Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Indonesian language Passive voice'

This thesis reports on the use of active and passive voice in the workplace and classroom through analysis of surveys completed by 37 employees and 66 students. The surveys offered six categories of business writing with ten sets of two sentences each, written in active and passive voice. Participants selected one sentence from each set and gave a reason for each selection. The participants preferred active over passive 47 to 46 percent of opportunities, but they preferred mixed voice over both, 49 percent. The participants preferred active only for memos to supervisors; in the other five categories they preferred passive or mixed voice. Both males and females preferred mixed voice, and age appeared to influence the choices. They cited context as the most common reason for using passive.

This dissertation has two main purposes: (a) to provide a contrastive analysis and theoretical background of the passive in English and Korean; (b) to investigate how Korean learners of English use the English passive in terms of forms, meanings, and functions.One major claim in this dissertation is that the passive is best accounted for by the notion of role prominence in both English and Korean. In addition, a significant difference is revealed in emotional (affective) functions of the passive in English and Korean, showing that the emotional function prevails in Korean far more than in English.After the discussion of theoretical background, Korean learners' actual use of the English passive is analyzed. The specific analysis of grammatical errors shows that Korean learners make local errors (errors significantly inhibiting communication) more than global errors (errors not significantly inhibiting communication). Pragmatic errors are divided largely into discourse functional errors (violation of role prominence, abrupt topic shift, and violation of defocusing) and affective functional errors. The results show that affective functional errors outnumber discourse functional errors. These results are accounted for in terms of not only language transfer and but also a socio-cultural factor, prestige of a passive sentence with respect to an active sentence. Of particular interest is the existence of a hierarchy of acceptability in pragmatic errors. Analysis of medio-passive errors suggests that the native language forms greatly affect the learners' target language forms.This dissertation plays particular attention to the pragmatic aspects of the passive, both theoretical and practical. It is argued that the learners' use of the passive in accordance with pragmatic principles will enhance cohesive writing, facilitating communication.Generally speaking, this dissertation contributes to several important areas of study in second language acquisition, including error analysis and contrastive analysis in terms of grammar and pragmatics. A major significance of this dissertation is its demonstration of the importance of pragmatics in understanding the acqusition of grammar.
Department of English

It has often been noted that, in Japanese passive sentences, not only transitive but also intransitive verbs can occur. Since the time linguists first began to compare Japanese with other languages, they have tried to analyse the properties of Japanese passives. The linguists of the last two decades paid attention primarily to the syntax of Japanese passive sentences and divided them into two groups, on syntactic grounds, to explain their derivations. However, these classifications are not adequate when it comes to explaining the semantic differences between passive sentences, and there remains a considerable number of exceptions to their definitions. The purpose of this paper is to bring to light the confusions of the previous semantic and syntactic explanations and propose new definitions of the two passive groups. We shall also examine the meanings of passive sentences in real situations and attempt to pinpoint the basic purpose behind use of the passive construction in Japanese.

The main insight of this dissertation is that we can commit to recognizing diversity by sounding others' voices with our voices. I argue that articulations of 'unity' using the familiar sounds of linguistic diversity enables ideological change in the practice of performing poetry in Bahasa Indonesia. Multiple types of data in Bahasa Indonesia are examined and presented to support this argument including newspaper articles, literature textbooks, personal interviews, conference papers, and recordings of poetry performances. In these data, we hear a variety of voices in Indonesia articulate two ideologies about the function of literature in society, which are: 'Literature develops the citizens'' and 'Literature enables unity in diversity'. We also hear various voices articulate an ideology about the proper form of performed poetry, which is: 'Proper reading (or sounding) of a poem results from deeply understanding another's heart'. Transcriptions and descriptions of poetry readings illustrate how these ideologies are realized in performance. I have called the complex interaction of these component ideologies 'Language Celebration in Bahasa Indonesia.' This dissertation makes several important contributions. This analysis brings together two separated approaches to language study (i.e., linguistic anthropology and formal linguistics) to show that both are needed to provide an account of an interaction between phonetics and ideologies. Further, this analysis articulates a theory of sound as one kind of physical (or material) aspect of language that can be exploited to produce ideological change. As a reflexive written document, this analysis examines differences between modes of linguistic production, specifically literary and scientific modes. Finally, by analyzing the structural differences between American and Indonesian language ideologies, I demonstrate why these two cultures differently value giving 'voice' to their internally diverse populations. Combining ethnographic description with formal modeling of language, as well as juxtaposing usually separated genres (like poetry and social theory) I hope to enable readers to arrive at empathetic trans-cultural understandings of Other values 'on their own'.

Academic scientific language is characterized by an impersonal and objective style. Due to this and the typical high information density of academic language, this style typically contains a high rate of noun phrases and passive structures. This is also true for the German scientific study Gefühlte Opfer, Illusionen der Vergangenheitsbewältigung by Ulrike Jureit and Christian Schneider. The first aim of this essay was to translate one chapter from the aforementioned book into Swedish and adapt the target language to culturally match a reader who would appreciate a text on German post-war history and sociology. The second aim was to quantify and analyse all occurrences of passive voice and similar structures. More specifically, the following research questions were investigated: How is the passive formed in the source and target language respectively? How often is a corresponding passive used in the translation? How often is a passive sentence translated into an active structure? There are many different ways of expressing the passive in German: the so-called Vorgangspassiv featuring the auxiliary werden, the so-called Zustandspassiv with sein, and finally passive-like constructions. There are corresponding ways to form the passive in Swedish, that is, structures with the auxiliaries bli and vara, but the more common way to express the passive voice is the morphological s-passive. Passive-like constructions can be found in Swedish as well. The most common passive structure in the source text, the werden-passive, was in most cases translated into the typical Swedish s-passive. The sein-passive was more often translated into a similar structure in the target text. All in all, almost a third of the passive voice sentences were translated into active structures. Keywords: translation, passive voice, academic language

This thesis investigates the question of how the arguments of a given verb are linked to positions in a phrase structure. Through a study of passives, psych verbs, and ditransitive verbs in Japanese, it provides empirical support for the hypothesis that arguments having particular thematic roles are associated with particular syntactic positions systematically.
Chapter 2 deals with passives, in particular, two types of passive constructions, direct and indirect passives. Following some previous works, it is argued that the subject of a direct passive is generated in the same position as an object of the corresponding active verb, having the same thematic role, whereas the subject of an indirect passive is projected as an argument of a separate predicate. Several pieces of evidence for this hypothesis which are not given in the literature are provided here.
Chapter 3 is concerned with psych verbs, focusing on those that participate in a causative alternation. It is proposed that causative counterparts of these verbs can have two different structures that are parallel to the two types of passives discussed in Chapter 2. The subject of one type is generated in the same position as the object of the noncausative counterpart, having the same thematic role, whereas the subject of the other type is projected as an argument of a separate predicate.
Chapter 4 takes up ditransitive verbs, specifically, those that have inchoative counterparts, which do not project the subject of the ditransitive construction. There are two types of such verbs: one promotes the accusative argument of the ditransitive construction, rather than the dative one, to the subject of the inchoative counterpart, while the other chooses the dative argument over the accusative one for the subject of the inchoative counterpart. It is argued that this reflects the difference in the base-generated position of the dative argument between the two types of verbs. Moreover, the dative arguments of the two are distinguished in terms of thematic role.
This research is meant to contribute toward having a further understanding of how the participants of an event are expressed in grammatical forms.

