Journal articles on the topic 'Indiana and Ohio Rail System'

This paper compares the changes experienced by transit systems in two state capitals of similar size: Columbus, Ohio, and Sacramento, California. Over the past two decades, Sacramento added a light rail transit (LRT) starter line and experienced significant ridership growth on its multimodal rail and bus system, while Columbus remained all-bus and experienced a decline in patronage. Reasons underlying the divergent performances of these two systems are analyzed and discussed. It is concluded that, in Sacramento, willing political leadership took good advantage of a one-time opportunity for federal funding to build an LRT starter line; that adding LRT made transit more visible and effective and encouraged voter approval of additional local operating and capital funding; and that all of this resulted in a synergy that attracted more riders to the total LRT and bus transit system and led to extension of the rail system to a third corridor in 2003. Although planning for LRT was begun in Columbus during these same years, a serious interruption in the flow of local funds hampered transit development, required cuts in bus service, and prevented development of that region's planned LRT line. Columbus currently has an LRT project in preliminary engineering, and recent reports suggest a consensus to proceed may be emerging.

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum coccodes) is the major fungal disease affecting processing tomato fruit in the midwestern United States. Currently available disease management strategies evaluated for controlling anthracnose fruit rot (AFR) on processing tomatoes include genetic resistance and the fungicide chlorothalonil applied according to conventional schedules or a disease-forecasting system (Tom-Cast). Experimental field plots were established in West Lafayette, Indiana, and East Lansing, Michigan, in 1993 to 1995. Chlorothalonil was applied every 7, 10, or 14 days or according to Tom-Cast with a threshold of 20 disease severity values, and was not applied to the control. In Michigan, Phytophthora infestans (1993) and C. coccodes (1993 to 1994) caused 91.8% (1993) and 30.7% (1994) fruit rot in the unsprayed plot. In Indiana, C. coccodes caused 69.8% (1993) and 39.0% (1994) AFR in the unsprayed plot. In 1995, Ohio 8245 (Michigan and Indiana), considered to be less prone to anthracnose, and Ohio 7814 were integrated into the conventional and Tom-Cast—prompted spray programs. Cultivar did not affect the incidence of AFR or foliar blight caused by Septoria lycopersici and Alternaria solani in either location. In 1993 and 1994, chlorothalonil applied at 10-day intervals in Indiana resulted in the highest benefit per hectare (BPH) and return per fungicide dollar (RPFD). In 1995, the highest BPH and RPFD resulted from chlorothalonil applied every 14 days to Ohio 8245 (Michigan). Chlorothalonil applied according to the Tom-Cast program resulted in a level of AFR that was generally not statistically different from the 7-day treatment but was high enough to result in crop rejection and high economic loss in 2 of the 3 years the study was conducted. Based on data from this study, it is not commercially feasible to grow processing tomatoes in Michigan and Indiana without chlorothalonil to protect against AFR even when a resistant cultivar is used.

The Buena Vista Member of the Mississippian Cuyahoga Formation is an economically valuable freestone that is homogeneous with almost no sedimentary structures. The Buena Vista was one of the earliest clastic rocks quarried in Ohio. Early quarries dating at least back to 1814 were located in the hills on the north bank of the Ohio River near the village of Buena Vista, south-central Ohio. By the 1830s, quarries had also opened up along the route of the Ohio & Erie Canal in the Portsmouth area to the east; followed by quarries that opened along a railway line that ran north up the Scioto River valley. Waterways transported the Buena Vista to many cities and towns, including Cincinnati, Ohio, Louisville, Kentucky, and Evansville, Indiana, on the Ohio River, New Orleans on the Mississippi River, and Dayton and Columbus on the Ohio canal system. Later railways transported this stone further afield to Illinois, Wisconsin, and Alberta. Census reports, industry magazines, and other historical accounts document the use of this stone across much of the eastern US and into Canada. Historically, it has been used for a variety of items, including entire buildings, canal structures, fence posts, and laundry tubs. Some 19th-century structures built with this stone remain in cities where it was once commonly used. Literature reviews, field observations, and lab analyses are here compiled as a useful reference to both the urban and field geologist in the identification of the Buena Vista Member, a historically important building stone, in buildings and outcrops, respectively.

A multicell cluster of thunderstorms moved into northern Indiana during the early afternoon hours of 29 June 2012, later evolving into a mature bowing mesoscale convective system (MCS) by the time it exited the County Warning Area of the Northern Indiana National Weather Service. This was the beginning of a derecho that would continue across the Appalachian Mountains and off the Atlantic coast, traveling 1000 km in 10 h and resulting in at least 18 fatalities. This derecho produced a measured wind gust of 41 m s-1 (79 kt) at Fort Wayne International Airport, the highest measured gust along the derecho’s path. The mesoscale environment was characterized by a strong cold pool, extreme instability (including near-record steep midlevel lapse rates), and weak to moderate vertical shear. This paper examines the source of this extreme environment as well as the catalyst for the sustainability of the MCS.

Based on joint efforts by the Williams County Historical Society and the Laboratories of Ethnoarchaeology at the University of Toledo, thirty-six new sites, including six Western Basin Tradition ceramic sites, have been documented in the tri-state region of northeastern Indiana, northwestern Ohio, and south-central Michigan. Also, data collected from throughout the Western Lake Erie region since 1984 has necessitated several revisions in the 1984 settlement-subsistence model proposed for the Late Woodland Western Basin Tradition populations, ca. 1000–1300 A.D. (Stothers, Graves, and Redmond, 1984). Key changes involve the relative sizes of functionally different site types that form component parts of a larger settlement system, a lack of formal village life, and a new perspective on seasonal patterns of population coalescence and dispersal.

To prevent collisions between trains and objects on the railway line, rugged trains require an intelligent rail protection system. To improve railway safety and reduce the number of accidents, studies are underway. Machine learning (ML) had progressed rapidly, creating new perspectives on the subject. A technique called speed up robust features (SURF) is proposed by researchers to collect regionally and globally relevant information. In addition, taking advantage of the Ohio State University (OSU) heat walker benchmarking dataset, the effectiveness of this technique was examined under various lighting scenarios. This technology could help in reducing train accident rates and financial costs. The findings of the proposed methodology are very specific, in addition to the ability to quickly identify items (obstacles) on the railway line, both of which contribute to rail security. The proposed faster region based convolutional neural network (FR-CNN) with 2D singular spectrum analysis (SSA) improves the performance analysis of an accuracy of 90.2%, recall 95.6% and precision 94.6% when compared with an existing system YOLOv2 and YOLOv5 with 2D SSA.

In recent years, there has been a surge in research that examines the relationship between traumatic brain injury (TBI) and involvement in the criminal justice system. However, the bulk of this research has been largely retrospective and descriptive, comparing rates of TBI in the offending population with the rates of TBI in the general population. Although findings from these studies indicate a higher prevalence of TBI in the offending population, virtually no studies have examined whether those with TBI are more likely to recidivate. To address this gap, the present study examined rearrest post release from prison among a cohort sample of Indiana inmates who were screened using the Ohio State University Traumatic Brain Injury Identification (OSU-TBI-ID) instrument. Findings indicate that, net of control variables, those with TBI were more likely to recidivate sooner than those without TBI. Policy implications and directions for future research are discussed.

AbstractThis study examines the frequency of daily rainfall totals greater than 2.54 cm (1 in.) averaged within a climate division (CD) associated with tropical systems that moved through the U.S. eastern Corn Belt region during the growing season. These occurrences are defined as “events.” From 1913 to 2012, the tracks of 60 tropical systems moved over a study area that included 24 CDs—9 in Illinois, 9 in Indiana, and 6 in western Ohio. Of those 60 tropical systems, 37 were associated with events. Event risk varied through the growing season ranging from 3 events in June to 21 events in September. Decadal analysis showed an increase in the frequency of tropical systems and events during the last decade of the study (2003–12). Tropical systems were infrequent, and the timing of rainfall associated with the majority of events (i.e., September) was too late to impact corn and soybean development or yield in this region. Events had some impact on current and subsequent CD average soil moisture conditions; however, only 8 of the 37 events produced dramatic improvements in Palmer drought severity index (PDSI) values from categorical moderate to severe drought levels to near-normal conditions in the eastern Corn Belt. Those CDs that experienced a September or October event were associated with significantly higher PDSI values (+1.34) prior to the following summer than those that did not experience an event (+0.54).

Pavement warranty is an innovative contracting procedure increasingly adopted by highway agencies. Many states view implementing warranties as a way to protect their investment in pavement construction. The major benefit of pavement warranty is enhanced pavement performance. However, establishing warranty criteria and monitoring the performance of warranted pavement are two technical issues that must be resolved. This paper presents the discoveries of a research project supported by FHWA to investigate the effectiveness of using the pavement management system (PMS) to monitor the performance of pavement under warranty. It has been discovered that most states establish their warranty specifications on the basis of performance data from their PMS database by using statistical analyses, expert opinions, and adaptation of other states’ specifications. They also use the PMS data to monitor the performance of both warranty and nonwarranty pavements because the essential data, like ride, cracking, and rutting, are available in the database and are convenient for use. This paper also documents the unique features of the warranty specifications, including the warranty period, performance indicators, data collection methods, performance thresholds, remedial actions, and how the PMS database can be used to track the performance of pavements under warranty in five states: Indiana, Wisconsin, Ohio, Florida, and Michigan. Some comparisons of the performances of the warranted pavements and those of nonwarranted pavements of similar conditions are also presented. The survey indicated that an integrated PMS that links the materials and traffic database would offer better efficiency to monitor and analyze the performance of both warranty and nonwarranty pavements.

Eight Midwestern states united in creating a first-of-its-kind regional Truck Parking Information Management System (TPIMS) to reduce the incidence of commercial truck drivers injuring themselves and other drivers due to fatigue-related crashes and unauthorized parking along the interstate highways. The core intelligent transportation system technologies used for the TPIMS are not complex. They involve monitoring available parking at authorized public and private truck facilities in real time and then relaying the information to truck drivers and dispatchers through roadside dynamic truck parking signs, mobile applications, and state traveler information websites such as 511 services. Deployment of a regional project across multiple agencies and state lines is a complex operation, however, especially in the need to accommodate the organizational, policy, and technology needs and preferences of the eight partner states (Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Kansas, the lead agency for the $25 million federal TIGER grant which underwrites much of the initiative). This paper explores the lessons learned in developing and implementing a complex, multi-jurisdictional technology initiative as it nears full operational status in January 2019 and begins producing results which are expected to reduce crashes while improving the efficiency and profitability of the regional freight system. The paper also highlights how those lessons can be more broadly applied to major multi-jurisdictional transportation projects of all kinds.

