Journal articles: 'Infant burial'

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Hausmair, Barbara. "Topographies of the afterlife: Reconsidering infant burials in medieval mortuary space." Journal of Social Archaeology 17, no. 2 (April 24, 2017): 210–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1469605317704347.

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Across societies, deaths which take place in early infancy often trigger distinctive responses in burial practices, signifying the ambivalent social status of those who died before they really lived. This paper focuses on burial practices in medieval Central Europe pertaining to children who died before, during or shortly after birth. It discusses the relationship between medieval laity, ecclesiastic power and social space, using three medieval cemeteries in Switzerland and Austria as examples. By integrating considerations of medieval practices of infant baptism, afterlife topography and social theories of space, a methodological and interpretative framework is outlined and employed for approaching burials of early-deceased infants, the social dimension of related local burial practices, and processes of power negotiation between medieval laypeople and church authorities.

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Akazawa, Takeru, Sultan Muhesen, Yukio Dodo, Osamu Kondo, and Yuji Mizoguchi. "Neanderthal infant burial." Nature 377, no. 6550 (October 1995): 585–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/377585a0.

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Millett, Martin, and Rebecca Gowland. "Infant and Child Burial Rites in Roman Britain: a Study from East Yorkshire." Britannia 46 (April 1, 2015): 171–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068113x15000100.

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AbstractThe discovery of infant burials on excavated domestic sites in Roman Britain is fairly common but in the past these burials have often been dismissed as a product of unceremonious disposal. There is a growing literature which considers the phenomenon, but it has been dominated by debates around the suggestion that these burials provide evidence for infanticide, with a focus on the osteological evidence for and against this hypothesis. There has been less systematic consideration of the archaeological context of such burials. In this paper we examine the excavated evidence of two large groups of such burials from sites in East Yorkshire which demonstrate that the burial of neonatal infants followed a careful age-specific funerary rite. We suggest that this conclusion further undermines the widespread assumption that infants were disposed of without ceremony and as a result of infanticide.

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Cannon, Aubrey, and Katherine Cook. "Infant Death and the Archaeology of Grief." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 25, no. 2 (April 23, 2015): 399–416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959774315000049.

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To build a theoretical and empirical foundation for interpretation of the absence, segregation or simplicity of infant burials in archaeological contexts, we review social theories of emotion, inter-disciplinary views on the relationship between mortality rates and emotional investment, and archaeological interpretations of infant burial patterns. The results indicate a lack of explicit theory in most archaeological accounts and a general lack of consideration for individual variation and the process of change in mortuary practice. We outline the tenets of Bowlby's attachment theory and Stroebe and Schut's dual process model of bereavement to account theoretically for pattern, variation and change in modes of infant burial. We illustrate the value of this psychology-based perspective in an analysis of Victorian gravestone commemorations of infant burials in 35 villages in rural south Cambridgeshire, England, where individual and class-based variation, relative to falling mortality rates, is best explained as a function of coping strategies and contextually based social constraint on the overt representation of grief and loss.

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Murail, P., B. Maureille, D. Peresinotto, and F. Geus. "An infant cemetery of the Classic Kerma period (1750–1500 BC, Island of Saï, Sudan)." Antiquity 78, no. 300 (June 2004): 267–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00112931.

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Excavation of a Classic Kerma cemetery in Sudan revealed a number of burials segregated by age, throwing into question a presumed disregard for the burial of the young. Burial rites were varied according to the age of the deceased and show a remarkable concern for the ritual burial of infants and the stillborn

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Valk, Jonathan. "“They Enjoy Syrup and Ghee at Tables of Silver and Gold”: Infant Loss in Ancient Mesopotamia." Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 59, no. 5 (November 7, 2016): 695–749. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685209-12341412.

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The present study draws on interdisciplinary research to establish an interpretative framework for an analysis of the material and textual evidence concerning infant loss in ancient Mesopotamia (c. 3000-500 bce). This approach rejects the notion that high infant mortality rates result in widespread parental indifference to infant loss, arguing instead that underlying biological and transcultural realities inform human responses to this phenomenon. With this conclusion in mind, a review of ancient Mesopotamian archaeological evidence reveals patterns of differential infant burial; while the interpretation of these patterns is uncertain, the broader contexts of infant burials in ancient Mesopotamia do not point to parental indifference, but rather the opposite. The available textual evidence in turn indicates that ancient Mesopotamians valued their infants, sought actively to protect them from harm, and mourned deeply when they died, a conclusion that is not controverted by evidence of infant exposure.

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Juengst, Sara L., Richard Lunniss, Abigail Bythell, and Juan José Ortiz Aguilu. "Unique Infant Mortuary Ritual at Salango, Ecuador, 100 BC." Latin American Antiquity 30, no. 4 (November 12, 2019): 851–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/laq.2019.79.

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The human head was a potent symbol for many South American cultures. Isolated heads were often included in mortuary contexts, representing captured enemies, revered persons, and symbolic “seeds.” At Salango, a ritual complex on the central coast of Ecuador, excavations revealed two burial mounds dated to approximately 100 BC. Among the 11 identified burials, two infants were interred with “helmets” made from the cranial vaults of other juveniles. The additional crania were placed around the heads of the primary burials, likely at the time of burial. All crania exhibited lesions associated with bodily stress. In this report, we present the only known evidence of using juvenile crania as mortuary headgear, either in South America or globally.

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Carroll, Maureen. "Infant death and burial in Roman Italy." Journal of Roman Archaeology 24 (2011): 99–120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1047759400003329.

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Crow, Madison, Colleen Zori, and Davide Zori. "Doctrinal and Physical Marginality in Christian Death: The Burial of Unbaptized Infants in Medieval Italy." Religions 11, no. 12 (December 17, 2020): 678. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel11120678.