Minangkabau is an Austronesian, Indonesian-type language spoken in West Sumatra by approximately seven million speakers. Despite its large number of speakers and the spread of Minangkabau people throughout the Indonesian Archipelago, Minangkabau remains under-described when compared to other Indonesian-type languages like Javanese. This study seeks to improve current understanding about Minangkabau by describing its system of voice alternations and verb morphology. This study presents a novel analysis of the forms and functions of voice marking in Minangkabau, incorporating naturalistic data into the analysis as well as taking the findings of recent typological and theoretical studies of Austronesian languages into consideration. The study makes use of naturalistic, conversational and narrative data from a database maintained by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Field Station in Padang. The study also makes use of elicited data collected in Perth and during fieldwork in Padang. Naturalistic and more formal, elicited Minangkabau data reveals different kinds of linguistic patterns, therefore this study makes a distinction between Colloquial Minangkabau and Standard Minangkabau. The study concludes that Minangkabau has a pragmatically motivated voice system encoded by the alternation between active voice, passive voice and the pasif semu construction. In addition, the study concludes that Minangkabau also has a conceptually motivated voice system that is encoded by a series of semantic and lexical/derivational affixes (ta-, pa-, and ba-) which show how the action originates and develops. The Minangkabau applicatives -an and -i are for the most part valency changing devices but operate within both the pragmatic and conceptual domains of Minangkabau voice. The active voice marker maN- also operates in both pragmatic and conceptual domains whereas the use of the passive voice marker di- is primarily motivated by pragmatic and syntactic factors. This analysis is supported by the finding that di- is a morphosyntactic clitic whereas the conceptual voice markers are affixes and have mainly lexico-semantic properties.

This paper proposes a diachronic and synchronic analysis of the extensive use of se in Spanish reflexive and passive constructions with se being discussed in relation to the Unaccusative Hypothesis in Arc Pair Grammar.Universals in Arc Pair Grammar, namely the Unaccusative Law, the 1-Advancement Exclusiveness Law and the Final 1-Arc Law will account for the similarities and differences, first between English and Spanish predicates; and second, between ordinary reflexive constructions and reflexive passive constructions.Evidence from Spanish, primarily synchronic, is presented to analyze reflexive constructions that come from an initial unaccusative stratum. A parallel between these constructions and reflexive passives is established to demonstrate that unaccusative predicates and reflexive passive constructions are very closely related.Diachronically the paper claims that there is a logical and clear evolution of se based on corefentiality, anaphoric chains, unspecified arguments, and self-erasing ghost arcs.Finally this paper attempts to explain why in some instances the predicate will not exhibit agreement with the corresponding nominal. The Chomeur relation and the introduction of ghost arcs according to Arc Pair Grammar Laws and Theorems will provide the basis for this explanation.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Illinois State University, 1998.
Title from title page screen, viewed July 3, 2006. Dissertation Committee: Russell K. Rutter (chair), James R. Kalmbach, Dana K. Harrington. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 233-248) and abstract. Also available in print.

As more international students who are not expert users of English come to the United States to study at university, the field of teaching English for Academic Purposes grows. There are many important skills these international students must learn to become successful university students in America, but writing for academic purposes is of particular importance for these students to join the academic conversation in their respective disciplines. Corpus research has identified the grammatical features which are frequently found in different registers, and from this work it is known which structures are important in different types of academic writing. Grammatical structures frequently found in the academic register must be taught to these university-bound students. However, many English Language Learners (ELLs) are infrequently using, or inaccurately using, some of these grammatical features in their writing when compared to L1 writers. This study focuses on three of those under-used, and/or inaccurately used structures: passive voice, reduced relative clauses, and modal would. At an Intensive English Language Program (IELP) in the Pacific Northwest, an experimental group of advanced ELLs were given extended instruction--extra time and practice--on these three features. The control group received the standard amount of time and practice students typically receive at this IELP. 25 essays from the experimental group and 44 essays from the control group were tagged for presence, accuracy, and appropriacy of the three grammatical features (passive voice, reduced relative clauses, and modal would). The experimental and control group essays were compared to see if the treatment instruction had a significant effect on the frequency, accuracy, and/or appropriacy of these features. Results from an independent t-test on the frequency of passive voice showed no significant difference between the experimental group essays and the control group essays. Results from a Mann-Whitney U test on the frequency of reduced relative clauses and modal would showed no significant difference between the two groups. In regard to accuracy and appropriacy, a Mann-Whitney U test found no significant difference between the experiment group and control group. The analysis of the two groups showed that students in the treatment group did use passive voice on average more than students in the control group, but it was not enough to be significantly different. The frequency of reduced relative clauses and modal would was low, yet accuracy and appropriacy of these features was very high for both groups. These findings reveal that different, or perhaps more focused, approaches must be taken beyond extra time and practice to increase ELLs' use of passive voice, reduced relative clauses, and modal would in their writing.

