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Author: Grafiati

Published: 6 September 2023

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1

Srivastava, Gaurav, and R. C. Mehrotra. "Barringtonia Forster & Forster (Lecythidaceae) leaf from the late Oligocene of Assam, India." Journal of Palaeosciences 67, no. (1-2) (December 31, 2018): 139–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.54991/jop.2018.54.

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Northeast India is considered as corridor for the plant migration from India to Southeast Asia and vice–versa after the collision of Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate. The fossil record of the family Lecythidaceae is very sparse globally. We report a fossil leaf of Barringtonia (Lecythidaceae) from the late Oligocene sediments of Assam, India. The modern distribution and fossil records of the genus indicate its origin in Gondwana derived continents. After collision and complete suturing of the Indian and Eurasian plates the genus most likely migrated from India to Southeast Asia.

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2

More, Nandan, and Bharat Tidke. "License Plate Recognition for Indian Number Plate: A Review." International Journal of Computer Applications 103, no. 15 (October 18, 2014): 5–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.5120/18148-9391.

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3

Krishna, S., J. Mathew, R. Majumdar, P. Roy, and K. Vinod Kumar. "Geodynamics of the Indian Lithospheric Plate relative to the neighbouring Plates as revealed by Space Geodetic Measurements." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XL-8 (November 27, 2014): 53–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-xl-8-53-2014.

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The Indian Plate is highly dynamic in nature which in turn makes the Indo-Eurassian collision zone the foci of most of the historic large magnitude earthquakes. Processing of positional information from continuously observing reference stations is one of the space based geodetic techniques used globally and nationally to understand the crustal dynamics. The present study evaluates the dynamic nature of the Indian plate relative to its adjoining plates using the permanent GPS data (2011 to 2013) of 12 International GNSS Service (IGS), which are spread across the Indian, Eurassian, Australian, Somaliyan and African plates. The data processing was carried out using GAMIT/GLOBK software. The results indicate that the average velocity for the two IGS stations on the Indian Plate (Hyderabad and Bangalore) is 54.25 mm/year towards NE in the ITRF-2008 reference frame. The relative velocity of various stations with respect to the Indian plate has been estimated using the Bangalore station and has been found that the stations in the Eurasian plate (Lhasa, Urumqi, Bishkek and Kitab) are moving with velocity ranging from 25 to 33 mm/year in the SE direction resulting in compressional interaction with the Indian plate. This study reveals and confirms to the previous studies that the Indian- Eurassian-Australian Plates are moving at different relative velocities leading to compressional regimes at their margins leading to seismicity in these zones.

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4

Mitra, N. D. "Indian Gondwana Plate margin and its evolutionary history." Journal of Palaeosciences 36 (December 31, 1987): 302–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.54991/jop.1987.1589.

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The outline of Indian Plate in the Gondwanaland Plate mosaic has been reconstructed. The basic premise for the reconstruction lies in the identification of the suture zone along Indus-Yarlung tectonic zone and Indo-Burman range, both of which are wreathed with ophiolite complexes. The north eastern margin of the Indian part of the Gondwana Plate, which was ill-defined in many earlier reconstructions, is now more precisely delineated with the find of slide-generated olistostrom bodies representing plate marginal trench setting around Ukhrul-Paoyi-Kiphire area of the ophiolite belt of Manipur-Nagaland. The recent report of continental Gondwanas close to this suture zone lends credence to this palaeogeographic reconstruction. On the north, the continental sediments having distinct Gondwana entity rarely extend to the Tethyan basin and as such the Indus-Yarlung Suture truly delimits the Gondwana Plate domain. The Himalayan front is regarded as Tethys-facing margin of the Gondwana continent. Along the eastern margin of Indian Plate, rifting as a sequel to ocean floor spreading led to the evolution of coastal troughs of Cauvery, Palar, Godavari-Krishna and Athgarh which bears records of marine transgressions during Aptian-Albian time from a juvenile Indian Ocean. These oceanward tilted troughs may represents the rifted arm of a triple junction formed during the continental fragmentation. The discovery of such troughs in the Upper Assam and Bengal Basin suggests that the separation of India from Eastern Gondwanaland occurred in a NE-SW direction. The Cambay and the Kutch basins document similar evolutionary history along the western margin of the Indian Plate. As a consequence of crustal tension accompanying the fragmentation, the outpour of tholeiitic basalt took place in Rajmahal, Khasi-Garo-Mikir Hills and Upper Assam at 100-105 million years along the west coast. The earliest manifestation of volcanism has been recorded in Saurashtra which is considered to be contemporaneous with Rajmahal volcanicity. It is suggested that both the eastern and western margins of the Indian Gondwana Plate bear closely related records of fragmentation in the Early Cretaceous time.