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The burial of unbaptized fetuses and infants, as seen through texts and archaeology, exposes friction between the institutional Church and medieval Italy’s laity. The Church’s theology of Original Sin, baptism, and salvation left the youngest children especially vulnerable to dying unbaptized and subsequently being denied a Christian burial in consecrated grounds. We here present textual and archaeological evidence from medieval Italy regarding the tensions between canon law and parental concern for the eternal salvation of their infants’ souls. We begin with an analysis of medieval texts from Italy. These reveal that, in addition to utilizing orthodox measures of appealing for divine help through the saints, laypeople of the Middle Ages turned to folk religion and midwifery practices such as “life testing” of unresponsive infants using water or other liquids. Although emergency baptism was promoted by the Church, the laity may have occasionally violated canon law by performing emergency baptism on stillborn infants. Textual documents also record medieval people struggling with where to bury their deceased infants, as per their ambiguous baptismal status within the Church community. We then present archaeological evidence from medieval sites in central and northern Italy, confirming that familial concern for the inclusion of infants in Christian cemeteries sometimes clashed with ecclesiastical burial regulations. As a result, the remains of unbaptized fetuses and infants have been discovered in consecrated ground. The textual and archaeological records of fetal and infant burial in medieval Italy serve as a material legacy of how laypeople interpreted and sometimes contravened the Church’s marginalizing theology and efforts to regulate the baptism and burial of the very young.

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Razzell, Peter. "Infant Mortality in London, 1538–1850: a Methodological Study." Local Population Studies, no. 87 (December 31, 2011): 45–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.35488/lps87.2011.45.

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A review of evidence on infant mortality derived from the London bills of mortality and parish registers indicates that there were major registration problems throughout the whole of the parish register period. One way of addressing these problems is to carry out reconstitution studies of individual London parishes, but there are a number of problems with reconstitution methodology, including the traffic in corpses between parishes both inside and outside of London and the negligence of clergymen in registering both baptisms and burials. In this paper the triangulation of sources has been employed to measure the adequacy of burial registration, including the comparison of data from bills of mortality, parish registers and probate returns, as well as the use of the same-name technique. This research indicates that between 20 and 40 per cent of burials went unregistered in London during the parish register period.

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Akazawa, Takeru, S. Muhesen, Yukio Dodo, Osamu Kondo, Yuji Mizoguchi, Yoshito Abe, Yoshihiro A. Nishiaki, Shoji Ohta, Takashi Oguchi, and Jamal Haydal. "Neanderthal infant burial from the Dederiyeh cave in Syria." Paléorient 21, no. 2 (1995): 77–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/paleo.1995.4619.

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HUMPHREY, LOUISE, SILVIA BELLO, and EMILY ROUSHAM. "SEX DIFFERENCES IN INFANT MORTALITY IN SPITALFIELDS, LONDON, 1750–1839." Journal of Biosocial Science 44, no. 1 (September 23, 2011): 95–119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021932011000484.

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SummaryThis study examines sex differences in infant mortality in Spitalfields, London, and the estimated contribution of endogenous and exogenous factors to neonatal and infant mortality using the biometric model from 1750 to 1839. There was a marked decline in the risk of death during infancy and the neonatal period for both sexes during the study period. There was significant excess male infant mortality compared with that of females in the 1750–59 cohort, estimated from baptism and burial registers, but not in later cohorts. Similarly, males had higher neonatal mortality rates than females in 1750–59 but not in later cohorts. Biometric analyses suggest that the observed decrease in neonatal mortality in both sexes was caused by a reduction in both endogenous and exogenous causes of death. The contribution of maternal health and breast-feeding practices to the observed patterns of mortality is discussed in the light of available evidence.

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TOMKINS, ALANNAH. "Demography and the midwives: deliveries and their dénouements in north Shropshire, 1781–1803." Continuity and Change 25, no. 2 (August 2010): 199–232. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0268416010000214.

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ABSTRACTThis article uses the evidence of midwifery deliveries to investigate the strengths and shortcomings of parish registers, and to pose questions about infant and maternal mortality. It focuses on the delivery notebooks of Thomas Higgins, a man-midwife of north Shropshire, but also employs comparators from Staffordshire and Yorkshire. The research incorporates a technique for dealing with infants where neither a baptism nor a burial can be found. The findings include rare evidence about rates of stillbirth and maternal mortality, and suggest some adjustments to the assumptions made for conducting parish reconstitutions.

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Murphy, Eileen M. "Children’s Burial Grounds in Ireland (Cilliní) and Parental Emotions Toward Infant Death." International Journal of Historical Archaeology 15, no. 3 (June 24, 2011): 409–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10761-011-0148-8.

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Matney, Timothy. "Infant Burial Practices as Domestic Funerary Ritual at Early Bronze Age Titriş Höyük." Near Eastern Archaeology 81, no. 3 (September 2018): 174–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.5615/neareastarch.81.3.0174.

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Finlay, Nyree. "Outside of life: traditions of infant burial in Ireland from cillin to cist." World Archaeology 31, no. 3 (January 2000): 407–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00438240009696929.

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Davenport, Romola. "Urban Family Reconstitution - a Worked Example." Local Population Studies, no. 96 (June 30, 2016): 28–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.35488/lps96.2016.28.

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Family reconstitutions have been undertaken only rarely in urban settings due to the high mobility of historical urban populations, in both life and death. Recently Gill Newton has outlined a methodology for the reconstitution of urban populations and we applied a modified version of this method to the large Westminster parish of St. Martin in the Fields between 1752 and 1812, a period that posed particular difficulties for family reconstitution because of the rapid lengthening of the interval between birth and baptism. The extraordinary richness of the records for St. Martin in the Fields made it possible to investigate burial and baptismal practices in great detail, and the extent and impact of residential mobility. We found that short-range, inter-parochial movement was so frequent that it was necessary to confine the reconstitution sample to windows in which families registered events at a single street address. Using birth interval analysis and the frequencies of twin births it was possible to demonstrate that the registration of birth events was fairly complete, but that many infant and child burials were missed. These missing burials probably resulted from the unreported export of corpses for burial in other parishes, a phenomenon for which we had considerable evidence. The limitations of family reconstitution in this highly mobile and heterogeneous urban population is discussed and we demonstrate some checks and corrections that can be used to improve the quality of such reconstitutions.