Kinder erwerben Passivstrukturen später als die meisten anderen syntaktischen Strukturen. Die vorliegende Studie beschäftigt sich mit der Frage, ob dies auf informationsstrukturelle Faktoren zurückzuführen sein könnte. Probleme beim Erwerb von Passivsätzen wurden in vorhergehenden Studien unter anderem auf ihre geringe Inputfrequenz oder bestimmte syntaktische Charakteristika von Passivsätzen zurückgeführt. Jedoch konnte bisher keiner dieser Ansätze ihr spätes Erwerbsalter umfassend erklären. Während Aktivsätze, die kanonische, unmarkierte Satzstruktur im Deutschen, in jeglichem Diskurskontext verwendet werden können, werden Passivsätze fast ausschließlich dann verwendet, wenn der Patiens der beschriebenen Handlung schon vorerwähnt war und/ oder als Topik eines Satzes fungieren soll. Passivsätze sind also nicht in jedem Kontext informationsstrukturell adäquat. Kinder haben im Gegensatz zu Erwachsenen aufgrund ihrer geringeren syntaktischen Fähigkeiten Probleme, Sätze zu verarbeiten, die nicht in einem adäquaten Kontext stehen. Der Einfluss dieser Kontextbedingungen auf das Satzverständnis wurde in der vorliegenden Studie bei deutschsprachigen Kindern untersucht. Kindern zwischen 3;0 und 4;11 Jahren wurden Aktiv- oder Passivsätze präsentiert, denen informationsstrukturell adäquate, inadäquate oder neutrale Kontextsätze vorangingen. Wie erwartet verstanden die Kinder Aktivsätze besser als Passivsätze und 4-jährige Kinder zeigten bessere Leistungen als 3-jährige. Es gab Tendenzen, dass die 3-jährigen Kinder Passivsätze besser, aber Aktivsätze schlechter verstanden, wenn ihr Subjekt vorerwähnt wurde. Statistisch signifikante Kontexteffekte fanden sich jedoch im Gegensatz zu einer vergleichbaren Studie mit englischsprachigen Kindern (Gourley und Catlin, 1978) in keiner Testbedingung. Außerdem zeigte sich, dass die Kinder Passivsätze insgesamt besser und Aktivsätze insgesamt schlechter verstanden als englischsprachige Kinder in anderen Studien. Die Ergebnisse werden mit dem Competition Modell (Mac Whinney und Bates, 1987) und einer Sprachverarbeitungstheorie von Stromswold (2002) erklärt. Außerdem wird diskutiert, warum die deutschsprachigen Kinder in der vorliegenden Studie andere Sprachverständnisleistungen zeigten als englischsprachige Kinder.
Children acquire passive constructions later than most other syntactic structures. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether this phenomenon can be explained with an information-structural account. In former studies problems in the acquisition of the passive voice have often been attributed to its low input frequency or to its specific syntactic characteristics. However, none of these theories could sufficiently explain the late age of acquisition of passive structures. Sentences in the active voice, the canonical, unmarked, structure in German can be used in any discourse context while passive sentences are almost always used if the patient of the described action is GIVEN in the context and/ or serves as the TOPIC of the sentence. Therefore passive sentences cannot be used in any context without violating information structural constraints. It is more difficult for children – due to their less developed syntactic abilities – than for adults to process sentences which do not occur in an information structurally appropriate context. The present study examines the influence of the context on sentence comprehension abilities of German speaking children. Children at the age of 3;0 – 4;11 years were presented active or passive sentences in an information structurally appropriate, inappropriate or neutral context. As expected, children comprehended active sentences better than passive sentences, and 4-year olds performed better than 3-year olds. There was a tendency that 3-year olds comprehended passive sentences better but active sentences worse if the subject of the sentence was GIVEN in the context. However, there were no statistically significant context effects, in contrast to a similar study with English-speaking children (Gourley and Catlin, 1978). In addition, it could be shown that German-speaking children comprehended passive sentences better than English-speaking children in other studies. The results are explained with the Competition Model (Mac Whinney and Bates, 1987) and Stromswold’s (2002) theory of language processing. It is also discussed why German-speaking children showed different language comprehension abilities than English-speaking children.

En examinant les difficultés représentatives rencontrées par les étudiants chinois au cours de leur apprentissage du français langue étrangère (FLE), la présente thèse a pour objectif d’inventorier et analyser leurs erreurs récurrentes à l'écrit, à différents niveaux, en vue de proposer des procédés ou des suggestions qui pourraient éventuellement améliorer l’enseignement du FLE en Chine. La thèse est divisée en sept chapitres reposant sur l’analyse des erreurs à partir d'un point de grammaire précis - la voix passive, et puis, au niveau micro, sur différents aspects : perceptuo - mémoriels, métalinguistique et sémantico - pragmatiques, avec un bilan général à la fin. À l’issue de cette analyse, nous avons pu constater que les difficultés que les étudiants chinois rencontrent au cours de leur apprentissage sont dues principalement à l’écart entre le français et le chinois, leur langue maternelle, dont l'influence est partout sous-jacent. La présente recherche s’oriente vers la linguistique structurale et une analyse contrastive. En examinant cas par cas les différentes imperfections repérées dans notre corpus spécialement constitué à cette fin, nous essayons de découvrir les causes qui les sous-tendent. La deuxième étape est réservée à une étude de stratégie didactique. En nous appuyant sur le résultat de l'analyse précédente, nous procédons à une description statistique de notre matériel pour connaître la répartition des différentes catégories d’erreurs. En partant de cette image statistique, nous pouvons esquisser enfin des recommandations didactiques plus adéquates
By examining the typical difficulties faced by Chinese students in their learning of French as foreign language (FLE in French), this thesis aims to list, categorize, and analyze their recurring errors at different levels in writing, in order to propose some proper suggestions that could possibly help improve the teaching of French as foreign language in China. The thesis is divided into seven chapters based on error analysis from a specific grammar point - the passive voice, and then, the thesis, at the micro level, on different aspects: perceptuo - memorial, meta-linguistics and semantic - pragmatic, analyzes the various types of written errors Chinese students make in their French learning, with a general assessment at the end. With previous analysis, the thesis concludes that the main causes of the difficulties Chinese students encounter in the French learning lie in the differences between French language and their mother tongue while the influence of the mother tongue is ubiquitous. It is with the reference of structural linguistics and contrastive linguistics in our analyzing process of the error cases, one by one from the materials specially gathered for this purpose, that the research has found the main causes that underlie the errors. And it is by using a statistical analysis of the corpus collected, that the research has also found the distribution of different categories of the errors, so that it provides a objective basis for the further improvement of French teaching in China

In our information age, it is of the highest importance that information is easy to understand by as many members of the potential target audience as possible. The present study analyses and compares the readability of 20 newspaper articles, half from the tabloid Daily Mail and the other half from the broadsheet The Daily Telegraph. The methods used to analyse the articles are mathematic readability formulas based on sentence and word length, as well as analyses of the use of the active and the passive voice, type-token ratio, number of clauses per sentence, and linking words. The results do not completely align with each other. Three of the five methods – the readability formulas, the use of the passive voice, and clauses per sentence – suggest that the Daily Mail articles are easier to understand, whereas the type-token ratios imply the opposite, and the linking words results did not show a difference in readability.

The current study explores the frequency and types of passive voice constructions found in children’s literature as compared to child directed speech (CDS). Research studies indicate that children learn to understand and produce passive voice relatively late in the language acquisition process, which some researchers attribute to the scarcity of passive voice in CDS. This study expands current knowledge of passive voice input by adding another source, children’s literature, because several studies have demonstrated that children’s books may serve as enriched sources of input for academic language. Analyses of data indicate that the amount of passive voice and the types of passive voice found in children’s literature and child directed speech are not significantly different, contradicting the idea that books contain more academic language than CDS. Further research is necessary in order to fully understand why children acquire passive voice in the late stages of language acquisition.