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5

DeMets, C., S. Merkouriev, and S. Jade. "High-resolution reconstructions and GPS estimates of India–Eurasia and India–Somalia plate motions: 20 Ma to the present." Geophysical Journal International 220, no. 2 (November 11, 2019): 1149–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggz508.

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SUMMARY We reconstruct the movement of the India Plate relative to Eurasia at ≈1-Myr intervals from 20 Ma to the present from GPS site velocities and high-resolution sequences of rotations from the India–Somalia–Antarctic–Nubia–North America–Eurasia Plate circuit. The plate circuit rotations, which are all estimated using the same data fitting functions, magnetic reversal sampling points, calibrations for magnetic reversal outward displacement, and noise mitigation methods, include new India–Somalia rotations estimated from numerous Carlsberg and northern Central Indian ridge plate kinematic data and high-resolution rotations from the Southwest Indian Ridge that account for slow motion between the Nubia and Somalia plates. Our new rotations indicate that India–Somalia plate motion slowed down by 25–30 per cent from 19.7 to 12.5–11.1 Ma, but remained steady since at least 9.8 Ma and possibly 12.5 Ma. Our new India–Eurasia rotations predict a relatively simple plate motion history, consisting of NNE-directed interplate convergence since 19 Ma, a ≈50 per cent convergence rate decrease from 19.7 to 12.5–11.1 Ma, and steady or nearly steady plate motion since 12.5–11.1 Ma. Instantaneous convergence rates estimated with our new India–Eurasia GPS angular velocity are 16 per cent slower than our reconstructed plate kinematic convergence rates for times since 2.6 Ma, implying either a rapid, recent slowdown in the convergence rate or larger than expected errors in our geodetic and/or plate kinematic estimates. During an acceleration of seafloor faulting within the wide India–Capricorn oceanic boundary at 8–7.5 Ma, our new rotations indicate that the motions of the India Plate relative to Somalia and Eurasia remained steady. We infer that forces acting on the Capricorn rather than the India Plate were responsible for the accelerated seafloor deformation, in accord with a previous study. India–Eurasia displacements that are predicted with our new, well-constrained rotations are fit poorly by a recently proposed model that attributes the post-60-Ma slowdown in India–Eurasia convergence rates to the steady resistance of a strong lithospheric mantle below Tibet.

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6

Deplus, C. "PLATE TECTONICS: Indian Ocean Actively Deforms." Science 292, no. 5523 (June 8, 2001): 1850–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1061082.

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7

Iaffaldano, Giampiero, Laurent Husson, and Hans-Peter Bunge. "Monsoon speeds up Indian plate motion." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304, no. 3-4 (April 2011): 503–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2011.02.026.

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8

Kundu, Tamal, Apurba Pal, Parikshit Roy, AlokeKumar Datta, and Pijush Topdar. "Application of UPV-Instrument in Health Monitoring of Indian Rail Section Using AE Technique." Proceedings of the 12th Structural Engineering Convention, SEC 2022: Themes 1-2 1, no. 1 (December 19, 2022): 1429–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.38208/acp.v1.673.

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In present work, buckling analysis of laminated composite plates is carried out using recently proposed higher-order zigzag theory (HOZT). Third order variation of in-plane displacement field is taken across the thickness of the plate. For predicting the behavior efficiently for thick plates, quadratic variation of transverse displacement field is assumed for core layer and constant for face layers. The present theory satisfies inter-laminar transverse shear stress continuity condition at interface along with zero value at top and bottom surface of the plate. In present study, nine-noded finite element having eleven degrees of freedom per node is used. Present model is free from requirement of any kind of penalty function or C-1 condition.

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9

Hajare, Gayatri, Utkarsh Kharche, Pritam Mahajan, and Apurva Shinde. "Automatic Number Plate Recognition System for Indian Number Plates using Machine Learning Techniques." ITM Web of Conferences 44 (2022): 03044. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/itmconf/20224403044.