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Discenza, Deborah. "NICU Helping Hands: Supporting Families Through the Whole Journey." Neonatal Network 34, no. 1 (2015): 52–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0730-0832.34.1.52.

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Parents are the pure focus of NICU Helping Hands (NHH), an organization that started in Texas in 2011. Whether a family is in need of the basic necessities, support, or even a special burial gown for their infant, NHH is there. Learn how this nonprofit has gone from regional to international star in a short amount of time and how it can help your NICU.

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Herring, Ann, Shelley Saunders, and Gerry Boyce. "Bones and Burial Registers: Infant Mortality in a 19th-Century Cemetery from Upper Canada." Northeast Historical Archaeology 20, no. 1 (1991): 54–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.22191/neha/vol20/iss1/6.

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Spence, Michael W., Lana J. Williams, and Sandra M. Wheeler. "Death and Disability in a Younge Phase Community." American Antiquity 79, no. 1 (January 2014): 108–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.7183/0002-7316.79.1.108.

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AbstractRoffelsen is an early Younge phase mortuary component in southwestern Ontario. The single burial feature is a pit containing the articulated skeletons of seven successively buried individuals, ranging in age from a few months to late middle age. All had been stripped of soft tissues, except for the connecting tissues that maintained their articulation. Most also had a disk cut from the cranium and a hole drilled near bregma. All but the infant display various forms of developmental failure of the outer and middle ear and the petrous portion of the temporal bone. The pit was apparently the burial facility for an extended family with significant hearing impairments. This disability may have limited their interaction with neighboring communities, perhaps even playing a role in their eventual disappearance as a separate community.

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Burleigh, Gilbert R., Keith J. Fitzpatrick-Matthews, and Miranda J. Aldhouse-Green. "A Dea Nutrix Figurine from a Romano-British Cemetery at Baldock, Hertfordshire." Britannia 37 (November 2006): 273–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.3815/000000006784016594.

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ABSTRACTAn unusually complex fourth-century infant grave excavated in Baldock in 1988 produced a complete Dea Nutrix figurine. Whilst not uncommon as site finds, Deae Nutrices are less frequently encountered as grave gifts in Britain than in Gaul. The reasons for its inclusion as a grave gift are explored, as are wider questions of Romano-British burial practice in the town, the significance of Dea Nutrix as a deity, and the nature of funerary ritual. An assessment is also made of the status of the Roman town.

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Fernández-Crespo, T., C. Snoeck, J. Ordoño, N. J. de Winter, A. Czermak, N. Mattielli, J. A. Lee-Thorp, and R. J. Schulting. "Multi-isotope evidence for the emergence of cultural alterity in Late Neolithic Europe." Science Advances 6, no. 4 (January 2020): eaay2169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay2169.

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The coexistence of cultural identities and their interaction is a fundamental topic of social sciences that is not easily addressed in prehistory. Differences in mortuary treatment can help approach this issue. Here, we present a multi-isotope study to track both diet and mobility through the life histories of 32 broadly coeval Late Neolithic individuals interred in caves and in megalithic graves of a restricted region of northern Iberia. The results show significant differences in infant- and child-rearing practices, in subsistence strategies, and in landscape use between burial locations. From this, we posit that the presence of communities with distinct lifestyles and cultural backgrounds is a primary reason for Late Neolithic variability in burial location in Western Europe and provides evidence of an early “them and us” scenario. We argue that this differentiation could have played a role in the building of lasting structures of socioeconomic inequality and, occasionally, violent conflict.

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Jerardino, Antonieta, Judith Sealy, and Susan Pfeiffer. "An Infant Burial from Steenbokfontein Cave, West Coast, South Africa: Its Archaeological, Nutritional and Anatomical Context." South African Archaeological Bulletin 55, no. 171 (June 2000): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3888891.

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Slepchenko, Sergey Mikhailovich, Alexander Vasilevich Gusev, Sergey Nikolaevich Ivanov, and Evgenia Olegovna Svyatova. "Opisthorchiasis in infant remains from the medieval Zeleniy Yar burial ground of XII-XIII centuries AD." Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 110, no. 8 (November 24, 2015): 974–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0074-02760150156.

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Kallendorf, Hilaire. "A Myth Rejected: The Nobel Savage in Dominican Dystopia." Journal of Latin American Studies 27, no. 2 (May 1995): 449–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x00010828.

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AbstractThis interdisciplinary study approximates the Columbian interpretation of the Taí nos – filtered and re-interpreted by the Dominican people, through their museums. Cultural phenomena such as vomitic spatulas, ‘talking’ idols, hallucinogens, infant cranial deformation, dances, nudity, sexual customs, punishments, and live burial produced Columbus's tendency to denounce the Taínos in his writings. These texts are displayed in the Museo del Hombre Dominicano side-by-side with anthropological exhibitions. Together, these texts and artifacts become purveyors of an ideology, one which Dominicans use to challenge the Eurocentric, romanticising, Noble Savage approach propagated during the Quincentennial.

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Steelman, Karen L., Marvin W. Rowe, Solveig A. Turpin, Tom Guilderson, and Laura Nightengale. "Nondestructive Radiocarbon Dating: Naturally Mummified Infant Bundle from SW Texas." American Antiquity 69, no. 4 (October 2004): 741–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4128446.

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Plasma oxidation was used to obtain radiocarbon dates on six different materials from a naturally mummified baby bundle from the Lower Pecos River region of southwest Texas. This bundle was selected because it was thought to represent a single event and would illustrate the accuracy and precision of the plasma oxidation method. Five of the materials were clearly components of the original bundle with 13 dates combined to yield a weighted average of 2135 ±11 B.P. Six dates from a wooden stick of Desert Ash averaged 939 ± 14 B.P, indicating that this artifact was not part of the original burial. Plasma oxidation is shown to be a virtually nondestructive alternative to combustion. Because only sub-milligram amounts of material are removed from an artifact over its exposed surface, no visible change in fragile materials has been observed, even under magnification. The method is best applied when natural organic contamination is unlikely and serious consideration of this issue is needed in all cases. If organic contamination is present, it will have to be removed before plasma oxidation to obtain accurate radiocarbon dates.