碩士
中原大學
應用華語文研究所
102
Passive Voice is one of the important elements in human communication, and Chinese Passive Voice also plays a significant role in Chinese language. Different from any other languages, Chinese Passive Voice is primarily used to express unfortunate condition. Thus this special characteristic of Chinese Passive Voice has become one of the most difficult aspects for Indonesian-speaking learners to learn. Based on writer’s observation and understanding on Chinese and Indonesian Passive Voice, the writer would apply Comparative Analysis and Error Analysis to understand further about the difficulties faced by Indonesian-speaking learners in the process of acquiring Chinese Passive Voice, and to find out the causes of these difficulties. Through Comparative Analysis, the writer found out the similarities and differences between Chinese and Indonesian Passive Voice, and designed an aptitude test based on the result. The aptitude test was used to collect data, which was later being analyzed by using Error Analysis method. The purpose of this analysis is to find out the causes of learners’ errors. Based on the above result, the writer designed a teaching curriculum and thus implemented it in class through action research. Through the comparison of Pre and Post-test result, the writer was going to examine the strengths and weaknesses of the teaching curriculum used in this research. The writer found out that among the three types of Passive Voice analyzed in this research, errors from SP3 type was the most prominent, the second was SP2 type, and SP1 was the one with least errors. From the point of error types, additional error was the most obvious one, second and third were misordering and misinformation errors, and omission error was the least found in this research. To examine the teaching curriculum that was implemented in this research, the writer had conducted pre and post-test, and through the comparison of the result, the writer found out that the teaching curriculum that was used in this research could decrease the error percentage produced by Indonesian-speaking learners. Keywords: Chinese Passive Voice, Teaching Method, Comparative Analysis, Error Analysis

This in-depth study investigates the acquisition of the passive construction by Setswana-speaking pre-schoolers. My original contribution to knowledge is that Setswana-speaking preschoolers acquire the passive early on some tasks but not others. This shows that acquisition is a multifacted task that needs to be fine-tuned. These are important facts that need to be considered by Speech-Language Therapists in order to accurately identify language-impaired children. Setswana is the fourth most commonly spoken language in South Africa. However, only four linguistic studies have been conducted on Setswana since 2000 and none of these investigated acquisition of Setswana processes in children. Setswana is a language that belongs to the South-eastern Bantu Zone of languages. Languages in this group are structurally closely related to one another and mutually intelligible. Studies of the acquisition of the passive in Sesotho and Zulu have shown that the passive develops much earlier (3 years) than in Indo-European languages (5 years). More tools are needed to explore language acquisition and language impairment in South Africa. It is essential that these tools focus on issues of poverty and diversity. The research methods used should be suitable for the communities being explored and should inform the delivery of appropriate services. Endeavors should be made to provide information that improves scientific research in terms of language acquisition and access to speech-language therapy services. The passive voice is considered to be one of the most well researched yet controversial linguistic structures. In Setswana the construction of the passive occurs when the subject of the active clause is expressed in the passive in the form of an agentive adverb with the prefixal formative ké- which forms an optional by-phrase. The verb is marked as passive using a passive extension by suffixing –w or –iw. How this is acquired is the focus of this study. A total of 114 children divided into 3 age groups 2.6 – 3.5 years, 3.6 – 4.5 years and 4.6 – 5.5 years were the participants in this study. Their performance was compared to that of a group of 11 adult verifiers. The aim of this study was to investigate Setswana-speaking children’s comprehension and production of the passive in terms of age, passive categories and length variables. Tasks used to examine these variables were Comprehension 2 and 3 Character tasks and Elicited Production and Imitation tasks. The participants were divided into two different participant groups. There were 52 participants on the Elicited Imitation tasks and 62 on the Comprehension and Elicited Production tasks. Participants were tested at 3 crèches in the peri-urban area of Pankop, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. On the Comprehension 2 character tasks significant differences between age groups (age group 1, 34% and 3, 49%) were noted. However, no significant developmental trends were found on Comprehension 3 character or Elicited Production tasks amongst the children. On Elicited Imitation tasks there was a significant difference between the youngest group (69%) compared to the middle (83%) and oldest age group (81%). . The results showed much variability among tasks. The results for Comprehension 2 and 3 Character tasks were at above chance level. The Elicited Production task was unsuccessful as children found great difficulty with this task with 2.6 to 3.6 year old children scoring 7% and the oldest group 14%. However, the Elicited Imitation task was extremely successful and confirmed the diagnostic value of such a measure. The type of passive did influence performance but this was task dependent. The participants’ knowledge of the passive categories, for Comprehension 2 character and Elicited Imitation tasks followed the same order, with best performance on inanimate categories followed by negatives, reversible and then non-actional passives. On Elicited Production tasks children also scored the best on inanimate tasks. A weakness of this study is that Elicited Imitation tasks were not administered at the same time as the other tasks and therefore a different group of participants was used even though subject selection criteria was the same. The impact of sentence length on performance also showed much variability. For the non-actional negative category on Set A Comprehension 2 Character tasks participants’ scored significantly better for short sentences than long sentences and vice versa for Comprehension 3 Character tasks. On Elicited Production tasks children scored better on long passive sentences. On Elicited Imitation tasks short sentences were easier than long passives. The results of this study confirms the important effect of task-type in assessing passive comprehension and production. Also, the results of this study suggest that the passive is not an early acquired structure in Setswana with the exception of the Elicited Imitation task. The results therefore support the A-chain Deficit Hypothesis, i.e., that the passive is a late acquired structure with difficulties with non-actional categories except when an Elicited Imitation task was used. Explanations may link to the complex sociolinguistic context of developing children in South Africa. This study confirms the important effect of task when testing child language, and the potential value of Elicited Imitation as a viable and relevant measure of assessing language in the South African context.