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India being a country where the population is above 1.3 billion where each person has at least one car of his/her use. Considering this, the number of cars driven on the roads of India must be greater than the population of the people in the country. India being a diverse country, diversity is not only seen in the language of the number plates but also in size, spacing between the letters on the number plate and the font of the number plate. Diversity differs from state to state. Even though most of the people are using English Number plates, there is no certain law as to how a number plate should be, so some people tend to have number plates according to their preferences. To withstand these problems, we have created a system using You Only Look Once version 5 (YOLOv5) for number plate detection and Google Tesseract for Character Recognition.

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10

Gordon, Richard G. "Indian Ocean violates conventional plate tectonic theory." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 72, no. 10 (March 5, 1991): 113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/eo072i010p00113-01.

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11

Cloetingh, Sierd, and Rinus Wortel. "Regional stress field of the Indian Plate." Geophysical Research Letters 12, no. 2 (February 1985): 77–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/gl012i002p00077.

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12

Malaimani, E. C., James Campbell, Barbara Görres, Holger Kotthoff, and Stefan Smaritschnik. "Indian plate kinematic studies by GPS-geodesy." Earth, Planets and Space 52, no. 10 (October 2000): 741–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/bf03352275.

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13

Mahesh, P., J. K. Catherine, V. K. Gahalaut, Bhaskar Kundu, A. Ambikapathy, Amit Bansal, L. Premkishore, et al. "Rigid Indian plate: Constraints from GPS measurements." Gondwana Research 22, no. 3-4 (November 2012): 1068–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2012.01.011.

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14

Saha, Satadal, Subhadip Basu, and Mita Nasipuri. "iLPR: an Indian license plate recognition system." Multimedia Tools and Applications 74, no. 23 (July 24, 2014): 10621–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11042-014-2196-7.

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15

Merkouriev, S., and C. DeMets. "Constraints on Indian plate motion since 20 Ma from dense Russian magnetic data: Implications for Indian plate dynamics." Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 7, no. 2 (February 2006): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005gc001079.

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16

Rakshit, Raghupratim, Sowrav Saikia, Bubul Bharali, Farha Zaman, and Devojit Bezbaruah. "Locked crustal faults associated with the subducting Indian Lithosphere and its implications in seismotectonic activity in the Central Indo-Burmese Ranges, Northeast India." Geofizika 39, no. 1 (March 31, 2022): 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.15233/gfz.2022.39.5.

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Northeast India is a geodynamic hotspot for tectonic activities where three different plates viz., Indian, Eurasian and Burma Plates collide and deform with respect to each other. Northeast moving Indian Plate subducting transversely beneath Burma Plate results in the formation of the Indo-Burmese Ranges (IBR). In central IBR, the north-south trending Churachandpur-Mao Fault (CMF) is situated in the east of the Mizoram-Tripura Fold belt. The northwest-southeast trending Mat River Fault or Mat Fault (MF), which is another major crustal-scale strike-slip transverse fault, upholds the movement of the CMF. In this work, seismotectonic analysis of these two active intra-plate faults which are related to the June-September 2020 earthquake series, have been discussed. It is observed from satellite imageries, earthquake data and confirmed by the field investigation that these faults are not directly involved in the generation of the earthquakes; rather epicenters are distributed in the junction between the MF and CMF. It is evident from the seismotectonic analysis that this stress is distributed through some northwest-southeast synthetic faults, located north of MF and parallel to it, close to the junction with the CMF. The focal solution of the strongest of the 2020 earthquakes, the 5.5 Mw Champhai earthquake (on 22nd June 2020 at 04:10 IST) in Mizoram shows that the principal nodal plane was aligning along MF. Therefore, it is these synthetic faults that are responsible for the earthquakes rather than the locked zone between intra-plate MF and CMF crustal faults. This juxtaposition has caused a major shift in the geodynamic regime in the central IBR. Champhai earthquake might not be the only large devastating earthquake in the region and could be followed by more major earthquakes in the future.

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17

Acharyya, S. K. "Limits of Greater Indian Plate during Gondwana time." Journal of Palaeosciences 36 (December 31, 1987): 290–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.54991/jop.1987.1588.

