance could differ depending on the country and its economic environment. This paper analyses the effect of six governance indicators on the rate of creation of new companies considering two different geographic regions as countries are presumably heterogeneous. Therefore, these results indicate that the effect of governance variables on entrepreneurship differs according to the region. Social implications The effect of governance variables on entrepreneurship according to the region is also known. Originality/value This study applied panel data analysis to two samples of countries during the period 2004-2014, one formed by 28 countries of the EU and the other by 103 non-EU countries. No other paper considers this number of countries for this period. To assess the impact of governance on the creation of new companies, this paper considered the existence of immediate and deferred effects of governance on entrepreneurship.

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8

Kajkowska, Ewelina. "ANTI-SUIT INJUNCTIONS IN ARBITRAL AWARDS: ENFORCEMENT IN EUROPE." Cambridge Law Journal 74, no. 3 (October 30, 2015): 412–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008197315000859.

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THE status of anti-suit injunctions in Europe has long given rise to controversy. The decision of the Court of Justice of the European Union in Case C-536/13, Gazprom OAO [2015] All E.R. (EC) 711 sheds a new light on the relationship between anti-suit injunctions and the European jurisdiction regime embodied in the Brussels Regulation (Regulation No. 44/2001 on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters). In this much anticipated judgment, the Court of Justice confirmed that, by virtue of the arbitration exclusion in Article 1(2)(d) of the Brussels Regulation, Member State courts are not precluded from enforcing anti-suit injunctions issued by arbitration tribunals and aimed at restraining the proceedings before Member State courts. Although the decision was given before the Recast Brussels Regulation came into force (Regulation No. 1215/2012 on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters, effective from 10 January 2015), it can be assumed that the same conclusion would have been reached under the new law.

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9

Joumard, Isabelle. "Tax systems in European Union countries." OECD Economic Studies 2002, no. 1 (May 7, 2003): 91–151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eco_studies-v2002-art4-en.

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10

Hsieh, Jin-chi, Ching-cheng Lu, Ying Li, Yung-ho Chiu, and Ya-sue Xu. "Environmental Assessment of European Union Countries." Energies 12, no. 2 (January 18, 2019): 295. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en12020295.

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This study utilizes the dynamic data envelopment analysis (DEA) model by considering time to measure the energy environmental efficiency of 28 countries in the European Union (EU) during the period 2006–2013. There are three kinds of variables: input, output, and carry-over. The inputs are labor, capital, and energy consumption (EC). The undesirable outputs are greenhouse gas emissions (GHE) and sulfur oxide (SOx) emissions, and the desirable output variable is gross domestic product (GDP). The carry-over variable is gross capital formation (GCF). The empirical results show that first the dynamic DEA model can measure environment efficiency and provide optimum improvement for inefficient countries, as more than half of the EU countries should improve their environmental efficiency. Second, the average overall scores of the EU countries point out that the better period of performance is from 2009 to 2012. Third, the output variables of GHE, SOx, and GDP exhibit a significant impact on environmental efficiency. Finally, the average value of others is significantly better than high renewable energy utilization (HRE) with the Wilcoxon test. Thus, the EU’s strategy for environmental energy improvement should be to pay attention to the benefits of renewable energy (RE) utilization, reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHE), and enhancing the development of RE utilization to help achieve the goal of lower GHE.

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11

Gajos, Edyta, Sylwia Małażewska, and Konrad Prandecki. "EMISSION EFFICIENCY OF EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES." Annals of the Polish Association of Agricultural and Agribusiness Economists XX, no. 6 (December 10, 2018): 55–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0012.7732.

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The aim of the study was to compare the total greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union countries and their emission efficiency. Emission efficiency was calculated as the ratio of emission volume and value to gross value added generated by the economy of a given country (size of the economy). The necessary statistical data was obtained from Eurostat. It was found that in 2015 most of greenhouse gases were emitted by: Germany, United Kingdom, Poland, France and Italy. At the same time, France and the United Kingdom were characterized by one of the best emission efficiency in the European Union, Germany and Italy obtained average results, while Poland was in the group of countries with the lowest emission efficiency. Therefore, it can be concluded, that the volume of emissions is significantly affected by the size of the economy. Some large emitters have economies based on relatively “clean” technologies and thus their potential to further reduction is not very high. The reverse is true for some low-emission countries, such as Estonia and Bulgaria. This indicates the need for a more comprehensive look at the problem of reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

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12

Sikorski, Rafał. "Towards a More Orderly Application of Proportionality to Patent Injunctions in the European Union." IIC - International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law 53, no. 1 (January 2022): 31–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40319-021-01139-6.