A Weather Research and Forecasting Model (WRF)-based ensemble data assimilation system is used to produce storm-scale analyses and forecasts of the 4–5 July 2003 severe mesoscale convective system (MCS) over Indiana and Ohio, which produced numerous high wind reports across the two states. Single-Doppler observations are assimilated into a 36-member, storm-scale ensemble during the developing stage of the MCS with the ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF) approach encoded in the Data Assimilation Research Testbed (DART). The storm-scale ensemble is constructed from mesoscale EnKF analyses produced from the assimilation of routinely available observations from land and marine stations, rawinsondes, and aircraft, in an attempt to better represent the complex mesoscale environment for this event. Three EnKF simulations were performed using the National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) one- and two-moment and Thompson microphysical schemes. All three experiments produce a linear convective segment at the final analysis time, similar to the observed system at 2300 UTC 4 July 2003. The higher-order schemes—in particular, the Thompson scheme—are better able to produce short-range forecasts of both the convective and stratiform components of the observed bowing MCS, and produce the smallest temperature errors when comparing surface observations and dropsonde data to corresponding model data. Only the higher-order microphysical schemes produce any appreciable rear-to-front flow in the stratiform precipitation region that trailed the simulated systems. Forecast performance by the three microphysics schemes is discussed in context of differences in microphysical composition produced in the stratiform precipitation regions of the rearward expanding MCSs.

Abstract The National Wildlife Refuge System (Refuge System) is a collection of public lands maintained by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for migratory birds and other wildlife. Wetlands on individual National Wildlife Refuges (Refuges) may be at risk of increased sedimentation because of land use and water management practices. Increased sedimentation can reduce wetland habitat quality by altering hydrologic function, degrading water quality, and inhibiting growth of vegetation and invertebrates. On Refuges negatively affected by increased sedimentation, managers have to address complex questions about how to best remediate and mitigate the negative effects. The best way to account for these complexities is often not clear. On other Refuges, managers may not know whether sedimentation is a problem. Decision makers in the Refuge System may need to allocate resources to studying which Refuges could be at risk. Such analyses would help them understand where to direct support for managing increased sedimentation. In this paper, we summarize a case study demonstrating the use of decision-analytic tools in the development of a sedimentation management plan for Agassiz National Wildlife Refuge, Minnesota. Using what we learned from that process, we surveyed other Refuges in U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Region 3 (an area encompassing the states of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, and Wisconsin) and Region 6 (an area encompassing the states of Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming) about whether they experience sediment-related impacts to management. Our results show that cases of management being negatively affected by increased sedimentation are not isolated. We suggest that the Refuge System conduct a comprehensive and systematic assessment of increased sedimentation among Refuges to understand the importance of sedimentation in context with other management problems that Refuges face. The results of such an assessment could guide how the Refuge System allocates resources to studying and managing widespread stressors.

A field study was conducted in 2014 and 2015 in Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Tennessee, Wisconsin, and Missouri to determine the effects of tillage system and herbicide program on season-long emergence ofAmaranthusspecies in glufosinate-resistant soybean. The tillage systems evaluated were deep tillage (fall moldboard plow followed by (fb) one pass with a field cultivator in the spring), conventional tillage (fall chisel plow fb one pass with a field cultivator in the spring), minimum tillage (one pass of a vertical tillage tool in the spring), and no-tillage (PRE application of paraquat). Each tillage system also received one of two herbicide programs; PRE application of flumioxazin (0.09 kg ai ha–1) fb a POST application of glufosinate (0.59 kg ai ha−1) plusS-metolachlor (1.39 kg ai ha–1), or POST-only applications of glufosinate (0.59 kg ha−1). The deep tillage system resulted in a 62, 67, and 73% reduction inAmaranthusemergence when compared to the conventional, minimum, and no-tillage systems, respectively. The residual herbicide program also resulted in an 87% reduction inAmaranthusspecies emergence compared to the POST-only program. The deep tillage system, combined with the residual program, resulted in a 97% reduction inAmaranthusspecies emergence when compared to the minimum tillage system combined with the POST-only program, which had the highestAmaranthusemergence. Soil cores taken prior to planting and herbicide application revealed that only 28% of theAmaranthusseed in the deep tillage system was placed within the top 5-cm of the soil profile compared to 79, 81, and 77% in the conventional, minimum, and no-tillage systems. Overall, the use of deep tillage with a residual herbicide program provided the greatest reduction inAmaranthusspecies emergence, thus providing a useful tool in managing herbicide-resistantAmaranthusspecies where appropriate.

AbstractIt is shown here that improvements in numerical weather prediction (NWP) model forecasts of hazardous weather can be obtained by assimilating profile retrievals obtained in real time from combined direct broadcast system (DBS) polar satellite hyperspectral and geostationary satellite multispectral radiance data. Results of NWP model forecasts are shown for two recent tornado outbreak cases: 1) the 3 March 2019 tornado outbreak over the southeast United States and 2) the tornado outbreak that occurred across Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio during the night of 27 May and the morning of 28 May 2019, and 3) the 4 March 2019 severe precipitation event that occurred in southeast China. Improvements in both quantitative precipitation forecasts (QPFs) and predictions of the location of tornado occurrence are obtained. It is also shown that geostationary satellite hyperspectral soundings [i.e., Fengyun-4A (FY-4A) Geosynchronous Interferometric Infrared Sounder (GIIRS)] further improve hazardous precipitation forecasts when used, in addition to the combined polar hyperspectral and geostationary multispectral satellite profile data, to initialize the numerical forecast model. The lowest false alarm rate (FAR) and the highest probability of detection (POD) and critical success index (CSI) scores are achieved when assimilating atmospheric profile retrievals obtained by combining all the available satellite high-vertical-resolution hyperspectral radiance measurements with geostationary satellite high-spatial-resolution and high-temporal-resolution multispectral radiance measurements.

Physiological disorders affect both the appearance and nutritional quality of processing tomatoes intended for whole-peel and diced products. The cause of color disorders, such as yellow shoulder disorder (YSD), involves an interaction between plant genotype and the environment. Soil factors that correlate with the incidence of YSD are soil K, K:Mg ratios, organic matter, and phosphorus. Fields with an organic matter above 3.5% have a lower incidence of YSD. Progress in developing an integrated crop management system that growers and processors can use to profitably improve quality and nutritional value while reducing color disorders of tomato has been made. Decision tools for managing color disorders have been developed. Varieties of tomato differ in their susceptibility to color disorders; thus, variety use may offer growers a strategy to manage fields with low potassium, phosphorus, or low organic matter. Soil K application through drip irrigation was effective when applied at full bloom when the plants were most actively growing. Trials conducted in Indiana and Ohio during the 2003 and 2004 growing seasons demonstrated that weekly K application as a batch injection or solid application improved fruit color and reduced internal whitening. The effect of K addition is toward improved hue and L (lower values), but that trend is not always statistically significant and variety-specific responses are observed. Environmental factors for this response are explored. Managing this complex color disorder will entail minimizing risk of incidence, rather than preventative or curative applications.

Abstract The June 10, 1987 southeastern Illinois earthquake (mb =5.0) is the largest event to have taken place in the northern midcontinent for 19 years, and is one of only seven events of comparable size to have occurred in this area in the 200-year historical record. The earthquake occurred near a transition zone between the northeast-trending Wabash Valley Fault System and the northwest-trending La Salle flexural belt. The main shock epicenter is positioned 30 km north of the northernmost mapped Wabash Valley faults, and detailed structural mapping in this area documents a systematic decrease in displacement along these faults approaching this termination. Immediately to the northeast of the main shock begins a major northwest-trending late Paleozoic fold structure: the La Salle Anticlinal Belt. This structural feature, marking a major flanking monocline of the Illinois Basin, displays over 750 meters of relief disrupting the lower Paleozoic strata, as well as the Precambrian basement surface. While there is little indication of faulting of the uppermost Paleozoic strata, the sharpness of the relief on the basement and limited seismic reflection data suggest that high-angle basement faulting, down-dropped toward the basin, has occurred beneath the Paleozoic cover. The transition between these two structural regimes may be accompanied by a sharp change in the regional contemporary stress orientation, from east-west compression in northern and central Indiana to north-northeast-trending compression in the Wabash and Ohio River valleys. The earthquake focal mechanism, like that of two other events in the area, indicates a nearly east-west P-axis, paralleling the trend of other contemporary stress indicators. Well constrained depths of aftershocks suggest that the main shock occurred at a depth of 7–11 km, which would place it within the mid-crust, 4–6 km below the top of the Precambrian basement. We propose that the southeastern Illinois event is associated with basement deformation within a complex structural transition zone connecting the two tectonic regimes, rather than the result of reactivation of a simple graben-like extension of the New Madrid Seismic Zone.

Context The documentary film about U.S. education reform, Waiting for “Superman,” was met with acclaim and controversy when released to theaters in 2010, and again when launching its grassroots “host a screening” campaign in 2011. The campaign ran concurrent with 2011 state legislative sessions, during which several states (e.g., Ohio, Indiana, New Jersey, and Wisconsin) voted on education reform bills regarding teacher merit pay, probationary teacher contracts, school vouchers, changes to the school funding formula, charter school funding, and limiting teachers’ (and public workers’) collective bargaining rights—all issues touched on in the film. Purpose To shed light on the relationship between popular media, public opinion, and social action regarding education, I examine responses to Waiting for “Superman” across different viewer demographics and relate responses to educational policy stances. The following research questions are considered: 1. Why did people watch Waiting for “Superman” ? 2. How did different education stakeholders (preservice teachers, current teachers, academics, community members, etc.) react to the film? Were some groups more likely to accept, negotiate with, or oppose the film's message? 3. What role, if any, did the film play in viewers’ stances on education reform or intention to take social action in the education reform movement? Participants Participants include 168 self-selected audience members attending free public film screenings at a midwestern university. Research Design Mixed methods research design compares audiences’ descriptive statistics alongside open-ended survey responses and interview data. Results Viewers were majority young and female. Most attended because they were interested in the topic, wanted to learn more, or came with a friend. Audience responses were complex and nuanced, i.e., 38% volunteered positive reactions to the film and 30% criticized it in some way (not mutually exclusive). Emotional reactions were common (38%). Audience members tended to respond to the film based on their direct prior experience (or lack thereof) with the U.S. public education system. The majority of current teachers in the audience chose not to participate in the study, perhaps because of the contentious political climate. Fifteen percent of audience members were “inspired” to act after viewing, and half of those were preservice teachers, but none were current teachers. Conclusions In vilifying teachers’ unions, thereby marginalizing some great teachers, the film's producers may have missed the chance to effect lasting change in the education system. While potentially polarizing, popular film may be an effective way to engage preservice teachers in complex education topics. Contextualizing discussion with a multiperspective panel afterward is recommended.