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Gusev, A. V., A. V. Plekhanov, and Y. A. Podosenova. "An Assemblage from a Medieval Burial at Lake Parisento, Gydan Peninsula, the Arctic Zone of Western Siberia." Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 47, no. 2 (June 26, 2019): 69–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.17746/1563-0110.2019.47.2.069-076.

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The article introduces an assemblage from a child burial discovered in the central Gydan Peninsula, Tazovsky District, YamalNenets Autonomous Okrug. Little is known about the archaeological past of Arctic Western Siberia, and these fi nds are relevant to the study of the medieval period of that area. Medieval burials were studied only in the adjacent peninsula of Yamal. The discovery of the burial is described in detail. It was exposed owing to soil eolation. Artifacts were redeposited, and virtually the entire skeleton was missing. In a lump of soil stuck to the metal bowl, a few bone fragments and hair was found. Their analysis suggests that the individual was an infant aged 1–3. The assemblage includes an imported bronze bowl, a bronze haft of a knife, a scabbard, and a silver earring. The bowl, made of tin bronze, was apparently manufactured in eastern Iran or Central Asia in the 10th or 11th century. The haft and the scabbard, judging by the type and technology, belonged to a category of artifacts that were common in the Lower Ob basin, the southern Yamal, and the Ural in the late fi rst and early second millennia. On the basis of the results of X-ray fl uorescence analysis, we assess the chemical composition of the metal of which all those artifacts are made. The decorated fragment of a clay vessel is attributed to the Tiutey-Sale variant (800–1300 AD) of the Lower Ob culture. The totality of indicators suggests a date between 900 and 1100 AD. We conclude that the tundra areas of the Yamal and Gydan peninsulas were colonized by migrants from the northern taiga zone of Western Siberia.

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Potter, Ben A., Joel D. Irish, Joshua D. Reuther, and Holly J. McKinney. "New insights into Eastern Beringian mortuary behavior: A terminal Pleistocene double infant burial at Upward Sun River." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 48 (November 10, 2014): 17060–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1413131111.

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Smith, Patricia, Lawrence E. Stager, Joseph A. Greene, and Gal Avishai. "Cemetery or sacrifice? Infant burials at the Carthage Tophet." Antiquity 87, no. 338 (November 22, 2013): 1191–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00049954.

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The recent article on the Carthage Tophet infants by Schwartz et al. (2012) takes issue with our paper (Smith et al. 2011) that claims the Carthaginians practiced infant sacrifice. Both studies were carried out on the same sample of cremated infant remains excavated by the ASOR Punic project between 1975 and 1980 (Stager 1982). We examined the contents of 334 urns while Schwartz et al. (2012) examined the same sample plus an additional fourteen urns (N = 348). We differed, however, in our conclusions regarding the age distribution of the infants and the extent to which it supported or refuted claims that Tophet infants were sacrificed. This note explains why we think that Schwartz et al. (2012) erred in their age assessments and introduces additional evidence to show that the age distribution of the Tophet infants supports our contention of infant sacrifice.

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Einwögerer, T., M. Händel, C. Neugebauer-Maresch, U. Simon, P. Steier, M. Teschler-Nicola, and E. M. Wild. "14C Dating of the Upper Paleolithic Site at Krems-Wachtberg, Austria." Radiocarbon 51, no. 2 (2009): 847–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200056150.

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In the course of new excavations at the Upper Paleolithic site at Krems-Wachtberg in the loess region near Krems, Lower Austria, a double burial of newborns was discovered in 2005. One year later, a single grave of an infant was excavated nearby. Both graves are associated with the well-preserved living floor of an Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherer camp with distinct archaeological features and a rich Gravettian find assemblage. Several charcoal samples from different stratigraphic positions were 14C dated with the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) method at VERA. The 14C ages confirm the archaeological assessment of the site to the Gravettian time period. According to the uncalibrated 14C ages, the formation time of the living floor is ~27.0 14C kyr BP. 14C data of ~28.6 14C kyr BP determined for an archaeological horizon below the living floor indicate that the location may have been used earlier by people in the Middle Upper Paleolithic.

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Becerra-Valdivia, Lorena, Michael R. Waters, Thomas W. Stafford, Sarah L. Anzick, Daniel Comeskey, Thibaut Devièse, and Thomas Higham. "Reassessing the chronology of the archaeological site of Anzick." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 27 (June 18, 2018): 7000–7003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1803624115.

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Found in 1968, the archaeological site of Anzick, Montana, contains the only known Clovis burial. Here, the partial remains of a male infant, Anzick-1, were found in association with a Clovis assemblage of over 100 lithic and osseous artifacts—all red-stained with ochre. The incomplete, unstained cranium of an unassociated, geologically younger individual, Anzick-2, was also recovered. Previous chronometric work has shown an age difference between Anzick-1 and the Clovis assemblage (represented by dates from two antler rod samples). This discrepancy has led to much speculation, with some discounting Anzick-1 as Clovis. To resolve this issue, we present the results of a comprehensive radiocarbon dating program that utilized different pretreatment methods on osseous material from the site. Through this comparative approach, we obtained a robust chronometric dataset that suggests that Anzick-1 is temporally coeval with the dated antler rods. This implies that the individual is indeed temporally associated with the Clovis assemblage.

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Popov, Aleksandr. "Demography of the Crimean Tatar Population of the 16th – 18th Centuries (According to the Materials of the Necropolis near the Village of Fontan)." Vestnik Volgogradskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Serija 4. Istorija. Regionovedenie. Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, no. 4 (October 2020): 288–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.15688/jvolsu4.2020.4.19.