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AbstractThe intensity of IP protection has traditionally been determined by assessing the criteria that need to be satisfied for the protection to be granted, as well as the scope of rights and limitations of those rights. The enforcement stage and the remedies available to right holders have for long been, if not neglected, then certainly treated with lesser attention. The rise of aggressive litigation strategies, especially in the field of patents, has brought the enforcement stage to the forefront of the discussion about the proper level of IP protection in general and patent law in particular. Injunctions provide particularly strong leverage at the enforcement stage, allowing patentees in some cases to obtain royalties that exceed the value of the protected inventions. The principle of proportionality can play an important role as a check on excessive litigation strategies by patentees. Flexibility, however, comes at the price of uncertainty and unpredictability as to the outcome of patent disputes. Therefore, it is crucial to apply proportionality in an orderly and structured manner. For that purpose, the article identifies a set of factors that may be helpful in applying proportionality in patent disputes. That set of factors is well grounded in the traditions of the laws of the EU Member States.

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13

Wise, Abigail, and Sean Ibbetson. "Balancing act between rights holders and platforms given further consideration by CJEU." Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice 16, no. 11 (November 1, 2021): 1167–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jiplp/jpab139.

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Abstract Court of Justice of the European Union, Frank Peterson v Google LLC, YouTube LLC, YouTube Inc, Google Germany GmbH and Elsevier Inc v Cyando AG, Joined Cases C-682/18 and C683/18, EU:C:2021:503, 22 June 2021 The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) has provided a non-exhaustive list of factors which are suggested to be taken into account in deciding whether a platform is engaged in acts of communication to the public. The court’s ruling clarifies the scope of the right under Article 3(1) of Directive 2001/29/EC, the availability of the hosting exemption in Article 14(1) of Directive 2000/31/EC and injunctions against intermediaries under Article 8(3) of Directive 2001/29/EC.

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14

Kraciuk, Jakub. "FOOD SECURITY OF THE EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES." Annals of the Polish Association of Agricultural and Agribusiness Economists XIX, no. 3 (August 22, 2017): 150–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0010.3238.

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The aim of the study was to show the state of food security in European Union countries and defines the basic factors determining the level of this security. There is a large disproportion in the state of food security between individual European Union countries, especially between old and new EU countries. It was determined that in the analyzed years average prices of products and their quality deteriorated in the countries of the European Union. The unfavorable changes that have taken place were not too great. On the other hand, the average indicator for the analyzed countries regarding access to food has clearly improved.

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15

Grabowska, Barbara. "Education of teachers in European Union countries." Osvitolohiya, no. 3 (2014): 40–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.28925/2226-3012.2014.3.4045.

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16

Gajewski, Paweł. "Public Finance Sustainability in European Union Countries." Gospodarka Narodowa 251, no. 10 (October 31, 2011): 21–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.33119/gn/101072.

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17

Elbashir, Rania. "LIBYA'S FOREIGN TRADE WITH EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES." MEST Journal 10, no. 2 (July 15, 2022): 64–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.12709/mest.10.10.02.07.

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The subject of this empirical and theoretical work is the exchange of foreign trade in Libya with the countries of the European Union. The scientific objective of the research is to make a scientific classification of the volume of foreign trade between Libya and the European Union countries and to discover the factors that hinder foreign trade and explain them scientifically. European countries also support this cooperation and contribute significantly to the formulation of future cooperation policies with Libya in various social, political, and economic fields. However, this cooperation takes place in light of objective difficulties arising from the conflicting interests of Western countries in North Africa and Libya. Since these relations are burdened with many problems of different nature, we started this paper from two assumptions: The first premise is that in the trade relations between Libya and the European Union, there are common interests for foreign trade that are more feasible. The second premise is that more encouragement and protection for investments by the countries of the European Union helps in new qualitative development and economic growth in Libya, which will significantly improve trade relations between Libya and the countries of the European Union.

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18

Kavelaars, Peter. "The foreign countries of the European Union." EC Tax Review 16, Issue 6 (December 1, 2007): 268–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/ecta2007044.

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19

Szymańska, Agata. "Tax revenues in the European Union countries." Wiadomości Statystyczne. The Polish Statistician 62, no. 5 (May 26, 2017): 79–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.0921.