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Limits of the Greater Indian Gondwana continent varied with its break-up and collisional episodes. Late Palaeozoic basal Gondwana type glaciogene and associated sediments containing cold-water marine fauna, with or without Glossopteris, Cathaysian floral remains or admixtures occur in and across the Himalaya, in south Pamir, Tibet and in Shan-Tenesserim-Malaysian area, i.e., across the Late Mesozoic peri-Indian ophiolite belts. Cathaysian Flora with or without Glossopteris intercalations also occurs in western Iraq and New Guinea, both representing parts of the Gondwanic shield. Thus during Late Palaeozoic the Gondwana continents also hosted Cathaysian flora, especially in low palaeolatitudinal positions. The Himalaya, parts of Middle-East, Tibet, Shan-Tenesserim and Malaysian continental blocks therefore possibly formed parts of the Greater Indian Gondwanic continent. The Late Cretaceous and Eocene olistostromal flysch belts tectonically flooring the ophiolite mélange of the Indus-Tsangpo and Naga-Chin Hills Andaman belts respectively delineate the northern and eastern continental margins of the Indian Plate. The present subduction zone beneath the Andaman island arc represents a westerly relayed Neogene margin of the Indian Plate.

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18

Kumar, Prakash, Xiaohui Yuan, M. Ravi Kumar, Rainer Kind, Xueqing Li, and R. K. Chadha. "The rapid drift of the Indian tectonic plate." Nature 449, no. 7164 (October 2007): 894–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature06214.

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19

KOYAMA, E., and M. PACIFICI. "Syndecans and Indian hedgehog co_regulate growth plate function." Matrix Biology 25 (November 2006): S27—S28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matbio.2006.08.077.

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20

Wiens, Douglas A., Seth Stein, Charles Demets, Richard G. Gordon, and Carol Stein. "Plate tectonic models for Indian Ocean “intraplate” deformation." Tectonophysics 132, no. 1-3 (December 1986): 37–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(86)90023-5.

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21

Bilham, Roger, Rebecca Bendick, and Kali Wallace. "Flexure of the Indian plate and intraplate earthquakes." Journal of Earth System Science 112, no. 3 (September 2003): 315–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02709259.

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22

Sborshchikov, I. M. "Present-day kinematics around the Indian Ocean plate." Oceanology 49, no. 1 (February 2009): 101–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0001437009010123.

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23

Carpenter, Cap T. A. "The west indian hurricane, September 1898. (Plate II.)." Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 25, no. 109 (July 6, 2007): 23–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/qj.49702510904.

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24

Singh, Satish C. "Intra-plate Deformation, Great Earthquakes and Nascent Plate Boundary in the Indian Ocean." Journal of the Geological Society of India 97, no. 7 (July 2021): 681–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12594-021-1750-y.

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25

Pusok, Adina E., and Dave R. Stegman. "The convergence history of India-Eurasia records multiple subduction dynamics processes." Science Advances 6, no. 19 (May 2020): eaaz8681. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz8681.

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During the Cretaceous, the Indian plate moved towards Eurasia at the fastest rates ever recorded. The details of this journey are preserved in the Indian Ocean seafloor, which document two distinct pulses of fast motion, separated by a noticeable slowdown. The nature of this rapid acceleration, followed by a rapid slowdown and then succeeded by a second speedup, is puzzling to explain. Using an extensive observation dataset and numerical models of subduction, we show that the arrival of the Reunion mantle plume started a sequence of events that can explain this history of plate motion. The forces applied by the plume initiate an intra-oceanic subduction zone, which eventually adds enough additional force to drive the plates at the anomalously fast speeds. The two-stage closure of a double subduction system, including accretion of an island arc at 50 million years ago, may help reconcile geological evidence for a protracted India-Eurasia collision.

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26

Mukhopadhyay, Ranadhir, and N. H. Khadge. "Seamounts in the Central Indian Ocean Basin: indicators of the Indian plate movement." Journal of Earth System Science 99, no. 3 (September 1990): 357–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02841864.

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27

Treloar, Peter J., David C. Rex, and Matthew P. Williams. "The role of erosion and extension in unroofing the Indian Plate thrust stack, Pakistan Himalaya." Geological Magazine 128, no. 5 (September 1991): 465–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016756800018628.

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AbstractIn north Pakistan cooling history data show that metamorphism within the Indian Plate predated 40 Ma, and that the post-metamorphic thrust stack developed within the crystalline internal zones had cooled to less than 100 °C by c. 18 Ma. Much of this cooling occurred during late Oligocene to early Miocene time and can be equated to substantial unroofing of the metamorphic pile. This unroofing was by a combination of erosion, recorded in Lower Miocene molasse deposits within the foreland basins, and by large scale hinterland (northward) directed extensional normal faults developed within the upper parts of the Indian Plate and within the Kohistan–India suture zone and operative as late as 20 Ma. As up to 20 km of material was removed during exhumation, substantial uplift must have been synchronous with exhumation. Part of this may be accounted for by isostatic rebound of the thickened Indian Plate, and part by uplift in the hanging wall of major south-verging thrusts developed at the base of the crystalline pile.

