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Journal articles on the topic 'Inequality in infant mortality'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 February 2022

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1

Zewdie, Samuel Abera, and Vissého Adjiwanou. "Multilevel analysis of infant mortality and its risk factors in South Africa." International Journal of Population Studies 3, no. 2 (December 31, 2017): 43. http://dx.doi.org/10.18063/ijps.v3i2.330.

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The study analyzed infant mortality and its risk factors in South Africa. It aimed to examine infant mortality in the country by taking into account the hierarchical nature of the problem and investigate the with-in country variation in modeling. In addition to the usual individual level risk factors of infant mortality, living standard, mother’s education, and income inequality were defined at municipal level, while HIV prevalence was fixed at province level. A multilevel logistic regression model was then fitted with Bayesian MCMC parameter estimation procedure using the 2011 South African census data. Most of the demographic and socioeconomic variables identified at individual level were found significant. More remarkably, the result indicated that communities with better living standard and women's education were associated with lower infant mortality rates, while higher income inequality and HIV prevalence in the communities were associated higher levels of infant mortality. The changes in infants’ odds of death were estimated to be 26%, -21%, 13% and 8% respectively for HIV, women’s education, income inequality and level of the living standard. In addition, unobservable municipal and province level random effects significantly affected the level of infant mortality rates.

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2

Rosenquist, Natalie A., Daniel M. Cook, Amy Ehntholt, Anthony Omaye, Peter Muennig, and Roman Pabayo. "Differential relationship between state-level minimum wage and infant mortality risk among US infants born to white and black mothers." Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 74, no. 1 (October 19, 2019): 14–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2019-212987.

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BackgroundCompared to other Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations, US infant mortality rates (IMRs) are particularly high. These differences are partially driven by racial disparities, with non-Hispanic black having IMRs that are twice those of non-Hispanic white. Income inequality (the gap between rich and poor) is associated with infant mortality. One proposed way to decrease income inequality (and possibly to improve birth outcomes) is to increase the minimum wage. We aimed to elucidate the relationship between state-level minimum wage and infant mortality risk using individual-level and state-level data. We also determined whether observed associations were heterogeneous across racial groups.MethodsData were from US Vital Statistics 2010 Cohort Linked Birth and Infant Death records and the 2010 US Bureau of Labor Statistics. We fit multilevel logistic models to test whether state minimum wage was associated with infant mortality. Minimum wage was standardised using the z-transformation and was dichotomised (high vs low) at the 75th percentile. Analyses were stratified by mother's race (non-Hispanic black vs non-Hispanic white).ResultsHigh minimum wage (adjusted OR (AOR)=0.93, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.03) was associated with decreased odds of infant mortality but was not statistically significant. High minimum wage was significantly associated with reduced infant mortality among non-Hispanic black infants (AOR=0.80, 95% CI 0.68 to 0.94) but not among non-Hispanic white infants (AOR=1.04, 95% CI 0.92 to 1.17).ConclusionsIncreasing the minimum wage might be beneficial to infant health, especially among non-Hispanic black infants, and thus might decrease the racial disparity in infant mortality.

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3

Singh, Gopal K., and Stella M. Yu. "Infant Mortality in the United States, 1915-2017: Large Social Inequalities have Persisted for Over a Century." International Journal of MCH and AIDS (IJMA) 8, no. 1 (March 20, 2019): 19–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.21106/ijma.271.

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Objectives. We examined trends in racial/ethnic, socioeconomic, and geographic disparities in age- and cause-specific infant mortality in the United States during 1915-2017. Methods. Log-linear regression and inequality indices were used to analyze temporal infant mortality data from the National Vital Statistics System and the National Linked Birth/Infant Death files according to maternal and infant characteristics. Results. During 1915-2017, the infant mortality rate (IMR) declined dramatically overall and for black and white infants; however, black/white disparities in mortality generally increased through 2000. Racial disparities were greater in post-neonatal mortality than neonatal mortality. Detailed racial/ethnic comparisons show an approximately five-fold difference in IMR, ranging from a low of 2.3 infant deaths per 1,000 live births for Chinese infants to a high of 8.5 for American Indian/Alaska Natives and 11.2 for black infants. Infant mortality from major causes of death showed a downward trend during the past 5 decades although there was a recent upturn in mortality from prematurity/low birthweight and unintentional injury. In 2016, black infants had 2.5-2.8 times higher risk of mortality from perinatal conditions, sudden infant death syndrome, influenza/pneumonia, and unintentional injuries, and 1.3 times higher risk of mortality from birth defects compared to white infants. Educational disparities in infant mortality widened between 1986 and 2016; mothers with less than a high school education in 2016 experienced 2.4, 1.9, and 3.7 times higher risk of infant, neonatal, and post-neonatal mortality than those with a college degree. Geographic disparities were marked and widened across regions, with states in the Southeast region having higher IMRs. Conclusions and Global Health Implications. Social inequalities in infant mortality have persisted and remained marked, with the disadvantaged ethnic and socioeconomic groups and geographic areas experiencing substantially increased risks of mortality despite the declining trend in mortality over time. Widening social inequalities in infant mortality are a major factor contributing to the worsening international standing of the United States. Key words: Infant Mortality • Cause of Death • Race/Ethnicity • Socioeconomic Status • Geographic • Inequality • Trend • United States Copyright © 2019 Singh and Yu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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4

Jorgenson, Andrew K. "Global inequality, water pollution, and infant mortality." Social Science Journal 41, no. 2 (June 1, 2004): 279–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2004.01.008.