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Introduction. The article discusses the demographic characteristics of the population of the Crimean Tatar village of Karmysh-Kelechi of the 16th – 18th centuries based on the materials of Fontan-1 burial ground. Methods and materials. Research procedures included the construction of mortality tables that characterize the sequence of extinction of a certain generation of people or general patterns of changes in mortality for cohorts of the population with a similar order of extinction. The mortality tables contain various demographic indicators that were analyzed during the study. Results. As a result of the analysis, the author has found out the main demographic indicators of this population. These include a high mortality rate of children from newborn to 4 years with a predominance of children under 1 year; a slight predominance of the male population over the female; the average age of death for children was 20.6; the average age of death of the adult population – 36.5.; men lived three years longer than women. Moreover, in women, two peaks of mortality occur during the childbearing period and are probably associated with the stress that accompanies the female body during pregnancy and childbirth. The distribution of the male mortality reflects the natural process of aging and death. It is possible that the high infant mortality rate, as well as the lower average age of death, may be due to adverse external factors. The comparative analysis of the demographic indicators of the population who left Fountain-1 burial ground with synchronous groups shows that they all correspond to the indicators of populations of the Early Modern times and do not get out of the general context.

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Pererva, Evgeniy Vladimirovich, and Yulia Olegovna Kapinus. "Paleopathological features of the Late Bronze Age population: anthropological skeletal materials excavated from burial grounds near the village of Krasnosamarskoye, Samara Region." Samara Journal of Science 8, no. 4 (November 29, 2019): 144–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/snv201984205.

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The paper is devoted to the analysis of anthropological skeletal materials related to the Srubnaya culture and excavated in 2010 and 2018 in the mounds near the village of Krasnosamarskoye, Kinelsky District of the Samara Region. One hundred and three skeletal remains were studied. In the course of the examination, a standard program for fixing pathological conditions on human bones was applied. As a result of the work, it was possible to establish that the population of the Late Bronze Age buried in the mounds near the village of Krasnosamarskoe had a high infant mortality rate and a relatively short mens life expectancy. In the studied skeletal series, a specific pathological complex in the dental system is found. It indicates that the diet consisted mainly of meat and dairy. Widespread markers of micronutrient deficiencies in the body were observed on the children bones which is also an indicator of negative environmental and social factors such as famines or parasitic infestations. High frequency of discrete-varying characters on the bones of the postcranial skeleton indicates that a closely related population is buried in the mounds of the Krasnosamarsky IV burial ground. Specific traumatic injuries presence in buried skeletal remains as well as their positive correlation with diseases of the joints and spine allows us to assume its association with domestic or professional economic activity.

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Hodson, Claire M. "Between Roundhouse and Villa: Assessing Perinatal and Infant Burials from Piddington, Northamptonshire." Britannia 48 (May 11, 2017): 195–219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068113x17000137.

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AbstractThe discovery of perinatal and infant individuals is common in the excavation of Iron Age and Romano-British domestic sites. In recent years, the discovery of many such burials has led to interpretations of infanticide and unceremonious disposal. Although this has been a widely discussed phenomenon, much of the literature has focused on the funerary context, and the biological age and sex estimates of these individuals, with little consideration of the palaeopathological evidence. This article provides a detailed analysis of 17 perinates/infants from the late Iron Age/early Roman site of Piddington, Northants. It discusses the skeletal evidence for poor health and growth, and highlights the potential of these remains to reveal alternative insights into perinatal and infant death. Evidence of growth changes and pathological lesions were identified, suggesting that these individuals experienced chronic episodes of poor health that affected their skeletal development. The study explores the implications of these findings within the context of Iron Age and Roman Britain. At Piddington, the death of these infants is not associated with the cultural practice of infanticide, but occurred due to poor health, highlighting the precarious nature of infant survival in the past.

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Amin, Yasmin. "Women, Islam, and Abbasid Identity." American Journal of Islam and Society 34, no. 4 (October 1, 2017): 87–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v34i4.801.

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The book under review, which is divided into five chapters, an introduction,and a conclusion, investigates how gender, sexuality, and concepts of womanhoodwere deployed to express cultural differences in order to formulateand articulate the Abbasid identity and legitimize the new dynasty’s authority.El Cheikh argues that Abbasid-era texts used gendered metaphors and conceptsof sexual difference to describe those groups they perceived as a threat.The “Introduction” opens with an overview of the book’s scope and isfollowed by the story of the “harlots of Hadramaut” rejoicing after theProphet’s death, how Abu Bakr dealt with it, and why this event was consideredsignificant. These women’s public celebration was contrasted withMuslim prescriptions for women as regards obedience, piety, and domesticity.The purpose here was to juxtapose the era of jāhilīyah, with its idolatry,tribal feuds, sexual immorality, burial of live infant girls, and theabsence of food taboos and rules of purity, to the mainstream Islamic culturalconstruction of the emerging community struggling to define itself.El Cheikh argues that the Abbasid textual tradition was unsympathetic towardthe Umayyads and thus represented them as corrupt and godless inorder to justify Abbasid rule, which would lead to a new society characterizedby “the cohesive powers of a common language, currency and a unifyingreligio-political center” (p. 5) ...

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Craig-Atkins, Elizabeth, Jacqueline Towers, and Julia Beaumont. "The role of infant life histories in the construction of identities in death: An incremental isotope study of dietary and physiological status among children afforded differential burial." American Journal of Physical Anthropology 167, no. 3 (August 21, 2018): 644–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23691.

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Tang, Jingrong, Sara Stern-Nezer, Po-Ching Liu, Ludmila Matyakhina, Michael Riordan, Naomi Luban, Peter Steinbach, and Stephen Kaler. "Mutation in the leucine-rich repeat C-flanking region of platelet glycoprotein Ibβ impairs assembly of von Willebrand factor receptor." Thrombosis and Haemostasis 92, no. 07 (2004): 75–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1160/th04-02-0071.