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28

Shrivastava, Ashok Kumar. "A SFPM METHOD FOR INDIAN AUTOMOBILE RANGE PLATE RECOGNITION." International Journal of Engineering Technologies and Management Research 5, no. 2 (April 27, 2020): 35–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.29121/ijetmr.v5.i2.2018.611.

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Automobile range plate recognition is a challenging task in cyber crime. The numbers are stated of being in the automobile range plate, that is different shape and pattern in different countries. In India the automobile range plate uses white as background and black as foreground colour. In this paper we propose a SFPM methodology, first we find out the shape of license plate then enhance the image and calculate the characters of the license plate by using segmentations method. At the end of algorithm we apply fuzzy and pattern matching for character recognition. In our work we use two databases, first database store different-2 alphabet format and second database store a different-2 format of number.

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29

Wiens, Douglas A., Charles DeMets, Richard G. Gordon, Seth Stein, Don Argus, Joseph F. Engeln, Paul Lundgren, et al. "A diffuse plate boundary model for Indian Ocean tectonics." Geophysical Research Letters 12, no. 7 (July 1985): 429–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/gl012i007p00429.

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30

Jayalakshmi, S., S. T. G. Raghukanth, and B. N. Rao. "An XFEM Model for Seismic Activity in Indian Plate." Journal of Earthquake Engineering 22, no. 5 (March 2017): 942–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2016.1269693.

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31

Eagles, Graeme. "A little spin in the Indian Ocean plate circuit." Tectonophysics 754 (March 2019): 80–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2019.01.015.

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32

Arora, Neha, Lalit Jain, and Puran Gour. "Highly Adaptive Indian High Security Vehicle Number Plate Recognition." International Journal of Computer Applications 130, no. 16 (November 17, 2015): 28–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.5120/ijca2015907198.

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33

Prasad, Guntupalli V. R., and Ashok Sahni. "Late Cretaceous continental vertebrate fossil record from India: Palaeobiogeographical insights." Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 180, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 369–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gssgfbull.180.4.369.

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Abstract Geophysical data suggested a minimum of 35 Ma physical isolation for the Indian plate from the time of its separation from Madagascar around 88 Ma ago to its final collision with Asia in the Early-Middle Eocene (55-50 Ma ago). Such an extended period of segregation of any landmass is expected to result in genetic isolation of pre-existing populations leading to the development of endemic biota. Therefore, continental Late Cretaceous biota of India hold the key to our understanding of effects of long isolation and northward drift of the Indian plate over different latitudinal belts. Focused palaeontological research in the last one and half decades on the Deccan volcano-sedimentary sequences (infra– and intertrappean beds) has resulted in the recovery of diverse assemblages of vertebrate, invertebrate, and plant fossils. The Deccan volcano-sedimentary sequences were dated Late Cretaceous-Early Palaeocene in age based on vertebrate, ostracod, planktonic foraminiferal, palynofloral and geochronological data. Critical evaluation of the biota from these strata brings out a complex biogeographical picture. The Late Cretaceous biota of India include some taxa of Gondwanan affinities (leptodactylid, hylid and ranoid frogs, madtsoiid and nigerophiid snakes, pelomedusoid turtles, mesosuchian crocodiles, abelisaurid dinosaurs, and gondwanathere mammals), Gondwanan relicts (haramiyidan mammals), certain taxa of Laurasian affinities (pelobatid and Gobiatinae frogs, anguimorph lizards, eutherian mammals, charophytes), and ostracods of predominantly endemic nature. Since India was once part of the former Gondwanaland, the presence of Gondwanan taxa in the Late Cretaceous of India is not anomalous from a biogeographic point of view. These taxa might have been derived from Gondwanan stocks that boarded the Indian plate prior to its break-up from Africa or might represent immigrants from South America that reached the Indo-Madagascar block via Antarctica and the Kerguelen Plateau/Gunnerus ridge not later than 80 Ma. However, the presence of Laurasian non-marine taxa in the northward drifting Indian plate defies palaeogeographical data showing a wide body of marine water (Tethys) separating India from Asia. In the light of latest palaeontological, stratigraphic, geochemical and geophysical data from the northern margin of India, one cannot rule out dispersals from the northern landmasses across the Kohistan and Dras island-arcs and Trans-Himalayan magmatic arc. Other biogeographical models, such as “Out-of-India Dispersals” for many vertebrate, invertebrate, and plant groups, also deserve a close examination. At present, limited quantitative fossil data is available to test these biogeographical models.