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The aim of this paper is to analyse tax revenues and examine similarities of selected tax revenues (mainly VAT, CIT, PIT and excise duty) in the European Union countries. The analysis of the EU members concerns the period between 2003 (i.e. the year preceding the biggest enlargement of the EU) and 2012 (due to data completeness). Tax rates and the structure of tax revenues in the EU countries were compared and then the cluster analysis was applied to assess the similarity of tax revenues. The analysis suggests that the process of tax harmonization, which took place in the period considered, did not exert a significant impact on the similarity of the structure of tax revenues in the EU countries. The structure seems to be still determined by e.g. social, economic or historical factors, which influenced the tax systems creation in particular EU countries.

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20

Brozo, William G., E. Sutton Flynt, Gerry Shiel, Ulla-Britt Persson, Christine Garbe, and Lydia Dachkova. "Content Reading in Four European Union Countries." Reading Teacher 63, no. 2 (October 2009): 170–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1598/rt.63.2.10.

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21

MUFTAKHOVA, A. N. "TERRITORIAL MOBILITY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES." Central Russian Journal of Social Sciences 14, no. 1 (2019): 145–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.22394/2071-2367-2019-14-1-145-160.

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22

Saman Shojae Chaeikar, Mazdak Zamani, Christian Sunday Chukwuekezie, and Mojtaba Alizadeh. "Electronic Voting Systems for European Union Countries." Journal of Next Generation Information Technology 4, no. 5 (July 31, 2013): 16–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.4156/jnit.vol4.issue5.3.

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23

Legros, F., and M. Danis. "Surveillance of malaria in European Union countries." Eurosurveillance 3, no. 5 (May 1, 1998): 45–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.2807/esm.03.05.00103-en.

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The European Union countries are outside the endemic area for malaria, but many cases of malaria contracted elsewhere are imported into Europe each year. Several countries have reported high and increasing numbers of imported cases in recent years (France

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24

Afonso, Oscar, Ana Lurdes Albuquerque, and Alexandre Almeida. "Wage inequality determinants in European Union countries." Applied Economics Letters 20, no. 12 (August 2013): 1170–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2013.797551.

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25

Lewis, Alfred, and Owusu Kwarteng. "The European Union: implications for developing countries." European Business Review 95, no. 5 (October 1995): 3–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09555349510096090.

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26

Branco Pedro, João, Frits Meijer, and Henk Visscher. "Building control systems of European Union countries." International Journal of Law in the Built Environment 2, no. 1 (April 20, 2010): 45–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17561451011036513.

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27

Economou, Athina, and Iacovos N. Psarianos. "Revisiting Okun’s Law in European Union countries." Journal of Economic Studies 43, no. 2 (May 9, 2016): 275–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jes-05-2013-0063.

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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine Okun’s Law in European countries by distinguishing between the transitory and the permanent effects of output changes upon unemployment and by examining the effect of labor market protection policies upon Okun’s coefficients. Design/methodology/approach – Quarterly data for 13 European Union countries, from the second quarter of 1993 until the first quarter of 2014, are used. Panel data techniques and Mundlak decomposition models are estimated. Findings – Okun’s Law is robust to alternative specifications. The effect of output changes to unemployment rates is weaker for countries with increased labor market protection expenditures and it is more persistent for countries with low labor market protection. Originality/value – The paper provides evidence that the permanent effect of output changes upon unemployment rates is quantitatively larger than the transitory impact. In addition, it provides evidence that increased labor market protection mitigates the adverse effects of a decrease in output growth rate upon unemployment.

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Agiakloglou, Christos, and Emmanouil Deligiannakis. "Sovereign risk evaluation for European Union countries." Journal of International Money and Finance 103 (May 2020): 102117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jimonfin.2019.102117.

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29

Giambona, Francesca, Erasmo Vassallo, and Elli Vassiliadis. "Educational systems efficiency in European Union countries." Studies in Educational Evaluation 37, no. 2-3 (June 2011): 108–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2011.05.001.

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30

Cahlík, Tomáš. "Central and east european countries after entering the european union." Prague Economic Papers 11, no. 1 (January 1, 2002): 3–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.18267/j.pep.185.

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31

Samardžija, Višnja. "European union and central european countries reducing barriers or not?" International Advances in Economic Research 1, no. 1 (February 1995): 81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02295861.