North America’s Great Lakes contain 21% of the planet’s fresh water, and their protection is a matter of national security to both the USA & Canada. One of the greatest threats to the health of this unparalleled natural resource is invasion by non-indigenous species, several of which already have had catastrophic impacts on property values, the fisheries, shipping, and tourism industries, and continue to threaten the survival of native species and wetland ecosystems. The Great Lakes Invasives Network is a consortium (20 institutions) of herbaria and zoology museums from among the Great Lakes states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and New York created to better document the occurrence of selected non-indigenous species and their congeners in space and time by imaging and providing online access to the information on the specimens of the critical organisms. The list of non-indigenous species (1 alga, 42 vascular plants, 22 fish, and 13 mollusks) to be digitized was generated by conducting a query of all fish, plants, algae, and mollusks present in the database of GLANSIS – the Great Lakes Aquatic Nonindigenous Species Information System – maintained by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The network consists of collections at 20 institutions, including 4 of the 10 largest herbaria in North America, each of which curates 1-7 million specimens (NY, F, MICH, and WIS). Eight of the nation’s largest zoology museums are also represented, several of which (e.g., Ohio State and U of Minnesota) are internationally recognized for their fish and mollusk collections. Each genus includes at least one species that is considered a Great Lakes non-indigenous taxon – several have many, whereas others have congeners on “watchlists”, meaning that they have not arrived in the Great Lakes Basin yet, but have the potential to do so, especially in light of human activity and climate change. Because the introduction and spread of these species, their close relatives, and hybrids into the region is known to have occurred almost entirely from areas in North America outside of the Basin, our effort will include non-indigenous specimens collected from throughout North America. Digitized specimens of Great Lakes non-indigenous species and their congeners will allow for more accurate identification of invasive species and hybrids from their non-invasive relatives by a wider audience of end users. The metadata derived from digitized specimens of Great Lakes non-indigenous species and their congeners will help biologists to track, monitor, and predict the spread of invasive species through space and time, especially in the face of a more rapidly changing climate in the upper Midwest. All together consortium members will digitize >2 million individual specimens from >860,000 sheets/lots of non-indigenous species and their congeneric taxa. Data and metadata are uploaded to the Great Lakes Invasives Network, a Symbiota portal (GreatLakesInvasvies.org), and ingested by the National Resource for Advancing Digitization of Biodiversity Collections (ADBC) (iDigBio.org) national resource. Several initiatives are already in place to alert citizens to the dangers of spreading aquatic invasive species among our nation's waterways, but this project is developing complementary scientific and educational tools for scientists, students, wildlife officers, teachers, and the public who have had little access to images or data derived directly from preserved specimens of invasive species collected over the past three centuries.

Introduction Approximately 15,000 individuals in the Midwest live with sickle cell disease (SCD), a lifelong, painful disorder with complications and comorbidities. Providers self-report limited knowledge and confidence in treating patients with SCD, leading to limited access to providers knowledgeable about evidence-based management and treatment guidelines and therefore poor health outcomes for patients. Sickle Treatment and Outcomes Research in the Midwest (STORM) is a regional sickle cell network, established to improve outcomes for individuals with SCD living in Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota and Wisconsin. One goal of STORM is to increase provider knowledge about evidence-based management of SCD. STORM TeleECHO, a replication of the Project ECHO (Extension for Community Healthcare Outcomes) telementoring model, was launched in March 2016 as an innovative, lifespan approach to provider education in the Midwest. In March 2020, in response to the COVID-19 public health pandemic, the STORM coordinating team quickly pivoted to host additional COVID-19 and SCD focused ECHO sessions. Methods STORM TeleECHO virtual clinics include didactic presentations with a curriculum based on the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute Evidence-Based Management of Sickle Cell Disease guidelines, as well as a de-identified case discussion presented by providers seeking feedback on the management of challenging clinical scenarios. Other additional medical and psychosocial issues have also been presented. Participants join the monthly hour-long sessions using Zoom© or telephone. COVID-19 and SCD sessions followed the same format and topics focused on emerging medical and psychosocial pandemic issues, such as: serology, multi-system inflammatory syndrome in children, the COVID and SCD surveillance registry, blood safety and transfusion practices, telemedicine, back to school issues, mental health, and Sickle Cell Disease Association of America patient and provider advisories. These sessions also provided an open forum for this hematology/primary care provider community of practice to share rapidly changing clinical practices and patient resources. Results Since March 2016, 58 sessions have been held with over 175 unique attendees. Evaluation data shows 100% of providers will continue participating and would recommend STORM TeleECHO to a colleague. Over 80% reported learning best practice guidelines for SCD; developing clinical expertise; and applying knowledge into practice. Data analysis has shown a statistically significant increase in provider confidence to identify eligible candidates and prescribing hydroxyurea. STORM has awarded over 750 CME credits (since 2016), over 300 MOC Part II from the American Board of Pediatrics and the American Board of Internal Medicine (since 2017) and 70 CNE credits (since 2019). Since March 2020, the 11 special COVID-19 sessions have averaged 42 attendees per session- nearly a 150% increase compared to the standing ECHO sessions in previous years (Table 1). Over 115 unique providers have attended at least one COVID-19 session, with 61 participants being new to STORM TeleECHO. Participants have cumulatively attended an average of 4 COVID-19 sessions and represented 17 states and Canada. On average, 93% of respondents rated the COVID-19 STORM TeleECHO sessions as "very good" or "excellent". Discussion STORM TeleECHO has been instrumental in increasing knowledge and comfort of providers caring for patients with SCD. Data shows that STORM TeleECHO has the potential to improve outcomes and decrease health disparities in this underserved and medically vulnerable population. Moreover, STORM COVID-19 and SCD TeleECHO session participants have been highly satisfied with this educational forum for addressing emerging issues during the public health emergency. Our program quickly and successfully leveraged the existing STORM TeleECHO framework to expand educational forums for this community of practice. The continued increase in participants sustained throughout the COVID-19 ECHO's has demonstrated the need and interest for this educational forum to share practice changes, new clinical protocols, patient education and other resources. While the regular STORM TeleECHO sessions will continue, there are also plans to continue the additional COVID-ECHO sessions for the foreseeable future. Table 1 Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Abstract A description is provided for Ustilago trichophora. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Echinochloa spp. including E. colonum, E. crus-galli, E. crus-galli var. frumentacea, E. crus-galli var. zelayensis, E. holubii, E. turneriana, E. walteri; occasional records on Panicum spectabile, Paspalidium geminatum, Sacciolopis striata, Tricholaene teneriffae. DISEASE: Loose smut or node smut of Echinochloa. Field symptoms vary from relatively inconspicuous infection of a few ovaries in an inflorescence, through node and culm infection with normal inflorescence production, to infections that result in production of rosettes of short leafy axillary shoots and no inflorescence or distortion of the entire shoot system. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa: Egypt, Malawi, Morocco, Nigeria, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, 'French Congo'; Asia: Azerbaijan, Burma, China, Republic of Georgia, India, Japan, Kazakhstan, Turkestan, Turkey, Uzbeckistan, 'Far East'; Australasia: Australia (NSW, NT, Qld.), New Zealand; Europe: Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Spain, Switzerland, Ukraine, Yugoslavia; North America: Canada (Quebec), Mexico, USA (range of E. crus-galli, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Washington DC, Delaware, Florida, IA, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, MD, Manitoba, Montana, North Carolina, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Nevada, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington State, Wisconsin, Wyoming; 69, 2765); Central America and West Indies: Cuba; South America: Argentina, Venezuela. TRANSMISSION: The dusty spore mass is readily disseminated by wind or rain, enabling infection at various times in the host vegetative cycle. Infection is also sometimes seedborne.

We examined how performance-based funding (PBF) for higher education institutions in Tennessee, Ohio, and Indiana affects bachelor’s degree completion, admission practices, and the enrollment of underserved students. Utilizing data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, we employed an event study analysis, in addition to a canonical difference-in-differences and coarsened exact matching strategy. The event study results revealed no effect in Tennessee, whereas bachelor’s degree completion may have a delayed positive effect in Ohio and Indiana. Interestingly, Indiana institutions funded based on performance increased their institutional selectivity immediately after the funding was enacted, whereas underrepresented students’ enrollment results differed among subgroups across states. We conclude by offering a critical review of the policy regimes and recommending fruitful areas for future research.

ABSTRACT Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus ( S. zooepidemicus ) was reported to cause epizootic outbreaks in swine, resulting in significant economic losses in Asia in the 1970s and in North America in 2019. In February 2021, another outbreak due to S. zooepidemicus occurred in 2-year-old adult sows in a production system in Indiana. Whole-genome sequencing analysis of three outbreak isolates from Indiana revealed that all were genetically distant from the isolates of a strain that caused high mortality events in Ohio and Tennessee in 2019, as well as from the ATCC 35246 strain that caused outbreaks in China in the 1970s. The Indiana outbreak isolates were also distantly related to outbreak-unrelated swine isolate AZ-45470 from Arizona but closely related to an S. zooepidemicus equine isolate from Iowa. Comparative genomic analysis revealed that one genomic island, GI-13, was unique to the genome of a representative Indiana outbreak isolate, IN-6992. The genomic islands GI-1, GI-3, and GI-10 were also present in IN-6992 but absent from the Ohio and Tennessee outbreak isolates. In addition, the ATCC 35246-type szM gene and the Fic domain-containing protein gene ( bifA ) were absent from IN-6992, while present in all isolates from the Ohio and Tennessee outbreaks. Our findings have significant implications for understanding, monitoring, and developing control measures against diseases caused by S. zooepidemicus . IMPORTANCE This study highlights a Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus ( S. zooepidemicus ) strain isolated from an outbreak in Indiana, which resulted in mortality events among a swine herd in 2021. The Indiana outbreak strain was found to be genetically and phylogenetically distant to a strain isolated from the 2019 outbreaks in Ohio and Tennessee, which caused high swine mortality. We also discovered multiple unique genetic features in the Indiana outbreak strain, including distinct S. zooepidemicus genomic islands, and notable S. zooepidemicus virulence genes—many of which could serve as biomarkers for the diagnosis of this strain. These findings provide significant insights into monitoring and potentially preventing severe outbreaks caused by the Indiana outbreak strain in the future.

Abstract Background Most Lyme disease cases in the Midwestern United States are reported in Minnesota and Wisconsin. In recent years, however, a widening geographic extent of Lyme disease has been noted with evidence of expansion eastwards into Michigan and neighboring states with historically low incidence rates. Methods We collected confirmed and probable cases of Lyme disease from 2000 through 2014 from the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, entering them in a geographic information system. We performed spatial focal cluster analyses to characterize Lyme disease expansion. We compared the distribution of human cases with recent Ixodes scapularis tick distribution studies. Results Lyme disease cases in both the Upper and Lower Peninsulas of Michigan expanded more than 5-fold over the study period. Although increases were seen throughout the Upper Peninsula, the Lower Peninsula particularly expanded along the Indiana border north along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan. Human cases corresponded to a simultaneous expansion in established I scapularis tick populations. Conclusions The geographic distribution of Lyme disease cases significantly expanded in Michigan between 2000 and 2014, particularly northward along the Lake Michigan shore. If such dynamic trends continue, Michigan—and possibly neighboring areas of Indiana, Ohio, and Ontario, Canada—can expect a continued increase in Lyme disease cases.

ObjectiveNational interoperability is an agenda that has gained momentum in health care. Although several attempts to reach national interoperability, an alerting system through interconnected network of Health Information Exchange (HIE) organizations, Patient-Centered Data Home (PCDH), has seen preliminary success. The aim was to characterize the PCDH initiative through the Indiana Health Information Exchange's participation in the Heartland Region Pilot, which includes HIEs in Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, and Tennessee.Materials and MethodsAdmission, Discharge, and Transfer (ADT) transactions were collected between December 2016 and December 2017 among the seven HIEs in the Heartland Region. ADTs were parsed and summarized. Overlap analyses and patient matching software were used to characterize the PCDH patients. R software and Microsoft Excel were used to populate descriptive statistics and visualization.ResultsApproximately 1.5 million ADT transactions were captured. Majority of patients were female, ages 56–75 years, and were outpatient visits. Top noted reasons for visit were labs, screening, and abdominal pain. Based on the overlap analysis, Eastern Tennessee HIE was the only HIE with no duplicate service areas. An estimated 80 percent of the records were able to be matched with other records.DiscussionThe high volume of exchange in the Heartland Region Pilot established that PCDH is practical and feasible to exchange data. PCDH has the posture to build better comprehensive medical histories and continuity of care in real time.ConclusionThe value of the data gained extends beyond clinical practitioners to public health workforce for improved interventions, increased surveillance, and greater awareness of gaps in health for needs assessments. This existing interconnection of HIEs has an opportunity to be a sustainable path toward national interoperability.