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5

Turner, Nick, Kaveh Danesh, and Kelsey Moran. "The evolution of infant mortality inequality in the United States, 1960–2016." Science Advances 6, no. 29 (July 2020): eaba5908. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba5908.

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What is the relationship between infant mortality and poverty in the United States and how has it changed over time? We address this question by analyzing county-level data between 1960 and 2016. Our estimates suggest that level differences in mortality rates between the poorest and least poor counties decreased meaningfully between 1960 and 2000. Nearly three-quarters of the decrease occurred between 1960 and 1980, coincident with the introduction of antipoverty programs and improvements in medical care for infants. We estimate that declining inequality accounts for 18% of the national reduction in infant mortality between 1960 and 2000. However, we also find that level differences between the poorest and least poor counties remained constant between 2000 and 2016, suggesting an important role for policies that improve the health of infants in poor areas.

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Hamzaoglu, Onur. "Concealed Infant Deaths in Turkey and Regional Inequality." International Journal of Health Services 50, no. 2 (February 16, 2020): 209–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0020731420902611.

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The primary purpose of the present study was to determine whether there are infant deaths not included in infant mortality rate calculations declared by the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Health since 2009, and if so, to investigate the dimension of these deaths. The secondary purpose of this study was to calculate the presence, magnitude, and the direction of change of interregional inequalities over the years. The study revealed that infant mortality rates included in statistics by the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Health since 2009 do not reflect real mortality rates and conceal 36% to 57% of infant deaths occurring annually. In addition, the study also showed an increase in interregional inequalities over the years with respect to infant mortality rates.

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7

Andreev, E. M. "Inequality in Infant Mortality Among Population of Modern Russia." Voprosy statistiki 27, no. 2 (May 2, 2020): 48–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.34023/2313-6383-2020-27-2-48-62.

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Based on official statistics, the author tries to address the question of why the infant mortality rate in Russia is significantly higher than might be expected given the measures taken to protect the health of pregnant women and newborns. In the introduction, the author explains the relevance of studying inequality in the level of infant mortality among the population of modern Russia as a factor holding back the positive downward trend.After presenting the latest history of the evolution of the information and statistical base for population studies on the subjects under review, the author confirms the approach according to which it is advisable to work with data for real generations when analyzing the differentiation of infant mortality and generations born in 2014-2016 are chosen as the object of analysis.To determine the relevance of individual factors contributing to infant mortality, the author cross-tabulated raw data. Data on such initial characteristics (factors) as the birth order of the child, whether a mother is in a contracted civil marriage or not, mother’s level of education, were grouped by age groups of mothers. The use of cross-tabulation allowed to affirm not only the influence of individual factors on the level of infant mortality but also a quantitative differentiation between them. The article concludes the extent to which the overall level of infant mortality is determined by mortality rates from individual causes of death.A significant part of the article is presented in the format of author generalization using statistical methods regarding the educational differences of mothers, which have become differentiation factors in infant mortality rates.The socio-demographic analysis based on official statistics has confirmed not only some hypotheses as to why, despite the relatively rapid decrease in infant mortality in Russia in recent years, its level remains higher than in almost all European countries with reliable demographic statistics, but also to reveal the extent of the inequality of infant mortality in our country.The author argues that the reason why Russia lags behind many countries with the positive downward infant mortality trend is strongly associated with causes of death from conditions arising in the perinatal period as well as congenital disorders. This suggests that the level of medical care for pregnant women and newborns in Russia is still lower than in developed European countries. It also has to be assumed that different educational groups have unequal access to quality health care. А proactive approach to life as well as a progressive achievement of the right to choose a medical institution and a doctor - is one of the important directions for resolving a whole set of national health care issues.

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8

Mayer, Susan E., and Ankur Sarin. "Some mechanisms linking economic inequality and infant mortality." Social Science & Medicine 60, no. 3 (February 2005): 439–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.06.005.

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9

Dummer, T. J. B. "Changing socioeconomic inequality in infant mortality in Cumbria." Archives of Disease in Childhood 90, no. 2 (February 1, 2005): 157–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2003.036111.