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32

Fidrmuc, Jarko. "Restructuring European union trade with central and eastern European countries." Atlantic Economic Journal 28, no. 1 (March 2000): 83–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02300533.

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33

Sulaiman, Saqer. "Arab Youth Migration to the European Union." Pro Publico Bono - Magyar Közigazgatás 8, no. 4 (2020): 106–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.32575/ppb.2020.4.8.

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Migration from Arab countries to European countries started many decades ago. It has been driven by a variety of push–pull factors. The two main factors are economic deterioration and political instability. Many young people migrated to escape unemployment, poverty and poorworking conditions. Others fled the effects of war and conflicts. This paper reviews Arab youth migration to European countries, its drivers, and the way it impacts the origin countries, host countries and the immigrants. Despite some negative implications of migration on the origin countries such as education cost and deprivation of the country from the potential capacity of skilled people, the benefits of these countries are rather clear and include remittances, knowledge and experience transfer. However, mitigation of Arab youth migration challenges is not an easy task; it needs new governmental approaches to reduce unemployment rates, as well as the active involvement of youth in economic and political life.

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34

Balyuk, I. A., and M. A. Balyuk. "External Debt Problem in the European Union." World of new economy 15, no. 2 (June 26, 2021): 47–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.26794/2220-6469-2021-15-2-47-61.

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The paper's relevance is substantiated by the fact that today a rapid growth of external debt of the most developed countries of the world (including European Union (EU) countries) is one of the most acute problems of the modern world economy and global finance. The paper aims to assess the degree of the external debt burden of various EU countries and evaluate the prospects of solving external debt problems in the EU. The article focuses on dynamics, composition, and specifics shaping the EU countries' external debt based on comparative, economic, statistical, and graphical analysis. Special attention we paid to the analysis of specifics of the EU countries' sovereign external debt composition connected with the acute problem of the rapid growth of public debt in general. The paper examines the ratio of public external and internal debt in various EU countries. It determines the EU particular countries where public external debt is shaping based on either cross-border or domestic model. The research results reveal a high degree of dependence of the EU economy on international debt finance. Gross external debt and sovereign external debt of the EU countries are still growing, and its distribution among various member states is very uneven. The structural imbalance of the EU countries' net external debt has also been revealed: the number of net borrowers is double that of net lenders. According to the basic external debt sustainability indicators, some EU countries are in a pretty tricky situation and entirely depend on the possibility of external debt refinancing.

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Solaz, Anne, Marika Jalovaara, Michaela Kreyenfeld, Silvia Meggiolaro, Dimitri Mortelmans, and Inge Pasteels. "Unemployment and separation: Evidence from five European countries." Journal of Family Research 32, no. 1 (April 1, 2020): 145–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.20377/jfr-368.

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Since the 1970s, several European countries have experienced high union dissolution risk as well as high unemployment rates. The extent to which adverse economic conditions are associated with union instability is still unknown. This study explores the relationship between both individual and aggregate unemployment and union dissolution risk in five European countries before the recent economic crisis. Using rich longitudinal data from Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, and Italy, the empirical analysis, based on discrete-time event history models, shows that male unemployment consistently increases the risk of union dissolution. While a strong association is observed between male unemployment and separation at the micro level, no association is found between male unemployment and union dissolution at the macro level. The results for female unemployment are mixed, and the size of the impact of female unemployment is smaller in magnitude than that of male unemployment. In Germany and Italy, where until very recently work is less compatible with family life than in other countries, female unemployment is not significantly associated with union dissolution.

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36

Park, Soo-Young. "European Union and Hungarian Language Policy." International Area Review 8, no. 2 (June 2005): 155–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/223386590500800208.

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Eastern European countries has been historically multiracial European countries, therefore, the language policy of EU becomes a test case for the practical lives of peoples on the question of the preservation of national identities without national boundaries. This thesis shows what kind of language policy that EU practices to integrate its member states' peoples which practically transcend the borders and how each state deals with these necessities with European Integration and the Globalization. In my paper, Hungary was analyzed as an example.

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37

Matis, Jozef, and Lenka Nagyová. "Possible Integration of the Security System of the Member Countries of the European Union." Politické vedy 25, no. 3 (November 22, 2022): 110–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.24040/politickevedy.2022.25.3.110-126.