The Flatwoods region of Owen and Monroe Counties, Indiana is an archetype of late Quaternary history of the southern Midwest. We compile decades of field observations and sampling, including soil cores, a deep test hole, and hundreds of water well, seismic, and other data sources, to construct a detailed Quaternary stratigraphy and geomorphic history of the region, including a model of the preglacial bedrock topography. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) techniques provide the first numerical ages of the sediments and reveal the Illinois Episode glacier advanced into the region between 111-175 ka. Gray, calcareous Illinois Episode sediments dominate the valley fill, but highly weathered red glaciogenic sediments in the eastern part of the region may be related to a pre-Illinois Episode glacial event. Fine-grained stratified lake sediments indicate the southwestward draining bedrock valley was flooded as glacial ice entered the drainage basin. Sandy outwash covers the lake sediment marking the advance of glacier ice that ultimately crossed the basin and deposited till. Till is found in several ice-marginal ridges interpreted to be moraines marking the glacial limit. The Flatwoods valley routed water to the east end of the region where it spilled over one or more cols into Raccoon Creek, then continued toward the Ohio River in a glacial drainage system developed along the glacier margin. The Sangamon Geosol is a pervasive soil stratigraphic unit developed into Illinois Episode sediments, eroded only in modern stream valleys. The Geosol is well expressed morphologically, noted mostly by deep leaching of carbonates, red colors, and weathered mineralogy. Wisconsin Episode glaciation is represented by eolian sediments, including a thin increment of silty sediment incorporated into the upper solum of the Sangamon Geosol. Windblown Peoria Loess, deposited between ~27-16 ka, blankets the entire Flatwoods region, with greatest thicknesses preserved on flat lake or outwash plain landforms. Supplemental DataGeodatabase: The geodatabase includes locations of water-well records, borehole and outcrop sites, geophysical (gamma-ray) logs, refraction seismic surveys, passive seismic (horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio [HVSR]) surveys, and data from the geological literature.Metadata: FGDC-compliant metadata for geodatabase.Data: Analytical data and other geological information include: a downhole geophysical (gamma-ray); data from the 2019 test hole, including clay mineralogy, core photographs, a downhole gamma-ray log, and particle size analysis; Indiana Geological and Water Survey (IGWS) archive data, which is comprised of borehole descriptions; a copy of Jacobs' (1994) Ph.D. dissertation; scanned profile description sheets and core stratigraphy from Jacobs (1994); and supplementary optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) data.ReadMe: Detailed file directory explaination of items within each of the supplemental data item ZIP files.

How should an agency proactively identify and prioritize rail-highway grade crossings for intervention in relation to their likely performance benefits for the community and the system? Performance is mainly related to two factors: (i) the likelihood and duration of “blockage,” that is, the temporary obstruction of a road link when a train blocks the intersecting grade crossing, and (ii) the “hazard condition” of the crossing itself, with regard to its design and asset quality. Existing analytical grade crossing prioritization models focus almost solely on safety and crash prevention by addressing the “hazard condition” aspect of performance. The paper develops a quantitative multi-criteria approach that not only considers and builds on existing analytical safety-based approaches, but goes beyond and also includes considerations such as blocked crossings. The model calculates a multi-dimensional adaptive capacity score (ACS) for each crossing, which can then be used to rank a set of crossings, as well as test different policy scenarios and their effect on prioritization. The model is applied to approximately 5,700 grade crossings in the State of Ohio and detailed pilot validations with stakeholders in two counties conducted. Based on the validation process, the model provides comprehensive and cohesive results and is being deployed statewide. Next steps involve incorporating considerations for truck traffic and pedestrians/bicycles (non-motorized users) in calculating the ACS as well as developing mitigation measures for blocked crossings that can be considered from the model.

Abstract Context Emergency medicine (EM) physicians commonly stabilize patients with acute psychiatric distress, such as suicidal ideation. Research has shown that suicidal ideation is difficult to manage in emergency department (ED) settings and that patients in psychiatric distress are often “boarded” in the ED while awaiting more definitive care. Objectives To examine the attitudes and experiences of emergency physicians regarding the care of patients in psychiatric distress. Special attention is given to suicidal ideation due to its prevalence in the United States. Methods A 19 question anonymous survey was sent via email to 55 emergency medicine residency directors throughout Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, who were identified using an Internet search of residency programs in the region. The program directors were asked to distribute the survey to their colleagues and residents. The intent of this procedure was to generate as many survey responses as possible, while obscuring the identities of the respondents. Responses were gathered from October 29, 2019 until January 16, 2020. The survey was designed to assess respondents’ self-reported demographic data as well as their experiences with the boarding process, initial examination, final disposition, reevaluation of the patient, physician training and resources, and follow up care. Statistical analysis was performed using a Mann–Whitney U test, significance was set at p<0.01. Results In total, 47 EM physicians responded to the survey; however, not all of the respondents completed all 19 questions. Ten of 44 respondents (22.7%) reported that they do not perform the initial psychiatric examination themselves and instead defer to a nurse or social worker. Twenty-two of 44 respondents (50.0%) reported that they defer to a social worker when determining the final disposition of psychiatric patients. Respondents reevaluated patients in psychiatric distress statistically significantly less often (p=0.01) compared with patients with cardiac pathology. Additionally, 15 of 38 respondents (39.5%) reported that they did not feel adequately trained to handle psychiatric emergencies, and 36 of 39 respondents (92.3%) of physicians felt that their facility would benefit from additional mental health resources. Thirty five of 39 respondents (89.7%) reported that their facility did not have a system in place to follow up with suicidal patients upon discharge. Conclusions Caring for patients who are acutely suicidal or in psychiatric distress is complex and more research is needed to optimize treatment strategies. The results of this study indicate that EM physicians may regularly defer to nonphysician providers when evaluating and treating patients in psychiatric distress. A perceived lack of training in psychiatry may contribute to this practice. The results of this study are in accord with previous research that indicated a need for additional psychiatry training in EM residencies.