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10

ELMÉN, HÅKAN. "Infant mortality Social inequality in a Swedish city." European Journal of Public Health 3, no. 4 (1993): 237–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/3.4.237.

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11

Hosseinpoor, Ahmad Reza, Eddy Van Doorslaer, Niko Speybroeck, Mohsen Naghavi, Kazem Mohammad, Reza Majdzadeh, Bahram Delavar, Hamidreza Jamshidi, and Jeanette Vega. "Decomposing socioeconomic inequality in infant mortality in Iran." International Journal of Epidemiology 35, no. 5 (September 19, 2006): 1211–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyl164.

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12

Kim, Ki-tae. "Revisiting the Income Inequality Hypothesis With 292 OECD Regional Units." International Journal of Health Services 49, no. 2 (January 7, 2019): 360–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0020731418814105.

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The income inequality hypothesis on the relationship between income inequality and population health has been debated for decades Disagreement exists on the hypothesis because empirical findings have reached inconsistent conclusions. At the cross-national level, the limited number of industrialized nations has created a chronic small-N problem for statistical analyses of the hypothesis. The OECD regional database containing statistics of hundreds of regional units can provide a breakthrough and is used for the first time for multiple regression in this article. It is found that income inequality is a statistically significant determinant of all the health indicators analysed. The findings support the income inequality hypothesis. In addition, the impact of income inequality seems to be stronger on infant mortality than on old-age mortality. GDP per capita also statistically significantly influences both life expectancy and old-age mortality but not infant mortality.

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13

KÜRKCÜ, Murat, and Orhan KANDEMİR. "THE ROLE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF WOMEN ON INFANT MORTALITY: A PANEL DATA ANALYSES FOR OECD COUNTRIES." Business & Management Studies: An International Journal 5, no. 3 (December 19, 2017): 826–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.15295/bmij.v5i3.164.

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Social and economic development of a nation is often reflected by the existing infant and child mortality rates. In this context, one of the millennium development goals is to reduce infant and child mortalities globally. In particular, women’s socio-economic positions are important variables in explaining infant/child mortality. The correlation between infant/child mortalities and socio-economic positions of women is very strong. This study uses a panel data analysis to measure the effect of labour force participation rate of women on infant/child mortalities. The present article analyzes how women’s socio-economic situations affect infant/child mortality in OECD countries for the era 2000-2014. Our results are statistically significant and also suitable for theoretical expectations. According to our conclusions mortality rates may decline as a result of the increase in labour force participation rates of women. In this context, there is a negative relationship between the labor force participation rate of women and gender inequality. So, as gender inequality decreases, infant/child mortality rates also decrease.

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14

Das, Malay. "District-Level wealth-inequality in infant mortality in India." International Journal of Social Sciences 6, no. 1 (2017): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/2321-5771.2017.00007.2.

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15

Parker, Jd, and Kc Schoendorf. "Income inequality and infant mortality in the United States." Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 15, no. 4 (July 7, 2008): A26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3016.2001.381-80.x.

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16

Sohler, N. L. "Income Inequality and Infant Mortality in New York City." Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 80, no. 4 (December 1, 2003): 650–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jurban/jtg071.

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17

Parker, Jd, and Kc Schoendorf. "Income inequality and infant mortality in the United States." Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 15, no. 4 (October 2001): A26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3016.2001.00381-80.x.

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18

Goldani, Marcelo Zubaran, Marco Antonio Barbieri, Heloisa Bettiol, Marisa Ramos Barbieri, and Andrew Tomkins. "Infant mortality rates according to socioeconomic status in a Brazilian city." Revista de Saúde Pública 35, no. 3 (June 2001): 256–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0034-89102001000300007.

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OBJECTIVE: Data from municipal databases can be used to plan interventions aimed at reducing inequities in health care. The objective of the study was to determine the distribution of infant mortality according to an urban geoeconomic classification using routinely collected municipal data. METHODS: All live births (total of 42,381) and infant deaths (total of 731) that occurred between 1994 and 1998 in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil, were considered. Four different geoeconomic areas were defined according to the family head's income in each administrative urban zone. RESULTS: The trends for infant mortality rate and its different components, neonatal mortality rate and post-neonatal mortality rate, decreased in Ribeirão Preto from 1994 to 1998 (chi-square for trend, p<0.05). These rates were inversely correlated with the distribution of lower salaries in the geoeconomic areas (less than 5 minimum wages per family head), in particular the post-neonatal mortality rate (chi-square for trend, p<0.05). Finally, the poor area showed a steady increase in excess infant mortality. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that infant mortality rates are associated with social inequality and can be monitored using municipal databases. The findings also suggest an increase in the impact of social inequality on infant health in Ribeirão Preto, especially in the poor area. The monitoring of health inequalities using municipal databases may be an increasingly more useful tool given the continuous decentralization of health management at the municipal level in Brazil.