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The processes of globalization and postmodernism are important determinants of the integration of the European Union countries in the field of ensuring security. Ensuring security of the European Union countries requires the creation of an integrated security system of these countries. This study is concerned with the theoretical analysis of an important factor - disponible (available) groups - in ensuring security of the European Union. These groups were defined as professional or volunteer response forces of a military, paramilitary and non-military nature.Two possible ways of integrating national disponible groups into the developing security system of the European Union ensuring its military as well as non-military security were analyzed. The success of integration of the national security systems of the European Union countries into the security system of the European Union depends not only on the elites - national (local) and transnational, but also on the transformation of citizens of national (member) states into citizens of the European Union - European citizens.

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38

Wawrzyniak, Dorota. "Standard Of Living In The European Union." Comparative Economic Research. Central and Eastern Europe 19, no. 1 (March 30, 2016): 139–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cer-2016-0008.

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The European Union countries are diversified in terms of the standard of living of the population. The reduction of disparities in the standard of living, along with the elimination of the negative phenomena related to social exclusion form an EU policy priority. In this context, the aim of this article is to compare the standard of living in the various European Union countries and to determine Poland’s position in the ranking. In the study, countries with a similar standard of living of their populations were grouped as well. The analysis was based on 10 variables describing the standard of living in the EU-28 countries and was conducted with the use of the development pattern method proposed by Z. Hellwig. According to the results of the research, the standard of living is the highest in Austria, Finland, Germany and Sweden, whereas it is the lowest in Spain, Malta, Croatia and Romania. Poland ranks relatively low among the European Union countries (20th place).

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Hall, Joshua C., Robert A. Lawson, and Rachael Wogsland. "The European Union and Economic Freedom." Global Economy Journal 11, no. 3 (September 2011): 1850232. http://dx.doi.org/10.2202/1524-5861.1731.

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This paper integrates two growing strains of literature. The first strain looks at the effect of economic and political unions on outcomes such as bond ratings and economic convergence. The second strain looks at the determinants of economic freedom across countries. Building from these two literatures, we investigate the impact of joining the European Union on a country’s economic freedom. Using a panel of countries from 1970 to 2007, we find evidence that joining the European Union increases a country’s economic freedom. Empirically, however, the impact of joining the union on economic freedom is small.

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Lampreia dos Santos, M. J. P. L. "Segmenting farms in European Union." Agricultural Economics (Zemědělská ekonomika) 59, No. 2 (March 12, 2013): 49–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/28/2012-agricecon.

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The main objective of this work is to characterize and segment the farms of the twenty-seven Member States of the European Union (EU). For this purpose, the techniques of cluster analysis and cluster of cases segment the farms, based on a sample of farms of the Farm Accountancy and Information Network. The results show the existence of four types of farms in the EU that are distinguishable by their (i) structural characteristics, in particular, for their Utilized Agricultural Area, the total output, by the percentage of contract work and the total work, (ii) by their financial characteristics, i.e., by their total assets and the cash flow of the EU farms, and (iii) by their guidance and the importance of subsidies on these farms. These results thus suggest the definition of the Common Agricultural Policy differentiated and adapted to the existing four clusters of countries. We suggest the development of typologies of farms in the EU, with a more robust database involving different EU regions that constitute the different countries in order to obtain the robust types of farms from different European regions.  

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Altun, Kahraman. "Anti-Suit Injunctions in European Transnational Litigation: Past, Present and Post-Brexit Future of an Unusual Remedy." European Review of Private Law 28, Issue 3 (September 1, 2020): 585–625. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/erpl2020035.

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Anti-suit injunctions are the frontline in the clash of civil and common law. Of course, the imbalance of powers between the systems’ courts is critical. However, both approaches have their advantages. Whilst civil law approach establishes harmony between Member States’ courts and provides for a high degree of legal certainty and predictability, the common law approach gives greater flexibility to judges in order to do justice in the individual case, which at times is necessary to prevent abusive litigation tactics. Whilst the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) rightfully held that the Brussels regime does not allow for anti-suit injunctions in non-obligation-based cases, the remedy should not have been banned in obligation-based cases. Civil law dominated Europe has unfortunately missed the opportunity to learn from the common law approach in a rather arrogant manner. Now however, it is time to look forward. It is crucial to realize that even greater conflicts may arise from 1 January 2021, but that the future also provides a unique opportunity to resolve the issue once and for all. In the eye of the inevitable reemergence of the anti-suit injunction it is high time to address the issue. Otherwise, parties involved in cross-border litigation in Europe may be in danger of having to litigate with minimum legal certainty or even becoming playing balls amongst jurisdictions. Such a situation would scare off parties and decrease Europe’s attractiveness as a legal venue. Therefore, it is not only in the parties’, but also in both the UK’s and EU-27s interest to resolve the issue of anti-suit injunctions in transnational litigation in Europe.

