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1
Schapiro, Tamar. Feeling Like It. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198862932.001.0001.
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Feeling like doing something is not the same as deciding to do it. When you feel like doing something, you are still free to decide to do it or not. You are having an inclination to do it, but you are not thereby determined to do it. I call this the moment of drama. This book is about what you are faced with, in this moment. How should you relate to the inclinations you “have,” given that you are free to “act on” them or not? To answer this question, we need an account of what sort of thing we are relating to, in this moment. But here we find a genuine philosophical problem. Our inclinations are forms of motivation, with respect to which we are distinctively passive. To be motivated is to be self-moved. But how can we be passive in relation to our own self-movement? Is our relation to our inclinations like that of rider to horse? Or is it like our relation to our own, spontaneous judgments or perceptions? I lay out three constraints on any theory of inclination, and I argue that familiar theories fail to meet them, because they make being inclined to φ too similar or dissimilar to φ-ing. I then put forward the “inner animal” view, which holds that when you are merely inclined to act, the instinctive part of yourself is already active, while the rest of you is not. In this moment, your will is “at a crossroads.” You can humanize your inclination, or dehumanize yourself.
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Cameron, Kim S. Paradox in Positive Organizational Scholarship. Edited by Wendy K. Smith, Marianne W. Lewis, Paula Jarzabkowski, and Ann Langley. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198754428.013.12.
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The field of positive organizational scholarship highlights the paradox that exists between the negative and the positive in organizations and in individuals. On the one hand, all living systems have a tendency toward, and flourish in the presence of, the positive. Physically, psychologically, emotionally, and socially human systems are inclined toward positive energy and away from negative energy. This is called the heliotropic effect. On the other hand, bad is stronger than good, and individuals and organizations respond more readily and more dramatically to the negative than to the positive. The negative disrupts more readily than does the positive. This chapter grounds this paradoxical phenomenon in academic literature and then reconciles their simultaneous opposite presence in organizations and individuals. Transcending this paradox leads to extraordinarily effective performance for individuals and for organizations.
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Crossland, Rachel. D. H. Lawrence and ‘Living Relativity’. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198815976.003.0005.
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Chapter 4 explores Lawrence’s writing of relationships after his direct engagements with Einsteinian ideas in 1921, seeking to ascertain both the extent and the nature of the impact which Einsteinian relativity had on his thinking. Other possible sources for Lawrence’s relativistic ideas are considered, in particular William James’s relativism. However, ultimately the chapter argues that Einstein’s direct impact can be seen in terms of both the language adopted by Lawrence and the theoretical framework behind his ‘theory of human relativity’. Although Lawrence’s writing of relationships does not change much after reading about Einsteinian relativity, he seems more inclined to theorize on this topic after 1921, as a consideration of his novels Kangaroo and Aaron’s Rod emphasizes. Lawrence’s engagement with relativity is also shown to be significantly different from that of other modernist writers, in that he uses relativity in order to explore the issue that interested him most: human relationships.
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Witte, John. The Universal Rule of Natural Law and Written Constitutions in the Thought of Johannes Althusius. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199670055.003.0008.
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Calvinist jurist Johannes Althusius (1557–1638) developed what he called a ‘universal theory’ of law and politics for war-torn Europe. He called for written constitutions that separated the executive, legislative, and judicial powers of cities, provinces, nations, and empires alike and that guaranteed the natural rights and liberties of all subjects. To be valid, he argued, these constitutions had to respect the universal natural law set out in Christian and classical, biblical, and rational teachings of law, authority, and rights. To be effective, these constitutions had to recognize the symbiotic nature of human beings who are born with a dependence on God and neighbour, family and community, and who are by nature inclined to form covenantal associations to maintain liberty and community. Althusius left comprehensive Christian theory of rule of law and politics that anticipated many of the arguments of later Enlightenment theorists of social and government contracts.
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Rea, Michael C. Divine Love and Personality. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198826019.003.0005.