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19

Pongou, Roland, Barthelemy Kuate Defo, and Zacharie Tsala Dimbuene. "Excess Male Infant Mortality: The Gene-Institution Interactions." American Economic Review 107, no. 5 (May 1, 2017): 541–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20171146.

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Excess male mortality at early ages is an important source of child inequality in most societies. We examine how improvement in the quality of political institutions affects the male survival disadvantage. Using data on twins in combination with a natural experiment on the development of African institutions, we quantify the distinct effects of biology and preconception environment on the infant mortality sex gap and find that these effects are important only in poor institutions. The analysis implies that improved institutions constrain genetic expression and mitigate preconception influences on excess male infant mortality, which is an optimistic finding with pragmatic implications.

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20

Silber, Jacques. "On Standard of Living and Infant Survival in Some East African Countries." ISSUE FIVE 3, no. 2 (December 28, 2019): 56–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.25079/ukhjss.v3n2y2019.pp56-67.

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To summarize the extent of infant survival in a country, three indices have been defined. The first one is the complement to 1000 of the infant mortality rate (expressed in per thousand births). The second one takes into account the inequality in infant survival rates between population subgroups. The third indicator adjusts the average infant survival rate by giving more weight to a population subgroup with a lower socio-economic status. The computation of the last two indicators requires the use of an inequality index and a concentration ratio.We used two measures of inequality, the Gini index and the Bonferroni index, as well as two concentration ratios, derived from the Gini index and related to the Bonferroni index. A short empirical illustration, based on seven East African countries, confirms the usefulness of the approach presented in this paper.

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Schultz, Helga. "Social Differences in Mortality in the Eighteenth Century: An Analysis of Berlin Church Registers." International Review of Social History 36, no. 2 (August 1991): 232–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002085900011051x.

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SUMMARYThis paper investigates social differences in mortality on the basis of information provided by the registers of two Berlin parishes. The life expectancy of the lower classes was half as long again as that of the upper classes. This gap is smaller than that documented by Perrenoud for Geneva in the seventeenth century, but larger than that documented for contemporary small towns and medium-size cities.Particularly infants and small children were the victims of “social inequality before death”, adults were only marginally affected. Nor did the major epidemics and diseases contribute much to this inequality. Although neither the use of animal milk for feeding nor leaving children with wetnurses in the country were common in Berlin at this time, conditions in this early-industrial city contributed to extremely high levels of infant mortality for specific sections of the population.

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22

Sosnaud, Benjamin. "Inequality in Infant Mortality: Cross-State Variation and Medical System Institutions." Social Problems 66, no. 1 (October 12, 2017): 108–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spx034.

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23

Baek, Seong-Uk, Sung-Shil Lim, Jihyun Kim, and Jin-Ha Yoon. "How Does Economic Inequality Affect Infanticide Rates? An Analysis of 15 Years of Death Records and Representative Economic Data." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 19 (September 30, 2019): 3679. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193679.

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Background: Is there a relationship between economic inequality and infanticide rates? Few studies have examined the socioeconomic factors that trigger infanticide. This study aims to statistically analyze the effect of these factors on infanticide rates. Methods: This study used infant death records in South Korea from 2003 to 2017 to assess the impact of unemployment rates and various statistical indicators (e.g., GDP and income inequality index) on the rate of infanticide. A generalized additive model and a quasi-Poisson regression were used for statistical analyses. Results: A time-trend analysis shows that the infanticide rate tended to grow despite a decreasing trend in the quarterly infant mortality rate. A 1% increase in the unemployment rate is associated with a significant rise in the relative risk of infanticide after a lag of two quarters. Relative risks increased significantly three and four quarters after a 0.1 rise in the p80/p20 ratio (income inequality index). Conclusions: Policymakers should pay attention to socioeconomic factors while formulating healthcare regulations to protect potential infanticide victims, including vulnerable infants and their parents.

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Undelikwo, Veronica Akwenabuaye, and Ebingha Erena Enang. "Cultural Practices and Infant Mortality in Cross River State, Nigeria: A Sociological Perspective." Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 9, no. 5 (September 1, 2018): 211–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/mjss-2018-0153.

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Abstract One of the greatest challenges confronting the government in Nigeria today is the need to reduce infant and child morbidity and mortality in order to achieve the sustainable development goal 2030. Infant mortality is generally used to describe the death of infants or babies that were born alive but died before their first birthday. There is generally marked inequality in infant death between developed and developing nations but also within them. Culture has been found to influence the health of the people especially in developing countries where majority of the people are traditionally oriented and superstitious. Several cultural values, beliefs and practices have considerable influence on the health behaviour of Nigerians, which has been adopted by pregnant women, and carried over to their children resulting in infant mortality. These cultural beliefs and practices are some of the major reasons for the low patronage of antenatal health care and orthodox medicine. People have remained bound to cultural beliefs and values. People tend to view events of diseases and deaths from the cultural and supernatural perspective, thereby causing mothers to stick to traditional and cultural practices in health matters. The paper is purely theoretical and relied heavily on secondary data and relevant literature on the issue under consideration. The paper calls for adequate awareness and enlightenment especially in areas where cultural practices are very ingrained and where infant mortality is high due to these practices.