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Video-based language learning environment using an online video-editing system. Computer Assisted Language Learning (Lisse, The Netherlands), 15, 4 (2002), 387—408.03—304 Håkansson, Gisela (U. of Lund, Sweden; Email: Gisela.Hakansson@ling.lu.se), Pienemann, Manfred and Sayehli, Susan. Transfer and typological proximity in the context of second language processing. Second Language Research (London, UK), 18, 3 (2002), 250—73.03—305 Hatasa, Yukiko Abe (U. of Iowa, USA; Email: yukiko-hatasa@uiowa.edu). The effects of differential timing in the introduction of Japanese syllabaries on early second language development in Japanese. The Modern Language Journal (Malden, MA, USA), 86, 3 (2002), 349—67.03—306 Hsiao, Tsung-Yuan (Nat. Taiwan Ocean U., Republic of China; Email: tyhsiao@mail.ntou.edu.tw) and Oxford, Rebecca L.. Comparing theories of language learning strategies: A confirmatory factor analysis. 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Empirical examination of EFL readers' use of rhetorical information. English for Specific Purposes (Amsterdam, The Netherlands), 21, 1 (2002), 81—98.03—319 Mori, Yoshiko (Georgetown U., USA; Email: moriy@georgetown.edu). Individual differences in the integration of information from context and word parts in interpreting unknown kanji words. Applied Psycholinguistics (Cambridge, UK), 23, 3 (2002), 375—97.03—320 Morris, Frank A. (U. of Miami, USA). Negotiation moves and recasts in relation to error types and learner repair in the foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals (New York, USA), 35, 4 (2002), 395—404.03—321 O'Grady, William (U. of Hawai'i, USA; Email: ogrady@hawaii.edu) and Yamashita, Yoshie. Partial agreement in second-language acquisition. Linguistics (Berlin, Germany), 40, 5 (2002), 1011—19.03—322 Perdue, Clive (Université Paris VIII, France; Email: clive@univ-paris8.fr), Benazzo, Sandra and Giuliano, Patrizia. 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04–314 Alloway, N., Gilbert, P., Gilbert, R., and Henderson, R. (James Cook University, Australia Email: Nola.Alloway@jcu.edu.au). Boys Performing English. Gender and Education (Abingdon, UK), 15, 4 (2003), 351–364.04–315 Barcroft, Joe (Washington U., USA; Email: barcroft@wustl.edu). Distinctiveness and bidirectional effects in input enhancement for vocabulary learning. Applied Language Learning (Monterey, CA, USA), 13, 2 (2003), 133–159.04–316 Berman, Ruth, A. and Katzenberger, Irit (Tel Aviv U., Israel; Email: rberman@post.tau.ac.il). Form and function in introducing narrative and expository texts: a developmental perspective. Discourse Processes (New York, USA), 38, 1 (2004), 57–94.04–317 Byon, Andrew Sangpil (State University of New York at Albany, USA; Email: abyon@albany.edu). Language socialisation and Korean as a heritage language: a study of Hawaiian classrooms. Language, Culture and Curriculum (Clevedon, UK), 16, 3 (2003), 269–283.04–318 Chambers, Angela (University of Limerick, Ireland; Email: Angela.Chambers@ul.ie) and O'Sullivan, Íde. Corpus consultation and advanced learners' writing skills in French. ReCALL (Cambridge, UK), 16, 1 (2004), 158–172.04–319 Chan, Alice Y. W. (City U. of Hong Kong; Email: enalice@cityu.edu.hk). Noun phrases in Chinese and English: a study of English structural problems encountered by Chinese ESL students in Hong Kong. Language, Culture and Curriculum (Clevedon, UK), 17, 1 (2004), 33–47.04–320 Choi, Y-J. (U. of Durham, UK; Email: yoonjeongchoi723@hotmail.com). Intercultural communication through drama in teaching English as an international language. English Teaching (Anseonggun, South Korea), 58, 4 (2003), 127–156.04–321 Chun, Eunsil (Ewha Womens U., South Korea; Email: aceunsil@hananet.net). Effects of text types and tasks on Korean college students' reading comprehension. English Teaching (Anseonggun, South Korea), 59, 2 (2004), 75–100.04–322 Collentine, Joseph (Northern Arizona U., USA; Email: Joseph.Collentine@nau.edu). The effects of learning contexts on morphosyntactic and lexical development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (New York, USA), 26 (2004), 227–248.04–323 Davies, Beatrice (Oxford Brookes U., UK). The gender gap in modern languages: a comparison of attitude and performance in year 7 and 10. Language Learning Journal (Oxford, UK), 29 (2004), 53–58.04–324 Díaz-Campos, Manuel (Indiana U., USA; Email: mdiazcam@indiana.edu). Context of learning in the acquisition of Spanish second language phonology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (New York, USA), 26 (2004), 249–273.04–325 Donato, Richard. Aspects of collaboration in pedagogical discourse. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (Cambridge, UK), 24 (2004), 284–302.04–326 Felix, Uschi (Monash U., Australia; Email: Uschi.Felix@arts.monash.edu.au). A multivariate analysis of secondary students' experience of web-based language acquisition. ReCALL (Cambridge, UK), 16, 1 (2004), 237–249.04–327 Feuerhake, Evelyn, Fieseler, Caroline, Ohntrup, Joy-Sarah and Riemer, Claudia (U. of Bielefeld, Germany). Motivation und Sprachverlust in der L2 Französisch: eine retrospektive Übungsstudie. [Motivation and language attrition in French as a second language (L2): a retrospective research exercise.] Zeitschrift für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht (Alberta, Canada), 9, 2 (2004), 29.04–328 Field, John (U. of Leeds & Reading, UK; Email: jcf1000@dircon.co.uk). An insight into listeners' problems: too much bottom-up or too much top-down?System (Oxford, UK), 32, 3 (2004) 363–377.04–329 Freed, Barbara F., Segalowitz, Norman, and Dewey, Dan D. (Carnegie Mellon, U., USA; Email: bf0u+@andrew.cmu.edu). Context of learning and second language fluency in French. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (New York, USA), 26 (2004), 275–301.04–330 Grotjahn, Rüdiger (U. of Bochum, Germany). Test and Attitudes Scale for the Year Abroad (TESTATT): Sprachlernmotivation und Einstellungen gegenüber Sprechern der eigenen und der fremden Sprache. [Test and Attitudes Scale for the Year Abroad (TESTATT): Motivation to learn foreign languages and attitudes toward speakers of one's own and foreign language.] Zeitschrift für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht (Alberta, Canada), 9, 2 (2004), 23.04–331 Helbig-Reuter, Beate. Das Europäische Portfolio der Sprache (I). [The European Language Portfolio (I).] Deutsch als Fremdsprache (Leipzig, Germany), 2 (2004), 104–110.04–332 Hopp, Marsha A. and Hopp, Theodore H. (ZigZag, Inc., USA; Email: marsha.hopp@newSLATE.com). NewSLATE: building a web-based infrastructure for learning non-Roman script languages. Calico Journal (Texas, USA), 21, 3 (2004), 541–555.04–333 Jun Zhang, Lawrence (Nanyang Tech. 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Oral language development and access to school discourses. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy (Norwood, South Australia), 27, 2 (2004), 142–158.04–349 Rosa, Elena, M. and Leow, Ronald, P. (Georgetown U., USA). Awareness, different learning conditions, and second language development. Applied Psycholinguistics (Cambridge, UK), 25 (2004), 269–292.04–350 Schwarz-Friesel, Monika. Kognitive Linguistik heute – Metaphernverstehen als Fallbeispiel. [Cognitive Linguistics today – the case of understanding metaphors.] Deutsch als Fremdsprache (Leipzig, Germany), 2 (2004), 83–89.04–351 Segalowitz, Norman and Freed, Barbara, F. (Concordia U., USA; Email: sgalow@vax2.concordia.ca). Context, contact, and cognition in oral fluency acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (New York, USA), 26 (2004), 173–199.04–352 Sleeman, Petra (U. of Amsterdam, Netherlands; Email: A.P.Sleeman@uva.nl). Guided learners of French and the acquisition of emphatic constructions. 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05–486Balnaves, Edmund (U of Sydney, Australia; ejb@it.usyd.edu.au), Systematic approaches to long term digital collection management. Literary and Linguistic Computing (Oxford, UK) 20.4 (2005), 399–413.05–487Barwell, Graham (U of Wollongong, Australia; gbarwell@uow.edu.au), Original, authentic, copy: conceptual issues in digital texts. Literary and Linguistic Computing (Oxford, UK) 20.4 (2005), 415–424.05–488Beech, John R. & Kate A. Mayall (U of Leicester, UK; JRB@Leicester.ac.uk), The word shape hypothesis re-examined: evidence for an external feature advantage in visual word recognition. Journal of Research in Reading (Oxford, UK) 28.3 (2005), 302–319.05–489Belcher, Diane (Georgia State U, USA; dbelcher1@gsu.edu) & Alan Hirvela, Writing the qualitative dissertation: what motivates and sustains commitment to a fuzzy genre?Journal of English for Academic Purposes (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 4.3 (2005), 187–205.05–490Bernhardt, Elisabeth (U of Minnesota, USA; ebernhar@stanford.edu), Progress and procrastination in second language reading. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (Cambridge, UK) 25 (2005), 133–150.05–491Bishop, Dorothy (U of Oxford, UK; dorothy.bishop@psy.ox.ac.uk), Caroline Adams, Annukka Lehtonen & Stuart Rosen, Effectiveness of computerised spelling training in children with language impairments: a comparison of modified and unmodified speech input. Journal of Research in Reading (Oxford, UK) 28.2 (2005), 144–157.05–492Bowey, Judith A., Michaela McGuigan & Annette Ruschena (U of Queensland, Australia; j.bowey@psy.uq.edu.au), On the association between serial naming speed for letters and digits and word-reading skill: towards a developmental account. Journal of Research in Reading (Oxford, UK) 28.4 (2005), 400–422.05–493Bowyer-Crane, Claudine & Margaret J. Snowling (U of York, UK; c.crane@psych.york.ac.uk), Assessing children's inference generation: what do tests of reading comprehension measure?British Journal of Educational Psychology (Leicester, UK) 75.2 (2005), 189–201.05–494Bruce, Ian (U of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand; ibruce@waikato.ac.nz), Syllabus design for general EAP writing courses: a cognitive approach. Journal of English for Academic Purposes (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 4.3 (2005), 239–256.05–495Burrows, John (U of Newcastle, Australia; john.burrows@netcentral.com.au), Who wroteShamela? Verifying the authorship of a parodic text. Literary and Linguistic Computing (Oxford, UK) 20.4 (2005), 437–450.05–496Clarke, Paula, Charles Hulme & Margaret Snowling (U of York, UK; CH1@york.ac.uk), Individual differences in RAN and reading: a response timing analysis. Journal of Research in Reading (Oxford, UK) 28.2 (2005), 73–86.05–497Colledge, Marion (Metropolitan U, London, UK; m.colledge@londonmet.ac.uk), Baby Bear or Mrs Bear? Young English Bengali-speaking children's responses to narrative picture books at school. Literacy (Oxford, UK) 39.1 (2005), 24–30.05–498De Pew, Kevin Eric (Old Dominion U, Norfolk, USA; Kdepew@odu.edu) & Susan Kay Miller, Studying L2 writers' digital writing: an argument for post-critical methods. Computers and Composition (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 22.3 (2005), 259–278.05–499Dekydtspotter, Laurent (Indiana U, USA; ldekydts@indiana.edu) & Samantha D. Outcalt, A syntactic bias in scope ambiguity resolution in the processing of English French cardinality interrogatives: evidence for informational encapsulation. Language Learning (Malden, MA, USA) 55.1 (2005), 1–36.05–500Fernández Toledo, Piedad (Universidad de Murcia, Spain; piedad@um.es), Genre analysis and reading of English as a foreign language: genre schemata beyond text typologies. Journal of Pragmatics37.7 (2005), 1059–1079.05–501French, Gary (Chukyo U, Japan; french@lets.chukyo-u.ac.jp), The cline of errors in the writing of Japanese university students. World Englishes (Oxford, UK) 24.3 (2005), 371–382.05–502Green, Chris (Hong Kong Polytechnic U, Hong Kong, China), Profiles of strategic expertise in second language reading. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics (Hong Kong, China) 9.2 (2004), 1–16.05–503Groom, Nicholas (U of Birmingham, UK; nick@nicholasgroom.fsnet.co.uk), Pattern and meaning across genres and disciplines: an exploratory study. 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Our thesis is that the city’s ambience is now an unstable dialectic in which we are watchers and watched, mirrored and refracted in a landscape of iPhone auteurs, eTags, CCTV and sousveillance. Embrace ambience! Invoking Benjamin’s spirit, this article does not seek to limit understanding through restriction to a particular theme or theoretical construct (Buck-Morss 253). Instead, it offers snapshots of interactions at the dawn of the postmodern city. That bricolage also engages how people appropriate, manipulate, disrupt and divert urban spaces and strategies of power in their everyday life. Ambient information can both liberate and disenfranchise the individual. This article asks whether our era’s dialectics result in a new personhood or merely restate the traditional spectacle of ‘bright lights, big city’. Does the virtualized city result in ambient anomie and satiation or in surprise, autonomy and serendipity? (Gumpert 36) Since the steam age, ambience has been characterised in terms of urban sound, particularly the alienation attributable to the individual’s experience as a passive receptor of a cacophony of sounds – now soft, now loud, random and recurrent–from the hubbub of crowds, the crash and grind of traffic, the noise of industrial processes and domestic activity, factory whistles, fire alarms, radio, television and gramophones (Merchant 111; Thompson 6). In the age of the internet, personal devices such as digital cameras and iPhones, and urban informatics such as CCTV networks and e-Tags, ambience is interactivity, monitoring and signalling across multiple media, rather than just sound. It is an interactivity in which watchers observe the watched observing them and the watched reshape the fabric of virtualized cities merely by traversing urban precincts (Hillier 295; De Certeau 163). It is also about pervasive although unevenly distributed monitoring of individuals, using sensors that are remote to the individual (for example cameras or tag-readers mounted above highways) or are borne by the individual (for example mobile phones or badges that systematically report the location to a parent, employer or sex offender register) (Holmes 176; Savitch 130). That monitoring reflects what Doel and Clark characterized as a pervasive sense of ambient fear in the postmodern city, albeit fear that like much contemporary anxiety is misplaced–you are more at risk from intimates than from strangers, from car accidents than terrorists or stalkers–and that is ahistorical (Doel 13; Scheingold 33). Finally, it is about