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Chapter 4 offered an answer to the hiddenness problem that depended on acceptance of a modest, but still robust doctrine of divine transcendence. But some will be inclined to resist that doctrine. The present chapter, therefore, sets aside that doctrine and offers an independent answer to the hiddenness problem. The chapter is devoted to explaining why divine love should not be identified with “ideal” human love. The upshot is roughly the same as that of Chapter 4, though by a different route: the hiddenness problem can get no rational purchase on us by way of philosophical reflection on our ordinary understanding of the nature of love. At best, the problem gains a foothold only through the negatively valenced love analogies that are suggested by certain characterizations of how God is behaving toward various kinds of people. The chapter concludes by briefly outlining how this latter issue will be addressed in subsequent chapters.
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Bazargan, Saba. Dignity, Self-Respect, and Bloodless Invasions. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190495657.003.0008.
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Wars often have unjust political subjugation as their aim. This raises the question, How much violence can we impose on those attempting to politically subjugate us? Just war theorists inclined to what has come to be called reductive individualism have argued that we can answer this question by determining how much violence you can impose on an individual wrongly attempting to prevent you from voting, or from political participation more broadly construed. Some have argued that the amount of violence we can permissibly impose in such a situation is decidedly sublethal. This in turn yields a largely pacifist response to the question of how much violence we can impose to avert political subjugation. This chapter argues that political subjugation involves a fundamental disrespect of a sort missed both by proponents of the pacifist response and by their detractors.
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Wynn, Jonathan. Country Music and Fan Culture. Edited by Travis D. Stimeling. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190248178.013.10.
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As this chapter suggests, country music’s success can be measured not just in records sales, but as based in nurturing an elaborate and committed fan culture. Through characteristic rituals and using new media and technology, the distance between production and consumption expands and contracts. The historical and close collaboration between the industry and country fandom makes the genre distinctive. The chapter also discusses country fan club culture, which assures inclined fans some chance for communalism and possible contact with artists themselves. The complex and changing relationship between the more formal media and trade organizations and the more informal club culture is another unique aspect to country music’s fandom. In addition, there is perhaps no better way to understand country fandom than two forms of interactions: “meet-and-greets” and the interactions in and around the annual CMA festival.
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Pruss, Alexander R., and Joshua L. Rasmussen. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198746898.003.0001.
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Why care whether there is a necessary being? The chapter opens with an explanation of how the question of whether there is a necessary being matters in theology, cosmology, and debates about fundamental ontology. It is shown that some of the most important questions in these fields depend in one way or another on whether there is a necessary being. Some reason is provided to be optimistic that it is possible to make progress on the question of whether there is a necessary being. Toward that end, the results of a survey (www.necessarybeing.com) are also given, which suggests that the vast majority of people, including skeptics of a necessary being, are inclined to find plausible certain premises in deductive arguments for the existence of a necessary being. The stage is set for a detailed presentation and analysis of those arguments.
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Sweeney, Douglas A. Conclusion. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190249496.003.0015.
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Douglas A. Sweeney recapitulates the massive role of biblical reflection in Jonthan Edwards’ life and thought and then summarizes the chief contributions of this volume. He argues persuasively that students of Edwards need to attend closely to his “chief occupation”: biblical exegesis. Much work still needs to be done on this aspect of Edwards, and Sweeney offers suggestions about elements of Edwards’ exegetical endeavors requiring further attention. Those interested in Edwards’ work with modern higher criticism have much more work to do on his handling of the historicity of the Pentateuch, the scope of biblical prophecy, the synoptic problem, and more. Those inclined toward the contents of Edwards’ major treatises have far more to do on their relation to the Bible and what Edwards took to be the Bible’s theological claims. And all of us have more to do on Edwards’ biblical context and interlocutors, and the bearing of these sources on his preaching, teaching, and writing.
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Washburn, David A., Michael J. Beran, and J. David Smith. Metamemory in Comparative Context. Edited by John Dunlosky and Sarah (Uma) K. Tauber. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199336746.013.21.
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Demonstrations of animal memory were among the earliest experimental results obtained in psychology, but investigations of whether animals show metacognitive competencies are relatively new. Such investigations require innovative paradigms in which uncertainty can be created and empirically validated, methods by which nonverbal organisms can indicate their recognition of confidence or uncertainty, and systematic inquiry to determine whether such responses are externally, associatively generated or are subjective and metacognitive. This third point requires particular attention to balance competing considerations like anthropomorphism, parsimony, and interpretive errors, such as being too inclined to infer analogous mechanisms, or conversely to reject real demonstrations of animal metamemory by holding them to different evidentiary standards than is human metacognition. The results from numerous attempts to address these challenges are reviewed, yielding the overall conclusion that the capacity for metamemory and metacognition has been demonstrated at least by some animals in ways that defy low-level associative interpretation.