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Palma-Solís, Marco Antonio, Carlos Álvarez-Dardet Díaz, Álvaro Franco-Giraldo, Ildefonso Hernández-Aguado, and Santiago Pérez-Hoyos. "State Downsizing as a Determinant of Infant Mortality and Achievement of Millennium Development Goal 4." International Journal of Health Services 39, no. 2 (April 2009): 389–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/hs.39.2.i.

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The aim of this study was to evaluate the worldwide effect of state downsizing policies on achievement of U.N. Millennium Development Goal 4 (MDG4) on infant mortality rates. In an ecological retrospective cohort study of 161 countries, from 1978 to 2002, the authors analyzed changes in government consumption (GC) as determining exposure to achievement of MDG4. Descriptive methods and a multiple logistic regression were applied to adjust for changes in gross domestic product, level of democracy, and income inequality. Excess infant mortality in the exposed countries, attributable to reductions in GC, was estimated. Fifty countries were found to have reduced GC, and 111 had increased GC. The gap in infant mortality rate between these groups of countries doubled in the study period. Non-achievement of MDG4 was associated with reductions in GC and increases in income inequality. The excess infant mortality attributable to GC reductions in the exposed countries from 1990 to 2002 was 4,473,348 deaths. The probability of achieving MDG4 seems to be seriously compromised for many countries because of reduced public sector expenditure during the last 25 years of the 20th century, in response to World Bank/International Monetary Fund Washington Consensus policies. This seeming contradiction between the goals of different U.N. branches may be undermining achievement of MDG4 and should be taken into account when developing future global governance policy.

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BROWN, DAVID S. "Democracy and Gender Inequality in Education: A Cross-National Examination." British Journal of Political Science 34, no. 1 (January 2004): 137–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007123403210395.

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This Research Note examines the role democracy plays in explaining the disparity in educational attainment between men and women in a cross-national context. Policies designed to improve education figure prominently in recent attempts by governments, international institutions and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to stimulate economic development. The recent emphasis on education is grounded in a well-established literature in economics on the rate of return on investment in education and in a fairly new stream of research in economics – endogenous growth theory – that suggests knowledge is the generative force of economic growth. Although a majority of the work in both literatures focuses on aggregate levels of educational attainment (usually enrolment ratios or literacy rates), a growing body of evidence identifies women’s educational attainment relative to men’s as a crucial variable in explaining the wide variation in economic development throughout the world. In addition to its direct impact on economic growth, women’s education may indirectly affect economic performance in a number of important ways: through its impact on health, fertility and infant mortality. Previous empirical work shows that women’s education has a strong negative effect on fertility and infant mortality. Moreover, family health practices improve in direct proportion to female education. According to the World Bank, countries that achieved universal primary education for boys in 1965 but lagged far behind in educating girls had about twice the infant mortality and fertility rates in 1985 of countries with smaller gender gaps.

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Odusanya, Ibrahim Abidemi, and Anthony Enisan Akinlo. "Income Inequality and Population Health in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Test of Income Inequality-Health Hypothesis." Journal of Population and Social Studies 29 (January 17, 2021): 235–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.25133/jpssv292021.015.

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Existing studies have shown that income inequality remains a core determinant of population health. These findings are in line with the Income Inequality-Health Hypothesis (IIHH). However, this assertion remains unclear for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), despite the rising trend of income disparity in the region and the vastness of the studies that tested the validity of the IIHH. This inferential study, therefore, examines the effect of income inequality on health for 31 Sub-Saharan African countries from 1995 to 2015 using life expectancy at birth, infant mortality rate, and under-five mortality rate as indicators of population health, as well as the Gini index as a measurement of income inequality. The study employed the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM). We infer that income inequality contributes significantly to poor population health in Sub-Saharan Africa, thereby affirming the validity of the Income Inequality-Health Hypothesis for the region.

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Latif, Muhamamad Mehran, Muhammad Farhan Ashraf, and Muhammad Zeeshan. "Factors Determining Poverty and Child Mortality in Pakistan." iRASD Journal of Economics 1, no. 1 (June 30, 2019): 32–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.52131/joe.2019.0101.0003.