本論文從詞彙語義的角度探討二語英語中的低被動化現象。本文將就常見的低被動化英語動詞，以動詞語義為基礎，進行類型劃分及解析。通過審視一個香港學習者語料庫中的低被動化結構，本文將確定二語英語中低被動化結構的性質以及分佈情況。基於一組因果及物性的語義特徵，語料庫中經常被學習者低被動化的動詞，將劃分為四類型：一）改變位置動詞，二）三方動詞，三）動態效應動詞，及四）非施事動詞；四主類型再劃分為九次類型。本論文將以語義特徵，例如力傳遞、因果關係和結束點，詳細解析每個低被動化動詞。這項就二語英語中低被動化動詞的類型劃分，不單能夠從語義的角度解析低被動化現象，亦可以用作分析其他與語態有關的二語現象，如泛被動化，以及應用於語言教學。
This dissertation is a lexical semantic study of underpassivized verbs in L2 English. By adopting a verb-oriented and meaning-based approach to underpassivization, this study produces a lexical semantic classification and analysis of frequently underpassivized verbs. A Hong Kong learner corpus is examined in order to determine the nature and extent of underpassivized constructions in L2 English. Based on a set of semantic features of cause-effect transitivity, underpassivization-prone verbs in the corpus are classified into four types, namely 1) Change of position verbs, 2) Tripartite verbs, 3) Dynamic effect verbs and 4) Non-agentive verbs. A total of nine sub-types are identified, and each verb is analyzed according to semantic features such as force transmission, causation, affectedness and telicity. The typology not only provides a lexical semantic account of L2 underpassivization but can also be applied to analyze other voice-related L2 phenomena such as overpassivization and to inform pedagogical practices.
The present study is an initial attempt to apply findings from lexical semantics to the description and explanation of learner errors. Previous studies mainly regard L2 underpassivization as a syntactic phenomenon that can be accounted for using transfer, and argue that L2 underpassivization is the result of the transfer of the topic-comment structure in L1s such as Chinese and Japanese to English (Yip 1995). The transfer theory overlooks the role verb meaning plays in voice-related errors, and is limited in its ability to explain the L2 phenomenon fully. This study investigates underpassivization as a lexical semantic phenomenon, drawing from previous works on proto-roles (Dowty 1991), event structure (Croft 1994) and transitivity (Hopper & Thompson 1980; Tsunoda 1985), and following the tradition in lexical semantics of analyzing verb meaning based on argument alternations (Pinker 1989; Levin 1993). It is believed that when learners underpassivize verbs, they are detransitivizing and decausativizing an originally transitive event. Using the features of cause-effect transitivity, the study shows that reduced transitivity will cause problems for learners in their construal of the event’s cause-effect relation and hence their allocation of thematic roles in the verb’s argument structure, resulting in underpassivization. It is hoped that by focusing on argument structure and event dynamics, this study can offer insights into the impact of verb meaning in the construal of transitivity and the use and misuse of grammatical voice.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Wong, Suzanne Shu-Shan.
Thesis (Ph.D.) Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2014.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 225-235).
Abstracts also in Chinese.
Wong, Suzanne Shu-Shan.

by Jihua Zhou.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1991.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 112-115).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT --- p.i
ABSTRACT --- p.ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS --- p.iii
LIST OF TABLES --- p.vii
LIST OF FIGURES --- p.ix
Chapter CHAPTER 1 --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- Aims and Scope --- p.1
Chapter 1.2 --- Significance --- p.2
Chapter 1.3 --- The Organization of the Study --- p.4
Chapter CHAPTER 2 --- APPROACHES TO THE PASSIVE： LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS AND SOME ACQUISITION ISSUES --- p.5
Chapter 2.0 --- Introduction --- p.5
Chapter 2.1 --- Approaches to the Analysis of the Sentential Passive --- p.6
Chapter 2.1.1 --- The Syntactic Structures and the Aspects Approach --- p.7
Chapter 2.1.2 --- The Lexical Approach --- p.9
Chapter 2.1.3 --- The Modular Approach --- p.10
Chapter 2.1.4 --- Semantic Constraints On Theta-Role Assignment in the Sentential Passive --- p.14
Chapter 2.2 --- The Analyses of the Nominal Passive --- p.16
Chapter 2.3 --- Passive Related Structures --- the Ergative and the Middle --- p.19
Chapter 2.4 --- Empirical Studies on the Passive Acquisition --- p.23
Chapter 2.4.1 --- Studies on L1 acquisition --- p.23
Chapter 2.4.1.1 --- Maratsos et al. (1985) --- p.23
Chapter 2.4.1.2 --- Pinker et al. (1987) --- p.26
Chapter 2.4.1.3 --- Gordon and Chafetz (1990) --- p.29
Chapter 2.4.2 --- Studies on L2 passive acquisition --- p.31
Chapter 2.4.2.1 --- Zhou (1989) --- p.31
Chapter 2.4.2.2 --- Zobl (1989) --- p.32
Chapter 2.5 --- Acquisition Issues --- p.34
Chapter CHAPTER 3 --- RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURE --- p.39
Chapter 3.0 --- Introduction --- p.39
Chapter 3.1 --- Research Hypotheses --- p.40
Chapter 3.2 --- Subjects --- p.43
Chapter 3.3 --- Test Design --- p.44
Chapter 3.3.1 --- Test1 --- p.44
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Test2 --- p.46
Chapter 3.3.3 --- Test3 --- p.48
Chapter 3.3.4 --- Test4 --- p.50
Chapter 3.4 --- Test Procedure and Test Scoring --- p.51
Chapter CHAPTER 4 --- RESULTS --- p.54
Chapter 4.1 --- Results of Test1 --- p.55
Chapter 4.1.1 --- Learners' Sensitivity to the Conditions for NP-Movement Is Relatively Low --- p.57
Chapter 4.1.2 --- Context-dependence of Learners' Sensitivity to the Requirements of Case Theory --- p.60
Chapter 4.1.3 --- Learners' Sensitivity to NP-Movement in Sentences with or without the by-phrase --- p.64
Chapter 4.1.4. --- Learners' Sensitivity to NP-Movement is Related to the Actionality of the Verb --- p.66
Chapter 4.2 --- Results of Test2 --- p.68
Chapter 4.2.1 --- The Interpretation of Thematic Roles --- p.68
Chapter 4.2.2 --- The Acceptability of Thematic Role Pairs Violating THC --- p.71
Chapter 4.2.3 --- The Thematic Interpretation of the Subject --- p.73
Chapter 4.3 --- Results of Test3 --- p.76
Chapter 4.3.1 --- Lower Sensitivity to NP-Movement in Nominal Passives --- p.79
Chapter 4.3.2 --- Learners' Performance on Some Other Aspects of the Nominal Passive --- p.80
Chapter 4.4 --- Results of Test4 --- p.83
Chapter 4.5 --- Summary --- p.90
Chapter CHAPTER 5 --- DISCUSSION --- p.92
Chapter 5.1 --- The Availability of UG Principles in the Acquisition of the Passive Structure --- p.92
Chapter 5. 2 --- Affectedness Constraint Posing a Very Difficult Learning Problem --- p.98
Chapter 5.3 --- The Passive Related Structures and Learnability Issues --- p.101
Chapter CHAPTER 6 --- CONCLUSION --- p.107
REFERENCES --- p.112
APPENDICES --- p.116