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SummaryWe describe a syndrome of thrombocytopenia, bleeding episodes, congenital heart disease and facial dysmorphism in a newborn infant, and trace the cause to mutations on chromosome 22 that involve the gene for platelet glycoprotein Ibβ (GPIbβ, Human Genome Organisation gene symbol GPIBB), a critical component of the von Willebrand factor (vWF) receptor. Fluorescence in situ hybridization in transformed lymphoblasts revealed hemizygous microdeletion of 22q11.2 containing the GP1BB locus. DNA sequencing revealed a C to T transition in the patient’s remaining GP1BB allele, predicting a novel proline to serine substitution (Pro96Ser) in the carboxyterminal flanking domain of a leucine-rich repeat. We characterized the mutant GP1BB allele by expression in a cell line (CHOαIX) that stably expresses two other components of the vWF receptor, GPIbα and GPIX. Flow cytometry and confocal imaging of transfected CHOαIX cells demonstrated that P96S GPIbβ abrogates surface assembly of the complex, consistent with platelet flow cytometry studies in the patient. Based on sequence homology to the known crystal structures of two other leucine-rich repeat proteins, the human Nogo receptor and GPIbα, we propose a new structural model of GPIbβ. The model refutes earlier assumptions about cysteine-cysteine interactions in the amino-terminal region of GPIbβ, and predicts a hydrophobic patch the burial of which may contribute to proper conformation of the fully assembled vWF receptor complex.

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Barkin, Risa, and Ian Gentles. "Death In Victorian Toronto, 1850-1899." Articles 19, no. 1 (August 5, 2013): 14–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1017575ar.

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A study of the 24,124 deaths recorded in the burial registers of the Putter's Field Cemetery and the Necropolis from 1850 to 1899, indicates that Toronto, like other nineteenth-century cities, experienced very high mortality. The average age at death rose gradually over the fifty-year period, but infants under the age of one year constituted over 40 percent of all burials. Tuberculosis was the leading cause of death among adults, while poor water produced substantial mortality from typhoid.

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Rosenquist, Natalie A., Daniel M. Cook, Amy Ehntholt, Anthony Omaye, Peter Muennig, and Roman Pabayo. "Differential relationship between state-level minimum wage and infant mortality risk among US infants born to white and black mothers." Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 74, no. 1 (October 19, 2019): 14–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2019-212987.

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BackgroundCompared to other Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations, US infant mortality rates (IMRs) are particularly high. These differences are partially driven by racial disparities, with non-Hispanic black having IMRs that are twice those of non-Hispanic white. Income inequality (the gap between rich and poor) is associated with infant mortality. One proposed way to decrease income inequality (and possibly to improve birth outcomes) is to increase the minimum wage. We aimed to elucidate the relationship between state-level minimum wage and infant mortality risk using individual-level and state-level data. We also determined whether observed associations were heterogeneous across racial groups.MethodsData were from US Vital Statistics 2010 Cohort Linked Birth and Infant Death records and the 2010 US Bureau of Labor Statistics. We fit multilevel logistic models to test whether state minimum wage was associated with infant mortality. Minimum wage was standardised using the z-transformation and was dichotomised (high vs low) at the 75th percentile. Analyses were stratified by mother's race (non-Hispanic black vs non-Hispanic white).ResultsHigh minimum wage (adjusted OR (AOR)=0.93, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.03) was associated with decreased odds of infant mortality but was not statistically significant. High minimum wage was significantly associated with reduced infant mortality among non-Hispanic black infants (AOR=0.80, 95% CI 0.68 to 0.94) but not among non-Hispanic white infants (AOR=1.04, 95% CI 0.92 to 1.17).ConclusionsIncreasing the minimum wage might be beneficial to infant health, especially among non-Hispanic black infants, and thus might decrease the racial disparity in infant mortality.

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Einwögerer, Thomas, Herwig Friesinger, Marc Händel, Christine Neugebauer-Maresch, Ulrich Simon, and Maria Teschler-Nicola. "Upper Palaeolithic infant burials." Nature 444, no. 7117 (November 2006): 285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/444285a.

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O'Regan, Hannah J., Keith Bland, Jane Evans, Matilda Holmes, Kirsty McLeod, Robert Philpott, Ian Smith, John Thorp, and David M. Wilkinson. "Rural Life, Roman Ways? Examination of Late Iron Age to Late Romano-British Burial Practice and Mobility at Dog Hole Cave, Cumbria." Britannia 51 (June 29, 2020): 83–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068113x20000136.

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ABSTRACTThe scarcity of Romano-British human remains from north-west England has hindered understanding of burial practice in this region. Here, we report on the excavation of human and non-human animal remains1 and material culture from Dog Hole Cave, Haverbrack. Foetal and neonatal infants had been interred alongside a horse burial and puppies, lambs, calves and piglets in the very latest Iron Age to early Romano-British period, while the mid- to late Roman period is characterised by burials of older individuals with copper-alloy jewellery and beads. This material culture is more characteristic of urban sites, while isotope analysis indicates that the later individuals were largely from the local area. We discuss these results in terms of burial ritual in Cumbria and rural acculturation. Supplementary material is available online (https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068113X20000136), and contains further information about the site and excavations, small finds, zooarchaeology, human osteology, site taphonomy, the palaeoenvironment, isotope methods and analysis, and finds listed in Benson and Bland 1963.

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Boulton, Jeremy, and Romola Davenport. "Few Deaths before Baptism: Clerical Policy, Private Baptism and the Registration of Births in Georgian Westminster: a Paradox Resolved." Local Population Studies, no. 94 (June 30, 2015): 28–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.35488/lps94.2015.28.

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The evident lengthening of the interval between birth and baptism over the eighteenth century has often been assumed to have increased the risk that young infants died before baptism. Using burial records that include burials of unbaptised infants and give age at death we demonstrate that very few infants who survived the first few days of life escaped baptism in the parish of St. Martin in the Fields, despite a very profound lengthening of the delay between birth and baptism over the second half of the eighteenth century. Examination of baptism fee books indicates that perhaps a third of all infants were baptized privately in the parish and a pamphlet dispute between the vicar and one of his clerks provides extraordinary evidence of the extent to which baptism was a process rather than a single event. Our analysis suggests that it was the registration of baptism that was delayed, with no affect on the risk of death before baptism.

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Pereira, Carlos, and Pedro Albuquerque. "Inumações infantis em ânfora na península ibérica durante a época romana: a prática e o rito." SPAL. Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueología de la Universidad de Sevilla 1, no. 27 (2018): 89–118. http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/spal.2018i27.04.