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34

Lane, N. Gary, and Robert M. Howell. "Unusual crinoids from the Ramp Creek Formation (Mississippian), Indian Creek, Montgomery County, Indiana." Journal of Paleontology 60, no. 4 (July 1986): 898–903. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022336000043055.

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Three new species of inadunate crinoids of Early Mississippian age from the Ramp Creek Formation along Indiana Creek, southern Montgomery County, Indiana, are described. Poteriocrinites amplus n. sp. is the first correctly identified record from North America of this long-ranging Old World genus. Poteriocrinites macropleurus and P. doris from the Burlington Limestone are here reassigned to Springericrinus. Interchange of Mississippian crinoid genera between Europe and North America is rare, many genera being endemic. Springericrinus sacculus n. sp. is the youngest reported species of this North American counterpart of Poteriocrinites. This new species exhibits two advanced features: presence of only one, rather than three, anal plate, and presence of 3 or 4, rather than 1 or 2, primibrachial plates per ray. The third species, Decadocrinus stellatus n. sp., presents an interesting blend of characters usually used as generic discriminators between Decadocrinus and Histocrinus. The specimen could possibly be considered to be an intermediate between these two genera that are currently placed, incorrectly we believe, in two separate superfamilies.

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35

SEARLE, MIKE, RICHARD I. CORFIELD, BEN STEPHENSON, and JOE MCCARRON. "Structure of the North Indian continental margin in the Ladakh–Zanskar Himalayas: implications for the timing of obduction of the Spontang ophiolite, India–Asia collision and deformation events in the Himalaya." Geological Magazine 134, no. 3 (May 1997): 297–316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016756897006857.

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The collision of India and Asia can be defined as a process that started with the closing of the Tethyan ocean that, during Mesozoic and early Tertiary times, separated the two continental plates. Following initial contact of Indian and Asian continental crust, the Indian plate continued its northward drift into Asia, a process which continues to this day. In the Ladakh–Zanskar Himalaya the youngest marine sediments, both in the Indus suture zone and along the northern continental margin of India, are lowermost Eocene Nummulitic limestones dated at ∼54 Ma. Along the north Indian shelf margin, southwest-facing folded Palaeocene–Lower Eocene shallow-marine limestones unconformably overlie highly deformed Mesozoic shelf carbonates and allochthonous Upper Cretaceous shales, indicating an initial deformation event during the latest Cretaceous–early Palaeocene, corresponding with the timing of obduction of the Spontang ophiolite onto the Indian margin. It is suggested here that all the ophiolites from Oman, along western Pakistan (Bela, Muslim Bagh, Zhob and Waziristan) to the Spontang and Amlang-la ophiolites in the Himalaya were obducted during the late Cretaceous and earliest Palaeocene, prior to the closing of Tethys.The major phase of crustal shortening followed the India–Asia collision producing spectacular folds and thrusts across the Zanskar range. A new structural profile across the Indian continental margin along the Zanskar River gorge is presented here. Four main units are separated by major detachments including both normal faults (e.g. Zanskar, Karsha Detachments), southwest-directed thrusts reactivated as northeast-directed normal faults (e.g. Zangla Detachment), breakback thrusts (e.g. Photoksar Thrust) and late Tertiary backthrusts (e.g. Zanskar Backthrust). The normal faults place younger rocks onto older and separate two units, both showing compressional tectonics, but have no net crustal extension across them. Rather, they are related to rapid exhumation of the structurally lower, middle and deep crustal metamorphic rocks of the High Himalaya along the footwall of the Zanskar Detachment. The backthrusting affects the northern margin of the Zanskar shelf and the entire Indus suture zone, including the mid-Eocene–Miocene post-collisional fluvial and lacustrine molasse sediments (Indus Group), and therefore must be Pliocene–Pleistocene in age. Minimum amounts of crustal shortening across the Indian continental margin are 150–170 km although extreme ductile folding makes any balancing exercise questionable.

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36

Paudyal, Harihar. "Himalayan Seismic Activity: A Concise Picture." Himalayan Physics 3 (December 26, 2012): 35–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/hj.v3i0.7273.