cooption, with individuals signalling their identity through ambient advertising: wearing tshirts, sweatshirts, caps and other apparel that display iconic faces such as Obama and Monroe or that embody corporate imagery such as the Nike ‘Swoosh’, Coca-Cola ‘Ribbon’, Linux Penguin and Hello Kitty feline (Sayre 82; Maynard 97). In the postmodern global village much advertising is ambient, rather than merely delivered to a device or fixed on a billboard. Australian cities are now seas of information, phantasmagoric environments in which the ambient noise encountered by residents and visitors comprises corporate signage, intelligent traffic signs, displays at public transport nodes, shop-window video screens displaying us watching them, and a plethora of personal devices showing everything from the weather to snaps of people in the street or neighborhood satellite maps. They are environments through which people traverse both as persons and abstractions, virtual presences on volatile digital maps and in online social networks. Spectacle, Anomie or Personhood The spectacular city of modernity is a meme of communication, cultural and urban development theory. It is spectacular in the sense that of large, artificial, even sublime. It is also spectacular because it is built around the gaze, whether the vistas of Hausmann’s boulevards, the towers of Manhattan and Chicago, the shopfront ‘sea of light’ and advertising pillars noted by visitors to Weimar Berlin or the neon ‘neo-baroque’ of Las Vegas (Schivelbusch 114; Fritzsche 164; Ndalianis 535). In the year 2010 it aspires to 2020 vision, a panoptic and panspectric gaze on the part of governors and governed alike (Kullenberg 38). In contrast to the timelessness of Heidegger’s hut and the ‘fixity’ of rural backwaters, spectacular cities are volatile domains where all that is solid continues to melt into air with the aid of jackhammers and the latest ‘new media’ potentially result in a hypereality that make it difficult to determine what is real and what is not (Wark 22; Berman 19). The spectacular city embodies a dialectic. It is anomic because it induces an alienation in the spectator, a fatigue attributable to media satiation and to a sense of being a mere cog in a wheel, a disempowered and readily-replaceable entity that is denied personhood–recognition as an autonomous individual–through subjection to a Fordist and post-Fordist industrial discipline or the more insidious imprisonment of being ‘a housewife’, one ant in a very large ant hill (Dyer-Witheford 58). People, however, are not automatons: they experience media, modernity and urbanism in different ways. The same attributes that erode the selfhood of some people enhance the autonomy and personhood of others. The spectacular city, now a matrix of digits, information flows and opportunities, is a realm in which people can subvert expectations and find scope for self-fulfillment, whether by wearing a hoodie that defeats CCTV or by using digital technologies to find and associate with other members of stigmatized affinity groups. One person’s anomie is another’s opportunity. Ambience and Virtualisation Eighty years after Fritz Lang’s Metropolis forecast a cyber-sociality, digital technologies are resulting in a ‘virtualisation’ of social interactions and cities. In post-modern cityscapes, the space of flows comprises an increasing number of electronic exchanges through physically disjointed places (Castells 2002). Virtualisation involves supplementation or replacement of face-to-face contact with hypersocial communication via new media, including SMS, email, blogging and Facebook. In 2010 your friends (or your boss or a bully) may always be just a few keystrokes away, irrespective of whether it is raining outside, there is a public transport strike or the car is in for repairs (Hassan 69; Baron 215). Virtualisation also involves an abstraction of bodies and physical movements, with the information that represents individual identities or vehicles traversing the virtual spaces comprised of CCTV networks (where viewers never encounter the person or crowd face to face), rail ticketing systems and road management systems (x e-Tag passed by this tag reader, y camera logged a specific vehicle onto a database using automated number-plate recognition software) (Wood 93; Lyon 253). Surveillant Cities Pervasive anxiety is a permanent and recurrent feature of urban experience. Often navigated by an urgency to control perceived disorder, both physically and through cultivated dominant theory (early twentieth century gendered discourses to push women back into the private sphere; ethno-racial closure and control in the Black Metropolis of 1940s Chicago), history is punctuated by attempts to dissolve public debate and infringe minority freedoms (Wilson 1991). In the Post-modern city unprecedented technological capacity generates a totalizing media vector whose plausible by-product is the perception of an ambient menace (Wark 3). Concurrent faith in technology as a cost-effective mechanism for public management (policing, traffic, planning, revenue generation) has resulted in emergence of the surveillant city. It is both a social and architectural fabric whose infrastructure is dotted with sensors and whose people assume that they will be monitored by private/public sector entities and directed by interactive traffic management systems – from electronic speed signs and congestion indicators through to rail schedule displays –leveraging data collected through those sensors. The fabric embodies tensions between governance (at its crudest, enforcement of law by police and their surrogates in private security services) and the soft cage of digital governmentality, with people being disciplined through knowledge that they are being watched and that the observation may be shared with others in an official or non-official shaming (Parenti 51; Staples 41). Encounters with a railway station CCTV might thus result in exhibition of the individual in court or on broadcast television, whether in nightly news or in a ‘reality tv’ crime expose built around ‘most wanted’ footage (Jermyn 109). Misbehaviour by a partner might merely result in scrutiny of mobile phone bills or web browser histories (which illicit content has the partner consumed, which parts of cyberspace has been visited), followed by a visit to the family court. It might instead result in digital viligilantism, with private offences being named and shamed on electronic walls across the global village, such as Facebook. iPhone Auteurism Activists have responded to pervasive surveillance by turning the cameras on ‘the watchers’ in an exercise of ‘sousveillance’ (Bennett 13; Huey 158). That mirroring might involve the meticulous documentation, often using the same geospatial tools deployed by public/private security agents, of the location of closed circuit television cameras and other surveillance devices. One outcome is the production of maps identifying who is watching and where that watching is taking place. As a corollary, people with anxieties about being surveilled, with a taste for street theatre or a receptiveness to a new form of urban adventure have used those maps to traverse cities via routes along which they cannot be identified by cameras, tags and other tools of the panoptic sort, or to simply adopt masks at particular locations. In 2020 can anyone aspire to be a protagonist in V for Vendetta? (iSee) Mirroring might take more visceral forms, with protestors for example increasingly making a practice of capturing images of police and private security services dealing with marches, riots and pickets. The advent of 3G mobile phones with a still/video image capability and ongoing ‘dematerialisation’ of traditional video cameras (ie progressively cheaper, lighter, more robust, less visible) means that those engaged in political action can document interaction with authority. So can passers-by. That ambient imaging, turning the public gaze on power and thereby potentially redefining the ‘public’ (given that in Australia the community has been embodied by the state and discourse has been mediated by state-sanctioned media), poses challenges for media scholars and exponents of an invigorated civil society in which we are looking together – and looking at each other – rather than bowling alone. One challenge for consumers in construing ambient media is trust. Can we believe what we see, particularly when few audiences have forensic skills and intermediaries such as commercial broadcasters may privilege immediacy (the ‘breaking news’ snippet from participants) over context and verification. Social critics such as Baudelaire and Benjamin exalt the flaneur, the free spirit who gazed on the street, a street that was as much a spectacle as the theatre and as vibrant as the circus. In 2010 the same technologies that empower citizen journalism and foster a succession of velvet revolutions feed flaneurs whose streetwalking doesn’t extend beyond a keyboard and a modem. The US and UK have thus seen emergence of gawker services, with new media entrepreneurs attempting to build sustainable businesses by encouraging fans to report the location of celebrities (and ideally provide images of those encounters) for the delectation of people who are web surfing or receiving a tweet (Burns 24). In the age of ambient cameras, where the media are everywhere and nowhere (and micro-stock photoservices challenge agencies such as Magnum), everyone can join the paparazzi. Anyone can deploy that ambient surveillance to become a stalker. The enthusiasm with which fans publish sightings of celebrities will presumably facilitate attacks on bodies rather than images. Information may want to be free but so, inconveniently, do iconoclasts and practitioners of participatory panopticism (Dodge 431; Dennis 348). Rhetoric about ‘citizen journalism’ has been co-opted by ‘old media’, with national broadcasters and commercial enterprises soliciting still images and video from non-professionals, whether for free or on a commercial basis. It is a world where ‘journalists’ are everywhere and where responsibility resides uncertainly at the editorial desk, able to reject or accept offerings from people with cameras but without the industrial discipline formerly exercised through professional training and adherence to formal codes of practice. It is thus unsurprising that South Australia’s Government, echoed by some peers, has mooted anti-gawker legislation aimed at would-be auteurs who impede emergency services by stopping their cars to take photos of bushfires, road accidents or other disasters. The flipside of that iPhone auteurism is anxiety about the public gaze, expressed through moral panics regarding street photography and sexting. Apart from a handful of exceptions (notably photography in the Sydney Opera House precinct, in the immediate vicinity of defence facilities and in some national parks), Australian law does not prohibit ‘street photography’ which includes photographs or videos of streetscapes or public places. Despite periodic assertions that it is a criminal offence to take photographs of people–particularly minors–without permission from an official, parent/guardian or individual there is no general restriction on ambient photography in public spaces. Moral panics about photographs of children (or adults) on beaches or in the street reflect an ambient anxiety in which danger is associated with strangers and strangers are everywhere (Marr 7; Bauman 93). That conceptualisation is one that would delight people who are wholly innocent of Judith Butler or Andrea Dworkin, in which the gaze (ever pervasive, ever powerful) is tantamount to a violation. The reality is more prosaic: most child sex offences involve intimates, rather than the ‘monstrous other’ with the telephoto lens or collection of nastiness on his iPod (Cossins 435; Ingebretsen 190). Recognition of that reality is important in considering moves that would egregiously restrict legitimate photography in public spaces or happy snaps made by doting relatives. An ambient image–unposed, unpremeditated, uncoerced–of an intimate may empower both authors and subjects when little is solid and memory is fleeting. The same caution might usefully be applied in considering alarms about sexting, ie creation using mobile phones (and access by phone or computer monitor) of intimate images of teenagers by teenagers. Australian governments have moved to emulate their US peers, treating such photography as a criminal offence that can be conceptualized as child pornography and addressed through permanent inclusion in sex offender registers. Lifelong stigmatisation is inappropriate in dealing with naïve or brash 12 and 16 year olds who have been exchanging intimate images without an awareness of legal frameworks or an understanding of consequences (Shafron-Perez 432). Cameras may be everywhere among the e-generation but legal knowledge, like the future, is unevenly distributed. Digital Handcuffs Generations prior to 2008 lost themselves in the streets, gaining individuality or personhood by escaping the surveillance inherent in living at home, being observed by neighbours or simply surrounded by colleagues. Streets offered anonymity and autonomy (Simmel 1903), one reason why heterodox sexuality has traditionally been negotiated in parks and other beats and on kerbs where sex workers ply their trade (Dalton 375). Recent decades have seen a privatisation of those public spaces, with urban planning and digital technologies imposing a new governmentality on hitherto ambient ‘deviance’ and on voyeuristic-exhibitionist practice such as heterosexual ‘dogging’ (Bell 387). That governmentality has been enforced through mechanisms such as replacement of traditional public toilets with ‘pods’ that are conveniently maintained by global service providers such as Veolia (the unromantic but profitable rump of former media & sewers conglomerate Vivendi) and function as billboards for advertising groups such as JC Decaux. Faces encountered in the vicinity of the twenty-first century pissoir are thus likely to be those of supermodels selling yoghurt, low interest loans or sportsgear – the same faces sighted at other venues across the nation and across the globe. Visiting ‘the mens’ gives new meaning to the word ambience when you are more likely to encounter Louis Vuitton and a CCTV camera than George Michael. George’s face, or that of Madonna, Barack Obama, Kevin 07 or Homer Simpson, might instead be sighted on the tshirts or hoodies mentioned above. George’s music might also be borne on the bodies of people you see in the park, on the street, or in the bus. This is the age of ambient performance, taken out of concert halls and virtualised on iPods, Walkmen and other