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Gräbner-Radkowitsch, Claudius, Dennis Tamesberger, Philipp Heimberger, Timo Kapelari, and Jakob Kapeller. "Trade models in the European Union." Ekonomski anali 67, no. 235 (2022): 7–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/eka2235007g.

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By studying the factors underlying differences in trade performance across European economies, this paper derives six different ?trade models? for 22 EU countries and explores their developmental and distributional dynamics. We first introduce a typology of trade models by clustering countries on the basis of four key dimensions of trade performance: endowments, technological specialisation, labour market characteristics and regulatory requirements. The resulting clusters comprise countries that base their export success on similar trade models. Our results indicate the existence of six different trade models: the ?primary goods model? (Latvia, Estonia), the ?finance model? (Luxembourg), the ?flexible labour market model? (UK), the ?periphery model? (Greece, Portugal, Spain, Italy, France), the ?industrial workbench model? (Slovenia, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic), and the ?hightech model? (Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Ireland, Finland, Germany and Austria). Subsequently, we provide a comparative analysis of the economic development and trends in inequality across these trade models. Inter alia, we observe a shrinking wage share and increasing personal income inequality in most of them, yet find that the ?high-tech model? is an exceptional case, being characterised by relatively stable economic development and an institutional setting that managed to counteract rising inequality.

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Marčeta, Milja, and Štefan Bojnec. "Innovation and competitiveness in the European Union countries." International Journal of Sustainable Economy 13, no. 1 (2021): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijse.2021.113316.

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Fanelli, Rosa Maria. "Have beer markets in European Union countries converged?" ECONOMIA AGRO-ALIMENTARE, no. 3 (February 2019): 445–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.3280/ecag2018-003010.

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Pawlak, Marcin, and Dariusz Zarzecki. "Investment Appraisal Practice in the European Union Countries." EUROPEAN RESEARCH STUDIES JOURNAL XXIII, Special Issue 2 (November 1, 2020): 687–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.35808/ersj/1892.

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Marceta, Milja, and Stefan Bojnec. "Innovation and Competitiveness in the European Union Countries." International Journal of Sustainable Economy 13, no. 1 (2021): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijse.2021.10034983.

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Mrówczyńska-Kamińska, Aldona. "The Role of Agribusiness in European Union Countries." Gospodarka Narodowa 262, no. 3 (March 31, 2013): 79–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.33119/gn/100951.

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Stec, Małgorzata. "Comparison of European Union Countries by Development Level." Gospodarka Narodowa 225, no. 7-8 (August 31, 2008): 99–118. http://dx.doi.org/10.33119/gn/101330.

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Vasanicova, Petra, Sylvia Jencova, Beata Gavurova, and Radovan Bacik. "Coopetition of European Union Countries within Destination Management." Journal of Tourism and Services 13, no. 24 (June 30, 2022): 71–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.29036/jots.v13i24.368.

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Coopetition has been the issue of various studies in different fields, but there is a research gap in examining coopetition within the tourism sector and destination management. This paper aims to determine whether there are internally homogeneous and externally heterogeneous groups of European Union countries regarding indicators of natural and cultural resources of the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), and thus subsequently identify the importance and possibilities of competition among countries within the tourism sector. Multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis are used to verify the research hypothesis, along with ten indicators of the fourth sub-index (Natural and Cultural Resources) of TTCI. The results of the cluster analysis led to a six-group solution. Italy, Spain, and France have the best position in terms of tourism competitiveness. The results show space for competition in the international tourism market. Even though EU countries are competitors at a global level, their cooperation could be beneficial to tourism development. The findings of this study can be helpful in planning and strategy development for tourism policymakers and destination management organizations but can also be used to develop various marketing strategies. Furthermore, cooperation between destinations will support the need for strategic flexibility in the tourism sector, as the diversity of tourism attractions will increase.

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Migala-Warchol, Aldona. "Forecasting Macroeconomic Indicators for Selected European Union Countries." EUROPEAN RESEARCH STUDIES JOURNAL XXV, Issue 2 (May 1, 2022): 420–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.35808/ersj/2930.

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