The study aims to investigate how deaf learners with impoverished linguistic input in early life acquire Chinese passives and to what extent it impacts their ultimate attainment of the target structures defined in terms of knowledge representations and processing efficiency. While research on how deaf learners acquire syntactic movement remains scanty, available evidence with English, Hebrew, Arabic and Italian as target languages suggests difficulty in acquiring structures derived by A’-movement generally invoked in object relative clauses, object questions, and OVS topicalizations (Friedmann & Szterman,2006, 2011; Friedmann & Haddad,2008; Volpato & Adani, 2009; etc.).
In this study, we focused on Chinese passives because they involve non-canonical word order (i.e. O-BEI-(S)-V) as well as long distance dependencies. To account for the base-generated NP which is associated with the object of the embedded VP of Chinese bei-passives, Huang(1999) and Huang et al. (2009) argue for A-movement of PROin short bei-passives and A’-movement of a null operator in long bei-passives, assuming that the empty category merges with the embedded V in Chinese bei-passives and is subsequently coindexed with the grammatical subject through control or predication. Semantically, canonical Chinese passives are said to impose constraints on verb transitivity (Huang, 2013),and under some specific conditions, telicity of the embedded VP(Yang, 1995; Yang, 2012), the latter of which usually requires specific verb complement structures.
Three experiments were designed to investigate these issues.The picture selection task investigated how deaf learners developed knowledge of syntactic derivations involved in long bei-passives and short bei-passives; the grammaticality judgment task tested whether deaf learners acquired knowledge that intransitive verbs, like unaccusative and unergative verbs, are not allowed in canonical Chinese passives; and lastly,the elicited production task investigated deaf learners’ production of verb complements targeted in this study, namely activity-resultative complement [V+R], activity-completive complement [V+C], and activity-locative/directional complement [V+L], as it has been argued by Yang (1995) and Yang (2012) that these verb complements encode a telic event. In addition to examining their knowledge of Chinese passives, we also measured their response time in the first two tasks as a means to examine their efficiency in processing the structures in question.
Thirty five deaf learners aged between 14 and 24 took part in the current study. They were divided into three groups based on levels of Chinese proficiency. From the perspective of knowledge representations, their acquisition outcomes were highly variable, unlike the first language acquirers but similar to second language learners. In general, only those deaf learners at Level 3 completely acquired the syntactic derivations involved in passives while a great majority of the deaf learners at Levels 1 and 2 failed to demonstrate full mastery of the relevant linguistic structures. In addition, about half of the deaf learners at Levels 1 and 2 failed to recognize the verb transitivity constraint of the embedded VP in Chinese bei-passives, as they wrongly judged the passives with an intransitive verb to be grammatical. As for the knowledge of encoding telicity using verb complement structures, deaf learners at all levels experienced much difficulty and resorted to adopting the perfective aspect marker ‘le’ instead. Such difficulty persisted for a long time, as even deaf university students failed to acquire such knowledge ultimately, implying that verb complement structures for encoding a telic eventmight become a vulnerable residual domain to deaf learners in acquisition terms.
In terms of types of passives, the results showed that they developed Chinese passives in the order pseudo passives > short bei-passives > long bei-passives, similar to the Mandarin-speaking children, albeit at a slower rate (Xu & Yang, 2008).Also, deaf learners found it easy to acquire A-movement of an overt NP in pseudo passives. However, they experienced much difficulty with short passives and long passives. We argue that the cause of such difficulty is the syntactic movement which in this case involves an empty category (i.e. PRO and NOP) that needs to be coindexed with the grammatical subject in order to yield a correct interpretation regarding the thematic role of the subject NP.The extremely late acquisition of long bei-passives, as we argue, shares a similar acquisition process involved in first language acquisition of English tough constructions (Guasti, 2002; Anderson, 2005; Wexler, 2012; etc.). In their analysis, the late acquisition might be due to maturation of the null operator or Universal Phase Requirement that holds among children whose developing grammar takes the aP (i.e. the adjective Phrase as in ‘Everyone is tough for us to please.’) in the tough constructions to bea phase, preventing T from probing beyond the edge of aP leaving the phi-features of T remain unchecked.
Another aspect of ultimate attainment as measured in the current study is response time used by the deaf learners to process the relevant linguistic structures. Results showed that deaf learners’computational capacities are highly constrained. Even deaf university students who performed just as well as the native controls on the comprehension and judgement of linguistic knowledge of passives still demonstrated low processing efficiency. It is suggested that impoverished linguistic input in the early years, as well as continually inadequate input impedes language acquisition and language processing.
本文旨在研究聋人在早期语言输入贫乏的环境下如何获得汉语被动式，以及它在何种程度上影响聋人目标语的最终获得状态，包括语言知识的呈现(knowledge representations) 和语言处理的效率(processing efficiency)。长期以来，关于聋人如何获得句法移位(syntactic movement)的研究极少，现有的研究主要来自英语，希伯来语，阿拉伯语和意大利语，并且发现聋人在获得通过非论元移位(A’-movement)派生而来的语法结构时存在许多困难，如宾语关系子句(object relative clause)，宾语疑问句(object questions)，以及宾语位于句首的话题句(OVS topicalizations) (Friedmann & Szterman, 2006, 2011; Friedmann et al., 2008; Volpato & Adani, 2009; etc.)。
研究聋人汉语被动式的获得，不仅因为被动式的非典型语序(i.e. O-BEI-(S)-V)，还因为汉语长短被动句句式中蕴含的长距离依赖关系。Huang (1999)和Huang et al. (2009)提出汉语短被动句的生成源自大代词(PRO)的论元移位(A-movement)，长被动句的生成源自空算子(null operator)的非论元移位(A’-movement)，通过移位，这两个空语类通过控制(control)或述谓(predication)与长短被动句中基础生成的(base-generated)主语同指。从语义的角度来看，典型的汉语被动式内嵌动词短语(embedded VP)具有及物性(transitivity)(Huang, 2013)；而且在某些特定语境下，还需具有终结性(telicity)，终结性的表达往往通过特定的动词补足语结构(verb complement structures)(Yang, 1995; Yang, 2012)。
为探讨以上问题，我们设计了三个实验：图片选择任务(picture selection task)旨在探讨聋人如何获得长被动句和短被动句中蕴含的不同句法移位；语法判断任务(grammaticality judgment task)用于测试聋人是否获得典型汉语被动式不允许不及物动词的知识；最后，诱导产出任务(elicited production task)用于研究聋人被动式中动词补足语的使用，以及他们是否能够掌握通过补足语来表达状态或位置的改变，从而满足被动式的终结性特征。该任务中涉及的动词与补足语的结合类型包括：“活动动词-结果类补足语(activity-resultative complement)” [V+R]，“活动动词-完成类补足语(activity-completive complement)” [V+C]，以及“活动动词-方位词/方向性短语(activity-locative/directional complement)”[V+L]。除此以外，我们还测量聋人在图片选择和语法判断这两个任务中的反应时长，以考察聋人加工处理汉语被动式的效率。
35位14岁到24岁的聋人参与了该研究，并且通过汉语水平测试分数将他们分到三个不同的组别。从掌握语言知识的角度来看，聋人汉语被动式的获得表现出高度的多样性，虽然不同于一语学习者，但与二语学习者相似。简言之，只有高级组(Level 3)的聋人才完全掌握汉语被动式的句法生成，大部分初级组(Level 1)和中级组(Level 2)的聋人都未能完全掌握相关的语言知识。另外，将近一半的初级组和中级组的聋人尚未获得汉语被动式中内嵌动词及物性的要求，他们错误地认为汉语被动句中使用不及物动词是合语法的。最后，关于被动句内嵌动词短语使用各类动词补足语来表达终结性，所有组别的聋人普遍遇到困难，并且用完成体标记‘了’来替代。这种困难一直持续很长时间，即使是聋人大学生都未能系统完整地获得，意味着使用各类动词补足语来表达终结性可能是缺乏早期语言输入的聋人学习汉语被动式最终难以完全获得的。
关于不同类型汉语被动句的获得，结果显示聋人获得的先后顺序与健听儿童一致(Xu & Yang, 2008)，即：假被动句(pseudo passives) > 短被动句> 长被动句。整体而言，假被动句中显现成分(overt element)的论元移位对聋人来说比较容易获得；但是，他们在获得长被动句和短被动句的句法移位，以及正确解读空算子或大代词与句子主语的共指方面存在许多困难。对于长被动句的最迟获得，我们认为这与以英语为母语的儿童延迟获得‘tough-句式’类似(Guasti, 2002; Anderson, 2005; Wexler, 2012; etc.)，有可能因为空算子的成熟(the maturation of null operator)要到6至7岁，或者是未成熟儿童坚持普遍阶段要求(Universal Phase Requirement)，而导致句法生成受阻。
本研究所定义的最终获得的另一方面即加工处理相关语言结构所用反应时长。结果显示聋人的加工处理能力高度受限，即使是较好地获得了汉语被动句相关知识的聋人大学生依然表现出较低效率的加工处理能力。这些研究结果表明早期贫乏的语言输入以及随之的不充足语言输入都会阻碍语言的最终获得及加工处理的效率。
Li, Qun.
Thesis M.Phil. Chinese University of Hong Kong 2015.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 245-253).
Abstracts also in Chinese.
Title from PDF title page (viewed on 09, September, 2016).
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.