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The objective of the study was to check the factors determining poverty and child mortality in Pakistan. We used secondary data, collected from various economic surveys and the World Bank. OLS technique used to find the relationship between variables. Consumer Price Index (CPI), GDP growth, number of hospitals, and unemployment used as independent variables. For poverty, female literacy rate, male literacy rate, immunization, and GDP growth used as independent variables for child mortality. The study showed that CPI, GDP growth, and the unemployment rate have a positive relationship with poverty whereas the number of hospitals has a negative relationship with poverty. Furthermore, the study revealed that the female literacy rate has a negative impact on infant mortality while the male literacy rate has no significant impact on the infant mortality rate. Immunization has a negative and significant relationship with the infant mortality rate. GDP growth has a positive impact on the infant mortality rate due to high inequality in Pakistan. Authors recommended that parental education, water quality, and motivation to mothers to utilize health facilities can play an important role to reduce poverty and child mortality.

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Jain, Pragati, and Prerna Jain. "Analysis of Infant Mortality Rate in Indian States." Journal of Health Management 19, no. 2 (May 10, 2017): 334–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0972063417699695.

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The aim of this research is to explore the status of infant mortality at the state level, rate of change over the study period (1981–2011) and regional variation in infant mortality rate (IMR) and present a case as to how health status can be improved through targeting goals as in the case of IMR by the health planners and policymakers. The achievement of each of the 15 states on the basis of IMR is examined on the basis of divergence reduction. Sigma and beta absolute convergence measures used to determine the nature of change in the degree of regional inequality in IMR show positive results in achieving regional convergence. This confirms that the government policy and programmes to control and reduce IMR have been successful. IMR is frequently questioned as a measure of health status as infant mortality turns out to be the main focus of health policy; however, the entire population’s health possibly will be ignored in achieving the policy targets. However, the brighter side to it is that the entire gamut of health indicators can be targeted in a phased manner to achieve the overall improvement in the health status.

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Homan, Patricia. "Political gender inequality and infant mortality in the United States, 1990–2012." Social Science & Medicine 182 (June 2017): 127–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.04.024.

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Narayana, D. "Intensifying Infant Mortality Inequality in India and a Reversal by Policy Intervention." Journal of Human Development 9, no. 2 (July 2008): 265–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14649880802078801.

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Fuller and Dwivedi. "Assessing Changes in Inequality for Millennium Development Goals among Countries: Lessons for the Sustainable Development Goals." Social Sciences 8, no. 7 (July 3, 2019): 207. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/socsci8070207.

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In 2000, the United Nations adopted the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), a set of eight global development goals to be achieved between 2000 and 2015. We estimated the Lorenz Curve and Gini Index for determining any changes in inequality at the global level with countries as a unit of analysis for eight development indicators (proportion of population undernourished, school enrollment rates, the percentage of women in parliament, infant mortality rates, maternal mortality rates, HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) rates, access to improved water sources, and access to a cellular device), representing one MDG each. All of the selected indicators improved on average between 2000 and 2015. An average improvement in an indicator does not necessarily imply a decrease in inequality. For instance, the average infant mortality rate decreased from 39.17 deaths per 1000 births in 2000 to 23.40 in 2015, but the Gini Index remained almost stable over the same period, suggesting no reduction in inequality among countries. For other indicators, inequality among countries decreased at varying rates. A significant data gap existed across countries. For example, only 91 countries had data on primary school enrollment rates in 2000 and 2015. We emphasize developing a global data collection and analysis protocol for measuring the impacts of global development programs, especially in reducing inequality across social, economic, and environmental indicators. This study will feed into currently enacted Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for ensuring more inclusive and equitable growth worldwide.

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Muntaner, Carles, John W. Lynch, Marianne Hillemeier, Ju Hee Lee, Richard David, Joan Benach, and Carme Borrell. "Economic Inequality, Working-Class Power, Social Capital, and Cause-Specific Mortality in Wealthy Countries." International Journal of Health Services 32, no. 4 (October 2002): 629–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/n7a9-5x58-0dyt-c6ay.

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This study tests two propositions from Navarro's critique of the social capital literature: that social capital's importance has been exaggerated and that class-related political factors, absent from social epidemiology and public health, might be key determinants of population health. The authors estimate cross-sectional associations between economic inequality, working-class power, and social capital and life expectancy, self-rated health, low birth weight, and age- and cause-specific mortality in 16 wealthy countries. Of all the health outcomes, the five variables related to birth and infant survival and nonintentional injuries had the most consistent association with economic inequality and working-class power (in particular with strength of the welfare state) and, less so, with social capital indicators. Rates of low birth weight and infant deaths from all causes were lower in countries with more “left” (e.g., socialist, social democratic, labor) votes, more left members of parliament, more years of social democratic government, more women in government, and various indicators of strength of the welfare state, as well as low economic inequality, as measured in a variety of ways. Similar associations were observed for injury mortality, underscoring the crucial role of unions and labor parties in promoting workplace safety. Overall, social capital shows weaker associations with population health indicators than do economic inequality and working-class power. The popularity of social capital and exclusion of class-related political and welfare state indicators does not seem to be justified on empirical grounds.