personal devices, music at the demand of the consumer rather than as rationed by concert managers (Bull 85). The cost of that ambience, liberation of performance from time and space constraints, may be a Weberian disenchantment (Steiner 434). Technology has also removed anonymity by offering digital handcuffs to employees, partners, friends and children. The same mobile phones used in the past to offer excuses or otherwise disguise the bearer’s movement may now be tied to an observer through location services that plot the person’s movement across Google Maps or the geospatial information of similar services. That tracking is an extension into the private realm of the identification we now take for granted when using taxis or logistics services, with corporate Australia for example investing in systems that allow accurate determination of where a shipment is located (on Sydney Harbour Bridge? the loading dock? accompanying the truck driver on unauthorized visits to the pub?) and a forecast of when it will arrive (Monmonier 76). Such technologies are being used on a smaller scale to enforce digital Fordism among the binary proletariat in corporate buildings and campuses, with ‘smart badges’ and biometric gateways logging an individual’s movement across institutional terrain (so many minutes in the conference room, so many minutes in the bathroom or lingering among the faux rainforest near the Vice Chancellery) (Bolt). Bright Lights, Blog City It is a truth universally acknowledged, at least by right-thinking Foucauldians, that modernity is a matter of coercion and anomie as all that is solid melts into air. If we are living in an age of hypersocialisation and hypercapitalism – movies and friends on tap, along with the panoptic sorting by marketers and pervasive scrutiny by both the ‘information state’ and public audiences (the million people or one person reading your blog) that is an inevitable accompaniment of the digital cornucopia–we might ask whether everyone is or should be unhappy. This article began by highlighting traditional responses to the bright lights, brashness and excitement of the big city. One conclusion might be that in 2010 not much has changed. Some people experience ambient information as liberating; others as threatening, productive of physical danger or of a more insidious anomie in which personal identity is blurred by an ineluctable electro-smog. There is disagreement about the professionalism (for which read ethics and inhibitions) of ‘citizen media’ and about a culture in which, as in the 1920s, audiences believe that they ‘own the image’ embodying the celebrity or public malefactor. Digital technologies allow you to navigate through the urban maze and allow officials, marketers or the hostile to track you. Those same technologies allow you to subvert both the governmentality and governance. You are free: Be ambient! References Baron, Naomi. Always On: Language in an Online and Mobile World. New York: Oxford UP, 2008. Bauman, Zygmunt. 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Introduction Crime fiction is one of the world’s most popular genres. Indeed, it has been estimated that as many as one in every three new novels, published in English, is classified within the crime fiction category (Knight xi). These new entrants to the market are forced to jostle for space on bookstore and library shelves with reprints of classic crime novels; such works placed in, often fierce, competition against their contemporaries as well as many of their predecessors. Raymond Chandler, in his well-known essay The Simple Art of Murder, noted Ernest Hemingway’s observation that “the good writer competes only with the dead. The good detective story writer […] competes not only with all the unburied dead but with all the hosts of the living as well” (3). In fact, there are so many examples of crime fiction works that, as early as the 1920s, one of the original ‘Queens of Crime’, Dorothy L. Sayers, complained: It is impossible to keep track of all the detective-stories produced to-day [sic]. Book upon book, magazine upon magazine pour out from the Press, crammed with murders, thefts, arsons, frauds, conspiracies, problems, puzzles, mysteries, thrills, maniacs, crooks, poisoners, forgers, garrotters, police, spies, secret-service men, detectives, until it seems that half the world must be engaged in setting riddles for the other half to solve (95). Twenty years after Sayers wrote on the matter of the vast quantities of crime fiction available, W.H. Auden wrote one of the more famous essays on the genre: The Guilty Vicarage: Notes on the Detective Story, by an Addict. Auden is, perhaps, better known as a poet but his connection to the crime fiction genre is undisputed. As well as his poetic works that reference crime fiction and commentaries on crime fiction, one of Auden’s fellow poets, Cecil Day-Lewis, wrote a series of crime fiction novels under the pseudonym Nicholas Blake: the central protagonist of these novels, Nigel Strangeways, was modelled upon Auden (Scaggs 27). Interestingly, some writers whose names are now synonymous with the genre, such as Edgar Allan Poe and Raymond Chandler, established the link between poetry and crime fiction many years before the publication of The Guilty Vicarage. Edmund Wilson suggested that “reading detective stories is simply a kind of vice that, for silliness and minor harmfulness, ranks somewhere between crossword puzzles and smoking” (395). In the first line of The Guilty Vicarage, Auden supports Wilson’s claim and confesses that: “For me, as for many others, the reading of detective stories is an addiction like tobacco or alcohol” (406). This indicates that the genre is at best a trivial pursuit, at worst a pursuit that is bad for your health and is, increasingly, socially unacceptable, while Auden’s ideas around taste—high and low—are made clear when he declares that “detective stories have nothing to do with works of art” (406). The debates that surround genre and taste are many and varied. The mid-1920s was a point in time which had witnessed crime fiction writers produce some of the finest examples of fiction to ever be published and when readers and publishers were watching, with anticipation, as a new generation of crime fiction writers were readying themselves to enter what would become known as the genre’s Golden Age. At this time, R. Austin Freeman wrote that: By the critic and the professedly literary person the detective story is apt to be dismissed contemptuously as outside the pale of literature, to be conceived of as a type of work produced by half-educated and wholly incompetent writers for consumption by office boys, factory girls, and other persons devoid of culture and literary taste (7). This article responds to Auden’s essay and explores how crime fiction appeals to many different tastes: tastes that are acquired, change over time, are embraced, or kept as guilty secrets. In addition, this article will challenge Auden’s very narrow definition of crime fiction and suggest how Auden’s religious imagery, deployed to explain why many people choose to read crime fiction, can be incorporated into a broader popular discourse on punishment. This latter argument demonstrates that a taste for crime fiction and a taste for justice are inextricably intertwined. Crime Fiction: A Type For Every Taste Cathy Cole has observed that “crime novels are housed in their own section in many bookshops, separated from literary novels much as you’d keep a child with measles away from the rest of the class” (116). Times have changed. So too, have our tastes. Crime fiction, once sequestered in corners, now demands vast tracts of prime real estate in bookstores allowing readers to “make their way to the appropriate shelves, and begin to browse […] sorting through a wide variety of very different types of novels” (Malmgren 115). This is a result of the sheer size of the genre, noted above, as well as the genre’s expanding scope. Indeed, those who worked to re-invent crime fiction in the 1800s could not have envisaged the “taxonomic exuberance” (Derrida 206) of the writers who have defined crime fiction sub-genres, as well as how readers would respond by not only wanting to read crime fiction but also wanting to read many different types of crime fiction tailored to their particular tastes. To understand the demand for this diversity, it is important to reflect upon some of the appeal factors of crime fiction for readers. Many rules have been promulgated for the writers of crime fiction to follow. Ronald Knox produced a set of 10 rules in 1928. These included Rule 3 “Not more than one secret room or passage is allowable”, and Rule 10 “Twin brothers, and doubles generally, must not appear unless we have been duly prepared for them” (194–6). In the same year, S.S. Van Dine produced another list of 20 rules, which included Rule 3 “There must be no love interest: The business in hand is to bring a criminal to the bar of justice, not to bring a lovelorn couple to the hymeneal altar”, and Rule 7 “There simply must be a corpse in a detective novel, and the deader the corpse the better” (189–93). Some of these directives have been deliberately ignored or have become out-of-date over time while others continue to be followed in contemporary crime writing practice. In sharp contrast, there are no rules for reading this genre. Individuals are, generally, free to choose what, where, when, why, and how they read crime fiction. There are, however, different appeal factors for readers. The most common of these appeal factors, often described as doorways, are story, setting, character, and language. As the following passage explains: The story doorway beckons those who enjoy reading to find out what happens next. The setting doorway opens widest for readers who enjoy being immersed in an evocation of place or time. The doorway of character is for readers who enjoy looking at the world through others’ eyes. Readers who most appreciate skilful writing enter through the doorway of language (Wyatt online). These doorways draw readers to the crime fiction genre. There are stories that allow us to easily predict what will come next or make us hold our breath until the very last page, the books that we will cheerfully lend to a family member or a friend and those that we keep close to hand to re-read again and again. There are settings as diverse as country manors, exotic locations, and familiar city streets, places we have been and others that we might want to explore. There are characters such as the accidental sleuth, the hardboiled detective, and the refined police officer, amongst many others, the men and women—complete with idiosyncrasies and flaws—who we have grown to admire and trust. There is also the language that all writers, regardless of genre, depend upon to tell their tales. In crime fiction, even the most basic task of describing where the murder victim was found can range from words that convey the genteel—“The room of the tragedy” (Christie 62)—to the absurd: “There it was, jammed between a pallet load of best export boneless beef and half a tonne of spring lamb” (Maloney 1). These appeal factors indicate why readers might choose crime fiction over another genre, or choose one type of crime fiction over another. Yet such factors fail to explain what crime fiction is or adequately answer why the genre is devoured in such vast quantities. Firstly, crime fiction stories are those in which there is the committing of a crime, or at least the suspicion of a crime (Cole), and the story that unfolds revolves around the efforts of an amateur or professional detective to solve that crime (Scaggs). Secondly, crime fiction offers the reassurance of resolution, a guarantee that from “previous experience and from certain cultural conventions associated with this genre that ultimately the mystery will be fully explained” (Zunshine 122). For Auden, the definition of the crime novel was quite specific, and he argued that referring to the genre by “the vulgar definition, ‘a Whodunit’ is correct” (407). Auden went on to offer a basic formula stating that: “a murder occurs; many are suspected; all but one suspect, who is the murderer, are eliminated; the murderer is arrested or dies” (407). The idea of a formula is certainly a useful one, particularly when production demands—in terms of both quality and quantity—are so high, because the formula facilitates creators in the “rapid and efficient production of new works” (Cawelti 9). For contemporary crime fiction readers, the doorways to reading, discussed briefly above, have been cast wide open. Stories relying upon the basic crime fiction formula as a foundation can be gothic tales, clue puzzles, forensic procedurals, spy thrillers, hardboiled narratives, or violent crime narratives, amongst many others. The settings can be quiet villages or busy metropolises, landscapes that readers actually inhabit or that provide a form of affordable tourism. These stories can be set in the past, the here and now, or the future. Characters can range from Edgar Allan Poe’s C. Auguste Dupin to Dashiell Hammett’s Sam Spade, from Agatha Christie’s Miss Jane Marple to Kerry Greenwood’s Honourable Phryne Fisher. Similarly, language can come in numerous styles from the direct (even rough) words of Carter Brown to the literary prose of Peter Temple. Anything is possible, meaning everything is available to readers. For Auden—although he required a crime to be committed and expected that crime to be resolved—these doorways were only slightly ajar. For him, the story had to be a Whodunit; the setting had to be rural England, though a college setting was also considered suitable; the characters had to be “eccentric (aesthetically interesting individuals) and good (instinctively ethical)” and there needed to be a “completely satisfactory detective” (Sherlock Holmes, Inspector French, and Father Brown were identified as “satisfactory”); and the language descriptive and detailed (406, 409, 408). To illustrate this point, Auden’s concept of crime fiction has been plotted on a taxonomy, below, that traces the genre’s main developments over a period of three centuries. As can be seen, much of what is, today, taken for granted as being classified as crime fiction is completely excluded from Auden’s ideal. Figure 1: Taxonomy of Crime Fiction (Adapted from Franks, Murder 136) Crime Fiction: A Personal Journey I discovered crime fiction the summer before I started high school when I saw the film version of The Big Sleep starring Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall. A few days after I had seen the film I started reading the Raymond Chandler novel of the same title, featuring his famous detective Philip Marlowe, and was transfixed by the