Wong Shee-hei.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2002.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 173-181).
Abstracts in English and Chinese.
List of Abbreviations --- p.iii
List of Tables and Figures --- p.v
Abstract
-English --- p.vii
-Chinese --- p.iv
Chapter Chapter One: --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter 1.1. --- An Overview --- p.1
Chapter 1.1.1 --- Reasons for the Study --- p.2
Chapter 1.2. --- Previous Research --- p.7
Chapter 1.2.1. --- Studies on the Acquisition of Chinese as Second Language --- p.8
Chapter 1.2.2. --- Studies on the Acquisition of English Passives by ESL learners --- p.12
Chapter 1.2.3. --- Studies on the English L2 Overpassivization Errors ´ؤ Passivization of Unaccusative Verbs by ESL --- p.14
Chapter 1.3. --- Theories of Interlanguage --- p.19
Chapter 1.3.1. --- Prior Linguistic Knowledge and Language Transfer --- p.19
Chapter 1.3.2. --- Language Universals and Universal Grammar --- p.22
Chapter 1.4. --- Research Question of the Present Study --- p.24
Chapter 1.5. --- Preview of Other Chapters --- p.24
Notes to Chapter One --- p.25
Chapter Chapter Two: --- Passive Constructions and Related Structures in Chinese and English --- p.27
Chapter 2.0. --- Introduction --- p.27
Chapter 2.1. --- Chinese Passives --- p.29
Chapter 2.1.1. --- Chinese Bei-passives --- p.32
Chapter 2.1.1.1. --- Some Characteristics of Chinese Bei-passives --- p.35
Chapter 2.2. --- English Passives --- p.41
Chapter 2.2.1. --- English Be-passives --- p.42
Chapter 2.2.2. --- Get/Have-passives in English --- p.44
Chapter 2.3. --- Structures related to Passives --- p.46
Chapter 2.3.1. --- Topic Structures --- p.46
Chapter 2.3.1.1. --- Topic-comment Structure in Chinese --- p.47
Chapter 2.3.1.2. --- Topic Structure in English --- p.50
Chapter 2.3.2. --- Unaccusative Verbs --- p.50
Chapter 2.3.2.1. --- Chinese Unaccusative Construction --- p.53
Chapter 2.3.2.2. --- English Unaccusative Construction --- p.56
Chapter 2.3.2.3 --- Japanese Unaccusative Construction --- p.58
Chapter 2.4. --- Conclusion and Interlanguage Problems Predicted --- p.60
Notes to Chapter Two --- p.62
Chapter Chapter Three: --- Methodology --- p.64
Chapter 3.1. --- Aims of the Experiment --- p.64
Chapter 3.2. --- Research Hypotheses --- p.65
Chapter 3.3. --- Subjects in the Experiment --- p.68
Chapter 3.4. --- Types of the Test Structures --- p.70
Chapter 3.5. --- Experiment Materials --- p.75
Chapter 3.5.1. --- The Picture Description (PD) Task --- p.75
Chapter 3.5.2. --- The Grammaticality Judgment (GJ) Task --- p.77
Chapter 3.6. --- Experimental Procedure and Test Scoring --- p.83
Notes to Chapter Three --- p.84
Chapter Chapter Four: --- Results of the Experiment --- p.85
Chapter 4.1. --- Overall Results --- p.85
Chapter 4.1.1. --- The Picture Description (PD) Task --- p.86
Chapter 4.1.2. --- The Grammaticality Judgment (GJ) Task --- p.101
Chapter 4.2. --- English-speaking Learners verse Controls --- p.119
Chapter 4.3. --- Japanese-speaking Learners verse Controls --- p.125
Chapter 4.4. --- Possible Shortcomings of the Experiment --- p.126
Chapter 4.4. --- Conclusion --- p.127
Notes to Chapter Four --- p.128
Chapter Chapter Five: --- Discussion and Conclusions --- p.129
Chapter 5.1. --- The Research Questions and Hypotheses --- p.129
Chapter 5.2. --- A Summary of the Findings in the PD Task --- p.131
Chapter 5.3. --- A Summary of the Findings in the GJ Task --- p.132
Chapter 5.4. --- Some Important Issues --- p.133
Chapter 5.4.1. --- Evidence of Ll Transfer --- p.133
Chapter 5.4.2. --- Overpassivization of Chinese Unaccusative Verbs and the Universality of Overpassivization Phenomenon in IL Grammar --- p.136
Chapter 5.4.3. --- Further Difficulties in the Acquisition of Chinese Passives and Related Structures --- p.139
Chapter 6.5. --- Conclusions --- p.140
Chapter 6.6. --- Suggestions for Further Studies --- p.142
Appendices --- p.145
References --- p.173