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The lofty Himalayan Mountains have formed due to continuous thrusting of the Indian plate under Eurasian plate. The incessant northward movement of the Indian plate generated large amount of strain energy at the plate boundaries which is released in form of earthquake frequently. Large numbers of earthquakes occurred in past signifies that the Himalayan region is seismically very active. The b- value for the central Himalayan region is determined as 1.15 which defines the level of seismic activity of a region.The Himalayan PhysicsVol. 3, No. 32012Page : 35-37

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37

Duvall, Michael J., John W. F. Waldron, Laurent Godin, Yani Najman, and Alex Copley. "Indian plate structural inheritance in the Himalayan foreland basin, Nepal." Basin Research 33, no. 5 (August 2021): 2792–816. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bre.12584.

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38

Sandiford, Mike, David D. Coblentz, and Randall M. Richardson. "Ridge torques and continental collision in the Indian-Australian plate." Geology 23, no. 7 (1995): 653. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0653:rtacci>2.3.co;2.

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39

Ceylan, Savas, James Ni, John Y. Chen, Qie Zhang, Frederik Tilmann, and Eric Sandvol. "Fragmented Indian plate and vertically coherent deformation beneath eastern Tibet." Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 117, B11 (November 2012): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012jb009210.

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40

Edwards, R. A., T. A. Minshull, and R. S. White. "Extension across the Indian-Arabian plate boundary: the Murray Ridge." Geophysical Journal International 142, no. 2 (August 1, 2000): 461–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246x.2000.00163.x.

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Parker, E. S., and W. K. Gealey. "Plate tectonic evolution of the Western Pacific-Indian ocean region." Energy 10, no. 3-4 (March 1985): 249–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0360-5442(85)90045-3.

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Whittaker, J. M., S. E. Williams, J. A. Halpin, T. J. Wild, J. D. Stilwell, F. Jourdan, and N. R. Daczko. "Eastern Indian Ocean microcontinent formation driven by plate motion changes." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 454 (November 2016): 203–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.09.019.

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43

Li, Shihu, Douwe J. J. van Hinsbergen, Yani Najman, Jing Liu-Zeng, Chenglong Deng, and Rixiang Zhu. "Does pulsed Tibetan deformation correlate with Indian plate motion changes?" Earth and Planetary Science Letters 536 (April 2020): 116144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116144.

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44

Virdi, N. S. "Northern margin of the Indian Plate—some litho-tectonic constraints." Tectonophysics 134, no. 1-3 (March 1987): 29–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(87)90247-2.

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45

Lu, Qingtian, Mei Jiang, Zhiqin Xu, Kaiyi Ma, and A. Hirn. "Tomographical evidence for Indian Plate underthrusting only beneath Tethyan Himalaya." Chinese Science Bulletin 44, no. 1 (January 1999): 86–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03182894.

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46

Kothyari, Girish Ch, and B. K. Rastogi. "Tectonic Control on Drainage Network Evolution in the Upper Narmada Valley: Implication to Neotectonics." Geography Journal 2013 (November 27, 2013): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/325808.

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Convergence of the Indian plate towards Eurasia is reflected in neotectonics along several zones throughout the Indian plate. Neotectonics of the upper Narmada river basin following one of the active Son-Narmada Fault (SNF central part) zones in central Peninsular India has been studied through tectonic geomorphometric parameters. The study area is 175 km wide and 400 km long valley and catchment area of upper Narmada river basin in Madhya Pradesh state. High resolution ASTER data indicates neotectonic features like sudden changes in drop of Narmada river floor at two locations around Jabalpur formed by conjugate normal faults. Cross profiles indicate uplift of the entire area by a few hundred meters south of the Son-Narmada south fault. Basin asymmetry parameter indicates northward shifting of the river course from middle of the basin due to uplift of the southern block.

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47

Searle, Michael P. "Timing of subduction initiation, arc formation, ophiolite obduction and India–Asia collision in the Himalaya." Geological Society, London, Special Publications 483, no. 1 (September 12, 2018): 19–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/sp483.8.

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AbstractReconstruction of the Western Himalaya requires three subduction systems operating beneath the Spong arc, Dras–Kohistan arc and the Asian continent during the Late Cretaceous–Paleocene. The timing of the closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean along the Indus Suture Zone (ISZ) in Ladakh and south Tibet has been proposed to be as old as c. 65 Ma and as young as c. 37 Ma. The definition of the India–Asia collision can span >15 myr from the first touching of Indian continental crust with Asian crust to the final marine sedimentation between the two plates. There is good geological evidence for a Late Cretaceous–Early Paleocene phase of folding, thrusting and crustal thickening of Indian Plate shelf carbonates associated with obduction of ophiolites. There is no geological evidence of any oceanic ‘Greater Indian Basin’ separating the northern Tethyan and Greater Himalaya from India. There is clear evidence to support final ending of marine sedimentation along the ISZ at 50 Ma (planktonic foraminifera zone P7–P8). There is no evidence for diachroneity of collision along the Pakistan–Ladakh–South Tibet Himalaya. The timing of ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism cannot be used to constrain India–Asia collision, and the timing of high-grade kyanite- and sillimanite-grade metamorphism along the Greater Himalaya can only give a minimum age of collision.