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Friesem, David E., Marie Anton, Paula Waiman-Barak, Ruth Shahack-Gross, and Dani Nadel. "Variability and complexity in calcite-based plaster production: A case study from a Pre-Pottery Neolithic B infant burial at Tel Roʻim West and its implications to mortuary practices in the Southern Levant." Journal of Archaeological Science 113 (January 2020): 105048. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2019.105048.

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Watts, Dorothy J. "Infant Burials and Romano-British Christianity." Archaeological Journal 146, no. 1 (January 1989): 372–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00665983.1989.11021295.

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Crummy, Nina. "Bears and Coins: The Iconography of Protection in Late Roman Infant Burials." Britannia 41 (July 5, 2010): 37–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068113x1000005x.

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ABSTRACTA number of infant burials in Britain, both cremations and inhumations, contained a consistent deposit of a small jet bear, black mineral jewellery, a coin, and a pottery beaker. Some of the graves held several examples of these items, and some a wider variety of objects. Comparison with more obviously amuletic grave deposits from Butt Road, Colchester, and Lankhills, Winchester, suggests that the coins were selected for their reverse image, and that both they and the bears are representations of guardians placed in the burials to ensure that the child did not enter the underworld alone and unprotected. These bears are set in the wider context of the animal's iconography and mythology, with particular reference to the Greek cult of Artemis, who oversaw childbirth and child-rearing. The choice and importance of materials and the positions of objects within graves are also briefly explored and the social identity of the dead infants is examined. In an appendix of other burials containing jet animals, the Chelmsford hoard of jet jewellery is reinterpreted as grave goods from the inhumation of a young woman.

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Stutterheim, Janine, Inge M. van der Sluis, Paola De Lorenzo, Julia Alten, Philip Ancliff, Andishe Attarbaschi, Benoit Brethon, et al. "Clinical Implications of Minimal Residual Disease Detection in Infants with KMT2A-Rearranged Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treated on the Interfant-06 Protocol." Blood 136, Supplement 1 (November 5, 2020): 41–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2020-134303.

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Purpose Infant acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is characterized by KMT2A gene rearrangements and a poor outcome. Therefore, infants are treated with specific protocols. In older children, minimal residual disease (MRD) is used for risk group stratification. In infant ALL, data on MRD are scarce. We evaluated the prognostic value of MRD in a large series of infants with KMT2A rearranged ALL, treated within Interfant-06 in order to establish how to use MRD in these patients. This protocol included a randomization between lymphoid-style consolidation (protocol IB) versus a myeloid-style consolidation (ADE/MAE). Patients and methods MRD was measured in 249 infants with KMT2A-rearranged ALL by DNA-based PCR of rearranged KMT2A, immunoglobulin and/or T-cell receptor genes, at end of induction (EOI) (n=210), end of consolidation (EOC) (n=173) and after MARMA (n=164). MRD results were classified as negative, intermediate (<5x10-4), and high (≥5x10-4). Results In samples with both data on KMT2A MRD PCR and IG/TR MRD targets available (n=223), results were concordant in 94% (n=210/223) of samples. EOI MRD levels predicted outcome with 6-year disease free survival (DFS [SE]) of 60.2% (7.9), 45.0% (5.6), 33.8 % (5.3), for infants with negative, intermediate and high EOI MRD levels, respectively (p=0.0039). Strikingly, when analyzing MRD results according to consolidation treatment given, MRD levels at EOI predicted treatment outcome for patients treated with lymphoid-style consolidation, but not for patients treated with myeloid style consolidation. In patients treated with lymphoid-style consolidation 6-year DFS (SE) was 78.2% (9.8), 47.2% (7.1), 23.2% (7.1) for negative, intermediate and high MRD levels, (figure 1a) respectively (p<0.0001), whilst in myeloid-style treated patients the corresponding figures were 45.0% (10.7), 41.3% (9.4) and 45.9% (8.2) (figure 1b) This implies that patients with low EOI MRD benefit from protocol IB lymphoid consolidation (DFS 78.2% versus 45.0%, figure 1c), while patients with high MRD benefit from ADE/MAE myeloid consolidation (DFS 45.9% versus 23.2%, figure 1d)). In line with these findings, co-expression of myeloid markers was found in a higher percentage of patients with high EOI MRD (81%) versus those with low EOI MRD (50%) (p=0.0186). EOC MRD levels were also predictive of outcome, with 6-year DFS of 68.2 %(5.8), 40.1% (6.2), 11.9% (8.7) for infants with negative, intermediate and high EOC MRD levels respectively (p<0.0001). Patients that had positive EOI MRD and became negative at EOC also had a good outcome (6-DFS (SE) 65.7% (7.8)) Conclusion Induction therapy selects infant ALL patients for the type of subsequent therapy; infants with high EOI MRD benefit from AML-like consolidation, whereas patients with low MRD benefit from ALL-like consolidation. This hypothesis is further supported by the more pronounced expression of myeloid markers in patients with high EOI MRD levels. Patients with positive EOC MRD had dismal outcomes. These findings will be used for treatment interventions in the next Interfant protocol. Disclosures Brethon: Amgen: Other: invitation to meetings, remunerations for oral presentations, advices for the record of Blinatumomab in pediatrics in France. Locatelli:Jazz Pharmaceeutical: Speakers Bureau; Medac: Speakers Bureau; Miltenyi: Speakers Bureau; Bellicum Pharmaceutical: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Novartis: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Amgen: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau.

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Malinit, Joy. "The outcome of an attachment-based infant mental health therapeutic play programme on infant temperament, parent-infant relationship & maternal reflective functioning." BJPsych Open 7, S1 (June 2021): S268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2021.713.