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Gordon, R. R. "Post Neonatal Mortality Rates — Scotland." Scottish Medical Journal 34, no. 1 (February 1989): 401–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/003693308903400107.

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Post Neonatal Mortality Rates in Scotland have been equal to those of North and South England since 1975. In this respect there is no longer any inequality in health. However, Social Class V still has a higher rate than Social Class 1 and the rate for illegitimates is the same as for Social Class V. As a result the illegitimate rate remains much higher than that for legitimates in spite of the enormous increase in illegitimate numbers since 1960. With 18% of all live births now born illegitimate they represent infant (social) deprivation better than Social Class V — Which now constitutes only 5% of live births.

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Potyra, Maciej. "Life expectancy and lifespan inequality: a perfect linear correlation? Analysis of the relationship with a particular emphasis on the case of countries going through the life expectancy stagnation period." Studia Demograficzne, no. 1(175) (March 4, 2020): 63–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.33119/sd.2019.1.3.

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In recent years in demography there has been a growing discussion about the relationship between life expectancy and lifespan inequality. It appears that in the long run this relationship tends to be strongly linear – countries with the longest life expectancy are also the most equal. This article takes a closer look at countries that went through long periods of life expectancy stagnation and shows that during those times they also experienced a reduction in inequality, mainly due to a large decrease in infant mortality. However, if only adult mortality is taken into account inequality was stagnating or even rising in many cases. Particularly interesting is the fact that a similar pattern of the relationship between life expectancy and lifespan inequality was observed both in Eastern or Western Europe.

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Shibre, Gebretsadik. "Social inequality in infant mortality in Angola: Evidence from a population based study." PLOS ONE 15, no. 10 (October 22, 2020): e0241049. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241049.

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Ruiz, Juan Ignacio, Kaamel Nuhu, Justin Tyler McDaniel, Federico Popoff, Ariel Izcovich, and Juan Martin Criniti. "Inequality as a Powerful Predictor of Infant and Maternal Mortality around the World." PLOS ONE 10, no. 10 (October 21, 2015): e0140796. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140796.

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Kumar, Abhishek, and Abhishek Singh. "Is Economic Inequality in Infant Mortality Higher in Urban Than in Rural India?" Maternal and Child Health Journal 18, no. 9 (February 21, 2014): 2061–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-014-1452-9.

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Rodrigo, A., René van der Veer, Harriet J. Vermeer, and Marinus H. van IJzendoorn. "From foundling homes to day care: a historical review of childcare in Chile." Cadernos de Saúde Pública 30, no. 3 (March 2014): 461–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0102-311x00060613.

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This article discusses significant changes in childcare policy and practice in Chile. We distinguish four specific periods of childcare history: child abandonment and the creation of foundling homes in the 19th century; efforts to reduce infant mortality and the creation of the health care system in the first half of the 20th century; an increasing focus on inequality and poverty and the consequences for child development in the second half of the 20th century; and, finally, the current focus on children’s social and emotional development. It is concluded that, although Chile has achieved infant mortality and malnutrition rates comparable to those of developed countries, the country bears the mark of a history of inequality and is still unable to fully guarantee the health of children from the poorest sectors of society. Recent initiatives seek to improve this situation and put a strong emphasis on the psychosocial condition of children and their families.

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Galbraith, James K. "Ethics and Inequality: A Strategic and Practical View." Ethics & International Affairs 30, no. 3 (2016): 379–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0892679416000150.

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Deng Xiaoping once said, “Let some get rich first, the others will follow.” This is Angus Deaton's basic view in The Great Escape. Deaton, co-winner of the Leontief Prize in 2014 and winner of the Nobel Prize in 2015, chronicles the rise of almost all of humanity out of conditions of widespread hunger, disease, destitution, and premature death, and into a world where infant and child mortality has fallen sharply, and where heart diseases and even cancers are declining. Consequently, with exceptions related to AIDS and in the poorest countries, life overall is longer and health better than ever before.

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Macinko, James A., Leiyu Shi, and Barbara Starfield. "Wage inequality, the health system, and infant mortality in wealthy industrialized countries, 1970–1996." Social Science & Medicine 58, no. 2 (January 2004): 279–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(03)00200-4.

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Wennemo, Irene. "Infant mortality, public policy and inequality -- a comparison of 18 industrialised countries 1950-85." Sociology of Health and Illness 15, no. 4 (September 1993): 429–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.ep11372773.

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Hajizadeh, Mohammad, Arijit Nandi, and Jody Heymann. "Social inequality in infant mortality: What explains variation across low and middle income countries?" Social Science & Medicine 101 (January 2014): 36–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.11.019.

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Wennemo, Irene. "Infant mortality, public policy and inequality - a comparison of 18 industrialised countries 1950-85." Sociology of Health & Illness 15, no. 4 (June 28, 2008): 429–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9566.1993.tb00354.x.