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Özcan, Ercan, Johannes Pignatti, Christer Pereira, Ali Osman Yücel, Katica Drobne, Filippo Barattolo, and Pratul Kumar Saraswati. "Paleocene orthophragminids from the Lakadong Limestone, Mawmluh Quarry section, Meghalaya (Shillong, NE India): implications for the regional geology and paleobiogeography." Journal of Micropalaeontology 37, no. 1 (April 18, 2018): 357–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/jm-37-357-2018.

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Abstract. The late Paleocene orthophragminids, hitherto poorly known from the Himalayan foreland basins, are studied from the Lakadong Limestone in Meghalaya, northeastern India, in order to establish a systematic, biostratigraphic, and paleobiogeographical framework for them in the eastern Tethys. In the Mawmluh Quarry section (MQS) on the Shillong Plateau, to the southeast of Tibet, orthophragminids are associated with typical Paleocene orbitoidiform taxa endemic to the Indian subcontinent, i.e., Lakadongia Matsumaru & Jauhri (= Setia Ferràndez-Cañadell) and Orbitosiphon Rao, and various species of alveolinids, miscellaneids, and rotaliids, characterizing the Shallow Benthic Zones (SBZ) 3 and 4. The orthophragminids belong to two lineages of the genus Orbitoclypeus Silvestri: O. schopeni (Checchia-Rispoli) and O. multiplicatus (Gümbel), both well known from the peri-Mediterranean region and Europe (western Tethys). The latter species is identified here for the first time from the eastern Tethys. Previous records of the genus Discocyclina Gümbel from the Lakadong Limestone actually correspond to misidentified Orbitoclypeus; this implies that the late Paleocene orthophragminid assemblages from Meghalaya and eastern Tethys were less diverse than in the western Tethys. The lineage of Orbitoclypeus schopeni in the lower part of the Lakadong Limestone (SBZ 3) is identified as O. schopeni cf. ramaraoi based on the morphometry of a few specimens, whereas in the upper part (SBZ 4) it corresponds to a transitional development stage between O. schopeni ramaraoi and O. schopeni neumannae (with average Dmean values ranging between 192 and 199 µm). The embryon diameters of O. multiplicatus, recorded only in SBZ 4, range between 300 and 319 µm on average, corresponding to transitional development stages of O. multiplicatus haymanaensis and O. multiplicatus multiplicatus. Our data, along with a review of previous Paleocene and Eocene records from India and Pakistan, suggest that Orbitoclypeus is the only orthophragminid in the Paleocene of the eastern Tethys, whereas Discocyclina first appears in early Eocene times, being mainly represented by endemic taxa confined to the Indian subcontinent. Facies change in the MQS from a marine to continental setting within SBZ 4 corresponds to the oldest record from the Indian plate in the Paleogene, which may be linked to the flexural uplift of the passive margin of the Indian plate, marking the onset of the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.

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Lahiri, Subhajit, Sudhansu Dash, B. K. Sinha, Asok Ghosh, and Monalisa Das. "Bistorta longispicata Yonekura & H.Ohashi, (Polygonaceae): A new record to Indian Flora." Indian Journal of Forestry 42, no. 1 (March 1, 2019): 9–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.54207/bsmps1000-2019-0ek2ju.

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Bistorta longispicata Yonekura & H.Ohashi (Polygonaceae), is an uncommon species reported here as a new record to Indian flora. The species earlier known only from China has been recently collected for the first time from Samiti Lake area of West District, Sikkim, India; at an altitude of 4177 m. The detailed description along with a photo-plate of dissected parts is provided herewith.

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Yuan, Zhi-Yong, Bao-Lin Zhang, Christopher J. Raxworthy, David W. Weisrock, Paul M. Hime, Jie-Qiong Jin, Emily M. Lemmon, et al. "Natatanuran frogs used the Indian Plate to step-stone disperse and radiate across the Indian Ocean." National Science Review 6, no. 1 (September 5, 2018): 10–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwy092.

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