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AimsIn the Philippines, there is a need for preventive, early intervention programs for perinatal and infant mental health. This is the first local study that investigated an attachment-based, therapeutic play programme (Baby Bonding) on infant temperament, parent-infant relationship and maternal reflecting functioning.BackgroundThis study was an effort towards bridging the “10/90 gap in infant mental health research” wherein 90% of the world's infants are born in low- middle-income countries (Population Reference Bureau, 2013b) and “only 10% of the worldwide spending on health research is directed towards the problems that primarily affect the poorest 90% of the world's population (Tomlinson et al., 2014).MethodPhase I involved local validation of the Parent-Rated Outcome Measures (PROM)- Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (ICQ), Mother Object Relations Scale (MORS) and Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (PRFQ).Healthy mother-baby dyads, from the low socio-economic stratum, were screened using Parent Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS) and Hospital and Anxiety Depression Scale (HADS).Phase II carried out randomized controlled design wherein mother-baby dyads were enrolled either in the usual care group or the 6-weekly Baby Bonding intervention.Result102 mothers answered the PROM. Their responses constituted the training set of the study tools. Baseline responses of the mothers from the usual care (N = 51) and intervention (N = 53) groups formed the evaluation set for the Filipino- translated instruments. In both the training and evaluation sets, if certain identified questions were to be removed from the PROM, better and acceptable Cronbach values were consistently generated.There were no statistical differences on parent-infant relationship and reflective functioning between the usual care and intervention group. There was movement of the intervention group from high-challenging onto intermediate to low-levels of challenging temperament in the dull-dimension of the ICQ after 6 sessions. In comparison, infants in the control group remained in the high-challenging temperament after 6 weeks of usual care.ConclusionLinguistically validated study instruments (ICQ and MORS) provided accurate assessments of infant temperament and parent-child relationship. The Filipino-translated PRFQ has limited validity in evaluating parental reflective functioning (RF). “On-line” measures that video mother-baby interactions could have better captured changes in RF. As measured by the dull dimension of the ICQ, the Baby Bonding programme improved sociability of the infants (7 months or younger).

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Becker-Dreps, Sylvia, Anne M. Butler, Leah J. McGrath, Kim A. Boggess, David J. Weber, Dongmei Li, Michael G. Hudgens, and J. Bradley Layton. "Effectiveness of Prenatal Tdap Immunization in the Prevention of Infant Pertussis in the United States." Open Forum Infectious Diseases 4, suppl_1 (2017): S68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofx162.163.

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Abstract Background The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that all pregnant women in the United States receive tetanus-diphtheria-acellular pertussis (Tdap) immunization to prevent infant pertussis. While the vaccine may be administered at any time during pregnancy, the recommendations define administration at 27 to 36 weeks of gestation as optimal timing to prevent infant pertussis. These recommendations were primarily based on immunogenicity studies. The objective of this study was to examine the clinical effectiveness of prenatal Tdap, and to understand whether effectiveness varies by gestational age at immunization. Methods We performed a nationwide cohort study of pregnant women with deliveries in 2010–2014 and their infants. Commercial insurance claims data were used to identify receipt of Tdap immunization in the pregnant women, and hospitalizations and outpatient visits for pertussis in their infants until 18 months of age. To address the difficulties in diagnosing pertussis, we also employed a “probable pertussis” definition, as an inpatient or outpatient diagnosis of pertussis, plus antibiotic treatment with a macrolide or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole within 7 days of diagnosis. Pertussis occurrence was compared between infants of mothers who received prenatal Tdap (overall, and stratified by gestational age at administration) and infants of unvaccinated mothers. Results There were 675,167 mother–infant pairs included in the cohort. Among infants whose mothers received Tdap at any time during pregnancy, the rate of pertussis hospitalization was 50% lower (adjusted hazards ratio (HR) = 0.50, 95% CI: 0.23, 1.09), and the rate of probable pertussis was 42% lower (HR = 0.58, 95% CI: 0.38, 0.89) than infants of unimmunized mothers. Pertussis rates were also lower for infants whose mothers received prenatal Tdap during the third trimester. Infants whose mothers received Tdap before the third trimester also tended to have lower rates of pertussis, but these estimates were imprecise. Conclusion Infants of mothers who received prenatal Tdap experienced half the rate of pertussis as compared with infants of unimmunized mothers. Our results do not provide evidence to support changing the currently recommended timing of Tdap administration in pregnancy. Disclosures S. Becker-Dreps, Pfizer: Consultant and Grant Investigator, Consulting fee and Research grant; A. M. Butler, Astra Zeneca: Consultant, Support to institution; Amgen: Grant Investigator, Investigator initiated grant to institution;  D. J. Weber, Merck: Consultant and Speaker’s Bureau, Consulting fee and Speaker honorarium; Pfizer: Consultant, Consulting fee; J. B. Layton, Merck: Member of Center for Pharmacoepidemiology, Support to institution; GlaxoSmithKline: Member of Center for Pharmacoepidemiology, Support to institution; UCB Biosciences: Member of Center for Pharmacoepidemiology, Support to institution

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Standen, Vivien G., Bernardo Arriaza, Calogero M. Santoro, and Mariela Santos. "La Práctica Funeraria En El Sitio Maestranza Chinchorro Y El Poblamiento Costero Durante El Arcaico Medio En El Extremo Norte De Chile." Latin American Antiquity 25, no. 3 (September 2014): 300–321. http://dx.doi.org/10.7183/1045-6635.25.3.300.

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We discuss Chinchorro mortuary practices during the Middle Archaic (7000-5000 B.P.) as demonstrated by 12 funerary contexts excavated at the site of Maestranza Chinchorro, northern Chile. First we describe each of the funerary contexts. Then we discuss the variability of mortuary practices, the configuration of multiple burials, the mortuary treatment of human fetuses, lifestyle, and paleopathology. We conclude that mortuary practices are heterogeneous and that not all subjects received elaborate treatment. Mortuary ritual focused on the seven infants in the group, which included two fetuses of a few months' gestation, something fairly unusual in human prehistory. Treatment consisted in the removal of all soft tissue and the use of sticks to reinforce the skeletons, upon which abundant gray clay was mounted in order to model the human figure. In contrast to the infants, just one young adult woman received complex mortuary treatment. Finally, based on the spatial distribution of contemporary burial sites, we propose that Middle Archaic communities in coastal Arica comprised small groups, including adults and children of different sexes, that settled around key resources like watering holes, rivers, wetlands, and hunting and fishing areas. This resulted in fierce intergroup competition and highly territorial behavior.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Infant burial'

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