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Szwarcwald, C. L., P. R. Souza, and G. N. Damacena. "Effects of Inequality in the Income Distribution on the Infant Mortality Inequalities in Brazil." International Journal of Epidemiology 44, suppl_1 (September 23, 2015): i41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyv097.138.

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Haines, Michael R. "Inequality and infant and childhood mortality in the United States in the twentieth century." Explorations in Economic History 48, no. 3 (July 2011): 418–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2011.05.009.

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Pamuk, Elsie R. "Social-class inequality in infant mortality in England and Wales from 1921 to 1980." European Journal of Population 4, no. 1 (September 1988): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01797104.

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HOSSAIN, MIAN B., JAMES F. PHILLIPS, and BRIAN PENCE. "THE EFFECT OF WOMEN’S STATUS ON INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY IN FOUR RURAL AREAS OF BANGLADESH." Journal of Biosocial Science 39, no. 3 (May 2007): 355–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002193200600143x.

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Summary.In South Asia women are often the primary decision-makers regarding child health care, family health and nutrition. This paper examines the proposition that constraints on women’s status adversely affect the survival of their children. Survey data are used to construct indices of women’s household autonomy and authority, which are then linked to longitudinal data on survival of their children. Proportional hazard models indicate that enhanced autonomy significantly decreases post-neonatal mortality. Enhanced household authority significantly decreases child mortality. A simulation based on estimated effects of eliminating gender inequality suggests that achieving complete gender equality could reduce child mortality by nearly fifty per cent and post-neonatal mortality by one-third.

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Stephenson, Rob, Mondie Blalock Tharp, John Mark Wiginton, and Nicholas Metheny. "SEX COMPOSITION OF TWINS AND ASSOCIATIONS WITH MORBIDITY, MORTALITY AND MATERNAL TREATMENT-SEEKING OUTCOMES IN RESOURCE-POOR SETTINGS." Journal of Biosocial Science 50, no. 4 (August 2, 2017): 491–504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002193201700030x.

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SummarySocietal gender inequality and a preference for male children has been shown to be detrimental to girls’ health. This is despite females’ innate biological advantage early in life. The negative effects of gender inequity on female health are most pronounced in resource-poor countries, where cultural norms supporting a preference for male children are strongest. However, most of what is known about gender inequality and child health comes from studies of singleton births. There is little evidence for how, or if, the disadvantages associated with gender bias and son preference extend to multiple births, a population inherently at risk for a number of health challenges. This analysis examines whether gender bias in health outcomes exists for twins. Data on live twin births from 38 Demographic and Health Surveys were compiled (n=11,528 individuals) and twins were categorized as girl/girl, girl/boy, boy/girl or girl/girl. Gender inequality was measured via the Gender Inequality Index. Multilevel logistic regression models examined associations between twin sex composition, gender inequality and eight outcomes of infant and child morbidity, mortality and mother’s treatment-seeking behaviours. Twin pairs containing girls had significantly lower odds of first-year mortality. Higher country-level gender inequality was associated with higher odds of reporting diarrhoea and fever/cough, as well as an increased odds of post-neonatal mortality. Results suggest that the biological advantage for females may be stronger than son preference and gender inequality in the first year of life. Understanding these relationships has the potential to inform efforts to curb the influence of gender preference on the health of female children in resource-poor settings.

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Smith-Greenaway, Emily, and Jenny Trinitapoli. "Maternal cumulative prevalence measures of child mortality show heavy burden in sub-Saharan Africa." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 8 (February 10, 2020): 4027–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1907343117.

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We advance a set of population-level indicators that quantify the prevalence of mothers who have ever experienced an infant, under 5-y-old child, or any-age child die. The maternal cumulative prevalence of infant mortality (mIM), the maternal cumulative prevalence of under 5 mortality (mU5M), and the maternal cumulative prevalence of offspring mortality (mOM) bring theoretical and practical value to a variety of disciplines. Here we introduce maternal cumulative prevalence measures of mortality for multiple age groups of mothers in 20 sub-Saharan African countries with Demographic and Health Surveys data spanning more than two decades. The exercise demonstrates the persistently high prevalence of African mothers who have ever experienced a child die. In some African countries, more than one-half of 45- to 49-y-old mothers have experienced the death of a child under age 5, and nearly two-thirds have experienced the death of any child, irrespective of age. Fewer young mothers have experienced a child die, yet in many countries, up to one-third have. Our results show that the mIM and mU5M can follow distinct trajectories from the infant mortality rate (IMR) and under 5 mortality rate (U5MR), offering an experiential view of mortality decline that annualized measures conceal. These measures can be adapted to quantify the prevalence of recurrent offspring mortality (mROM) and calculated for subgroups to identify within-country inequality in the mortality burden. These indicators can be used to improve current understandings of mortality change, bereavement as a public health threat, and population dynamics.

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