Research demonstrating the beneficial effects of corrective feedback (CF) for second language (L2) learning (e,g., Li, 2010) has almost invariably resulted from studies in which CF was provided immediately. Yet teachers are often encouraged to delay CF to avoid interrupting learners (Harmer, 2001). This study investigates how differences in the timing of CF on oral production affect L2 learning and learners’ reactions to CF. Theoretically, Immediate CF may facilitate L2 development by allowing learners to immediately compare their errors to accurate models (i.e., recasting, e.g., Doughty, 2001). The effectiveness of Immediate CF has also been linked to skill acquisition theory because some CF (i.e., prompting) is hypothesized to help learners proceduralize their L2 knowledge (Ranta & Lyster, 2007). This thesis introduces additional theoretical explanations to explain the effectiveness of both Immediate and Delayed CF. For example, reactivation and reconsolidation theory (Nader & Einarsson, 2010) holds that long-term mental representations are susceptible to change when they are recalled. Thus, both Immediate and Delayed CF may help learners alter their incorrect mental representations of language features if that CF reminds learners of those incorrect representations and provides them with accurate models. In a laboratory-based study, 90 intermediate-level adult ESL learners were randomly assigned to Immediate, Delayed, and No CF conditions. Learners took three pre-tests to measure their knowledge of the English passive construction: an aural grammaticality judgment test (AGJT), an oral production test (OPT), and a written error correction test (ECT). Next, they received some brief instruction on the passive. Learners then completed three communicative tasks in which the CF conditions were provided. These tasks were followed by immediate and delayed post-tests. Learners’ reactions to CF were elicited with a questionnaire. Mixed-design one-way ANOVAs revealed statistically significant improvement for all conditions over time on all measures, but no statistically significant differences between conditions. The questionnaires revealed that learners prefer Immediate CF, but that Immediate CF may constrain CF noticeability and learners’ independence, while Delayed CF may cause anxiety or embarrassment. In summary, altering the timing of CF did not differentially affect L2 development, but it did elicit different reactions from learners.

Dissertação de Mestrado em Português como Língua Estrangeira e Língua Segunda (PLELS) apresentada à Faculdade de Letras
A presente dissertação tem como objetivo central o estudo do modo como se processa e consolida a aquisição/aprendizagem da voz passiva em português como língua estrangeira (PLE) por aprendentes polacos de diferentes níveis de proficiência. Para tal, partiu-se da análise de respostas dadas por estes a questionários que testaram os contextos verbais e argumentais que admitem diátese passiva em português e os verbos auxiliares que aí são usados.O objetivo específico deste trabalho é apurar, tendo em conta as regras de construção e uso da voz passiva em português, i) quais os comportamentos linguísticos e metalinguísticos dos aprendentes polacos no domínio das estruturas passivas em português; ii) quais as caraterísticas sintáticas e semânticas dos núcleos verbais passivos em português que suscitam maiores dificuldades aos aprendentes polacos; iii) se essas dificuldades são resultado de fenómenos de transferência ou decorrem da complexidade intrínseca desta estrutura.Deste modo, partindo da definição de conceito de interlíngua proposto por Larry Selinker (1972) e das caraterísticas da voz passiva em português descritas nos trabalhos de Duarte & Oliveira (2010) e Duarte (2013), procedemos à análise detalhada das respostas aos estímulos presentes nos questionários preenchidos por aprendentes polacos que, entre outubro de 2018 e junho de 2019, aprendiam português na Universidade Jaguelónia, de Cracóvia, e por um grupo de controlo, constituído por falantes nativos que em maio de 2019 frequentavam o ensino universitário. Assim, as correlações estabelecidas entre os tipos respostas obtidas nos questionários e o nível de proficiência dos aprendentes polacos permitem concluir que: i) em todos os níveis de proficiência analisados foram encontradas respostas desviantes relativamente à língua alvo (LA); ii) os aprendentes polacos mostram dificuldade em reconhecer que frases ativas com verbos transitivos estativos não admitem diátese passiva; iii) observa se uma tendência para aceitar a expressão do agente da passiva em frases passivas adjetivais resultativas. A observação dos dados obtidos junto dos informantes nativos permite ainda avançar com a hipótese de que muitos dos problemas identificados se correlacionam com a complexidades inerente à voz passiva.
This research has as its main aims the perception of how the acquisition/learning of passive voice in Portuguese as a foreign language (PFL) by polish leaners of different levels of proficiency is consolidated, based on answers given by them to questionnaires that have test verbal and argumental contexts that admit passive diasthesis and the choice of passive auxiliary verbs of Portuguese in different situations. The specific aims of this work is to determine, taking into account the rules of construction and use of passive voice in Portuguese, i) what are the linguistic and metalinguistic behaviors of Polish learners in the domain of passive structures in Portuguese; ii) which are the syntactic and semantic characteristics of passive verbal nuclei in Portuguese that cause difficulties for Polish learners; iii) whether these difficulties result from transfer phenomena or come from the intrinsic complexity of this structure.Starting from the definition of interlanguage concept proposed by Larry Selinker (1972) and the characteristics of the passive voice in Portuguese according to the proposals and works of Duarte & Oliveira (2010) and Duarte (2013), we carried out the analysis of the answers to the stimuli present in the questionnaires that were filled by Polish learners who between October 2018 and June 2019 learned Portuguese at the Jagiellonian University of Krakow and a control group, made up of native speakers who in May 2019 attended the Portuguese higher education system.The correlations established between the types of answers obtained in the questionnaires and the level of proficiency of Polish learners allow us to conclude that: i) at all levels of proficiency analyzed deviant answers were found in relation to the target language (TL); ii) Polish learners find it difficult to recognize that sentences with transitive stative verbs do not allow passive diathesis; iii) there is a tendency to accept the expression of the passive agent in resultative passive. Observing the data obtained from native speakers also allows us to advance the hypothesis that many of the identified problems correlate with the complexities inherent in passive voice.