second paragraph: The main hallway of the Sternwood place was two stories high. Over the entrance doors, which would have let in a troop of Indian elephants, there was a broad stained-glass panel showing a knight in dark armour rescuing a lady who was tied to a tree and didn’t have any clothes on but some very long and convenient hair. The knight had pushed the visor of his helmet back to be sociable, and he was fiddling with the knots on the ropes that tied the lady to the tree and not getting anywhere. I stood there and thought that if I lived in the house, I would sooner or later have to climb up there and help him. He didn’t seem to be really trying (9). John Scaggs has written that this passage indicates Marlowe is an idealised figure, a knight of romance rewritten onto the mean streets of mid-20th century Los Angeles (62); a relocation Susan Roland calls a “secular form of the divinely sanctioned knight errant on a quest for metaphysical justice” (139): my kind of guy. Like many young people I looked for adventure and escape in books, a search that was realised with Raymond Chandler and his contemporaries. On the escapism scale, these men with their stories of tough-talking detectives taking on murderers and other criminals, law enforcement officers, and the occasional femme fatale, were certainly a sharp upgrade from C.S. Lewis and the Chronicles of Narnia. After reading the works written by the pioneers of the hardboiled and roman noir traditions, I looked to other American authors such as Edgar Allan Poe who, in the mid-1800s, became the father of the modern detective story, and Thorne Smith who, in the 1920s and 1930s, produced magical realist tales with characters who often chose to dabble on the wrong side of the law. This led me to the works of British crime writers including Arthur Conan Doyle, Agatha Christie, and Dorothy L. Sayers. My personal library then became dominated by Australian writers of crime fiction, from the stories of bushrangers and convicts of the Colonial era to contemporary tales of police and private investigators. There have been various attempts to “improve” or “refine” my tastes: to convince me that serious literature is real reading and frivolous fiction is merely a distraction. Certainly, the reading of those novels, often described as classics, provide perfect combinations of beauty and brilliance. Their narratives, however, do not often result in satisfactory endings. This routinely frustrates me because, while I understand the philosophical frameworks that many writers operate within, I believe the characters of such works are too often treated unfairly in the final pages. For example, at the end of Ernest Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms, Frederick Henry “left the hospital and walked back to the hotel in the rain” after his son is stillborn and “Mrs Henry” becomes “very ill” and dies (292–93). Another example can be found on the last page of George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four when Winston Smith “gazed up at the enormous face” and he realised that he “loved Big Brother” (311). Endings such as these provide a space for reflection about the world around us but rarely spark an immediate response of how great that world is to live in (Franks Motive). The subject matter of crime fiction does not easily facilitate fairy-tale finishes, yet, people continue to read the genre because, generally, the concluding chapter will show that justice, of some form, will be done. Punishment will be meted out to the ‘bad characters’ that have broken society’s moral or legal laws; the ‘good characters’ may experience hardships and may suffer but they will, generally, prevail. Crime Fiction: A Taste For Justice Superimposed upon Auden’s parameters around crime fiction, are his ideas of the law in the real world and how such laws are interwoven with the Christian-based system of ethics. This can be seen in Auden’s listing of three classes of crime: “(a) offenses against God and one’s neighbor or neighbors; (b) offenses against God and society; (c) offenses against God” (407). Murder, in Auden’s opinion, is a class (b) offense: for the crime fiction novel, the society reflected within the story should be one in “a state of grace, i.e., a society where there is no need of the law, no contradiction between the aesthetic individual and the ethical universal, and where murder, therefore, is the unheard-of act which precipitates a crisis” (408). Additionally, in the crime novel “as in its mirror image, the Quest for the Grail, maps (the ritual of space) and timetables (the ritual of time) are desirable. Nature should reflect its human inhabitants, i.e., it should be the Great Good Place; for the more Eden-like it is, the greater the contradiction of murder” (408). Thus, as Charles J. Rzepka notes, “according to W.H. Auden, the ‘classical’ English detective story typically re-enacts rites of scapegoating and expulsion that affirm the innocence of a community of good people supposedly ignorant of evil” (12). This premise—of good versus evil—supports Auden’s claim that the punishment of wrongdoers, particularly those who claim the “right to be omnipotent” and commit murder (409), should be swift and final: As to the murderer’s end, of the three alternatives—execution, suicide, and madness—the first is preferable; for if he commits suicide he refuses to repent, and if he goes mad he cannot repent, but if he does not repent society cannot forgive. Execution, on the other hand, is the act of atonement by which the murderer is forgiven by society (409). The unilateral endorsement of state-sanctioned murder is problematic, however, because—of the main justifications for punishment: retribution; deterrence; incapacitation; and rehabilitation (Carter Snead 1245)—punishment, in this context, focuses exclusively upon retribution and deterrence, incapacitation is achieved by default, but the idea of rehabilitation is completely ignored. This, in turn, ignores how the reading of crime fiction can be incorporated into a broader popular discourse on punishment and how a taste for crime fiction and a taste for justice are inextricably intertwined. One of the ways to explore the connection between crime fiction and justice is through the lens of Emile Durkheim’s thesis on the conscience collective which proposes punishment is a process allowing for the demonstration of group norms and the strengthening of moral boundaries. David Garland, in summarising this thesis, states: So although the modern state has a near monopoly of penal violence and controls the administration of penalties, a much wider population feels itself to be involved in the process of punishment, and supplies the context of social support and valorization within which state punishment takes place (32). It is claimed here that this “much wider population” connecting with the task of punishment can be taken further. Crime fiction, above all other forms of literary production, which, for those who do not directly contribute to the maintenance of their respective legal systems, facilitates a feeling of active participation in the penalising of a variety of perpetrators: from the issuing of fines to incarceration (Franks Punishment). Crime fiction readers are therefore, temporarily at least, direct contributors to a more stable society: one that is clearly based upon right and wrong and reliant upon the conscience collective to maintain and reaffirm order. In this context, the reader is no longer alone, with only their crime fiction novel for company, but has become an active member of “a moral framework which binds individuals to each other and to its conventions and institutions” (Garland 51). This allows crime fiction, once viewed as a “vice” (Wilson 395) or an “addiction” (Auden 406), to be seen as playing a crucial role in the preservation of social mores. It has been argued “only the most literal of literary minds would dispute the claim that fictional characters help shape the way we think of ourselves, and hence help us articulate more clearly what it means to be human” (Galgut 190). Crime fiction focuses on what it means to be human, and how complex humans are, because stories of murders, and the men and women who perpetrate and solve them, comment on what drives some people to take a life and others to avenge that life which is lost and, by extension, engages with a broad community of readers around ideas of justice and punishment. It is, furthermore, argued here that the idea of the story is one of the more important doorways for crime fiction and, more specifically, the conclusions that these stories, traditionally, offer. For Auden, the ending should be one of restoration of the spirit, as he suspected that “the typical reader of detective stories is, like myself, a person who suffers from a sense of sin” (411). In this way, the “phantasy, then, which the detective story addict indulges is the phantasy of being restored to the Garden of Eden, to a state of innocence, where he may know love as love and not as the law” (412), indicating that it was not necessarily an accident that “the detective story has flourished most in predominantly Protestant countries” (408). Today, modern crime fiction is a “broad church, where talented authors raise questions and cast light on a variety of societal and other issues through the prism of an exciting, page-turning story” (Sisterson). Moreover, our tastes in crime fiction have been tempered by a growing fear of real crime, particularly murder, “a crime of unique horror” (Hitchens 200). This has seen some readers develop a taste for crime fiction that is not produced within a framework of ecclesiastical faith but is rather grounded in reliance upon those who enact punishment in both the fictional and real worlds. As P.D. James has written: [N]ot by luck or divine intervention, but by human ingenuity, human intelligence and human courage. It confirms our hope that, despite some evidence to the contrary, we live in a beneficent and moral universe in which problems can be solved by rational means and peace and order restored from communal or personal disruption and chaos (174). Dorothy L. Sayers, despite her work to legitimise crime fiction, wrote that there: “certainly does seem a possibility that the detective story will some time come to an end, simply because the public will have learnt all the tricks” (108). Of course, many readers have “learnt all the tricks”, or most of them. This does not, however, detract from the genre’s overall appeal. We have not grown bored with, or become tired of, the formula that revolves around good and evil, and justice and punishment. Quite the opposite. Our knowledge of, as well as our faith in, the genre’s “tricks” gives a level of confidence to readers who are looking for endings that punish murderers and other wrongdoers, allowing for more satisfactory conclusions than the, rather depressing, ends given to Mr. Henry and Mr. Smith by Ernest Hemingway and George Orwell noted above. Conclusion For some, the popularity of crime fiction is a curious case indeed. When Penguin and Collins published the Marsh Million—100,000 copies each of 10 Ngaio Marsh titles in 1949—the author’s relief at the success of the project was palpable when she commented that “it was pleasant to find detective fiction being discussed as a tolerable form of reading by people whose opinion one valued” (172). More recently, upon the announcement that a Miles Franklin Award would be given to Peter Temple for his crime novel Truth, John Sutherland, a former chairman of the judges for one of the world’s most famous literary awards, suggested that submitting a crime novel for the Booker Prize would be: “like putting a donkey into the Grand National”. Much like art, fashion, food, and home furnishings or any one of the innumerable fields of activity and endeavour that are subject to opinion, there will always be those within the world of fiction who claim positions as arbiters of taste. Yet reading is intensely personal. I like a strong, well-plotted story, appreciate a carefully researched setting, and can admire elegant language, but if a character is too difficult to embrace—if I find I cannot make an emotional connection, if I find myself ambivalent about their fate—then a book is discarded as not being to my taste. It is also important to recognise that some tastes are transient. Crime fiction stories that are popular today could be forgotten tomorrow. Some stories appeal to such a broad range of tastes they are immediately included in the crime fiction canon. Yet others evolve over time to accommodate widespread changes in taste (an excellent example of this can be seen in the continual re-imagining of the stories of Sherlock Holmes). Personal tastes also adapt to our experiences and our surroundings. A book that someone adores in their 20s might be dismissed in their 40s. A storyline that was meaningful when read abroad may lose some of its magic when read at home. Personal events, from a change in employment to the loss of a loved one, can also impact upon what we want to read. Similarly, world events, such as economic crises and military conflicts, can also influence our reading preferences. Auden professed an almost insatiable appetite for crime fiction, describing the reading of detective stories as an addiction, and listed a very specific set of criteria to define the Whodunit. Today, such self-imposed restrictions are rare as, while there are many rules for writing crime fiction, there are no rules for reading this (or any other) genre. People are, generally, free to choose what, where, when, why, and how they read crime fiction, and to follow the deliberate or whimsical paths that their tastes may lay down for them. Crime fiction writers, past and present, offer: an incredible array of detective stories from the locked room to the clue puzzle; settings that range from the English country estate to city skyscrapers in glamorous locations around the world; numerous characters from cerebral sleuths who can solve a crime in their living room over a nice, hot cup of tea to weapon wielding heroes who track down villains on foot in darkened alleyways; and, language that ranges from the cultured conversations from the novels of the genre’s Golden Age to the hard-hitting terminology of forensic and legal procedurals. Overlaid on these appeal factors is the capacity of crime fiction to feed a taste for justice: to engage, vicariously at least, in the establishment of a more stable society. Of course, there are those who turn to the genre for a temporary distraction, an occasional guilty pleasure. There are those who stumble across the genre by accident or deliberately seek it out. 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