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Svensson, Frans, and Jens Johansson. Objections to Virtue Ethics. Edited by Nancy E. Snow. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199385195.013.39.
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Over the last few decades, virtue ethics has become established as a third position, next to consequentialism and deontology, in substantive ethical theorizing. Several objections have been raised against virtue ethics, however. This chapter focuses particularly on the objection that virtue ethics fails to provide a plausible criterion of rightness. If that is correct, as the authors are inclined to think it is, then it constitutes a severe blow to virtue ethics, since providing a criterion of rightness is generally regarded as one of the central aims of an ethical theory. One, in the view of the authors, less serious—though almost as common—objection to virtue ethics is that it fails to provide a suitable amount of practical guidance with respect to what should be done in particular situations. The chapter briefly indicates some ways in which virtue ethicists might respond to this objection.
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Milward, John. Americanaland. University of Illinois Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.5622/illinois/9780252043918.001.0001.
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With a claim on artists from Jimmie Rodgers to Jason Isbell, Americana can be hard to define, but you know it when you hear it. This book is filled with the enduring performers and vivid stories that are at the heart of Americana. At base a hybrid of rock and country, Americana is also infused with folk, blues, rhythm and blues, bluegrass, and other types of roots music. Performers like Bob Dylan, Johnny Cash, Ray Charles, Joni Mitchell, and Gram Parsons used these ingredients to create influential music that took well-established genres down exciting new roads. The name Americana was coined in the 1990s to describe similarly inclined artists like Emmylou Harris, Steve Earle, and Wilco. Today, Brandi Carlile and I'm With Her are among the musicians carrying the genre into the twenty-first century. Essential and engaging, the book chronicles the evolution and resonance of this ever-changing amalgam of American music.
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Leaper, Campbell. Gender, Dispositions, Peer Relations, and Identity. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190658540.003.0010.
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This chapter considers possible ways that peer relations, group identity, and dispositional preferences are interrelated and contribute to children’s gender development. The author advances an integrative theoretical model of gender development that bridges complementary theories by linking sex-related dispositions and physical characteristics to the process of assimilation within same-gender peer groups. Research suggests some (but not all) children have strong behavioral dispositions (temperaments and intense interests) and physical characteristics that are either highly compatible or highly contradictory with culturally valued in-group prototypes (e.g., boys strongly inclined toward physical activities vs. dress-up play, respectively). These children may either become same-gender role models or disidentify with the gender in-group, respectively. In contrast, children without strong dispositions may be most amenable to developing a broad repertoire of interests when provided opportunities and encouragement. Implications of this model for the development and well-being of children as well as future directions for research are discussed.
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Schlieter, Jens. The Religious Functions of Near-Death Experiences. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190888848.003.0022.
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This final chapter secures the result of the survey by discussing the religious functions of near-death experiences for affected individuals, but also the functions of the reports for the audience. It outlines (a) ontological, (b) epistemic, (c) intersubjective, and (d) moral aspects. It has been argued that experiencers feel closer to God, are less attracted to religion, and are significantly more inclined to believe in life after death. A function of the narratives consists in the claim that, in atheistic and secular times, individual religious experience is still possible. Several reports argue with a copresence of life and death. Discussing cognitivist approaches, the chapter finally concludes that, given the Latin etymology of “experience,” harboring, among others, the meaning of “being exposed to danger” or “passing a test,” near-death experiences can be seen as a match for conceptions of religious experience as a transformative, gained by surviving a life-threatening danger.
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Horowitz, Gregg. Aesthetics of the Avant-Garde. Edited by Jerrold Levinson. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199279456.003.0045.
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All responsible inquiry into the contemporary state of avant-garde art must acknowledge the possibility that no such art exists. Such non-existence would be dismaying news for a lot of people because, despite the possibility that the concept refers to nothing, many writers and artists continue to invest in it as if its capacity to illuminate contemporary artistic and aesthetic practices were a given. If one inclines towards believing that there was an American avant-garde in those years, one is likely to find that Sayre's roster of participating figures includes the expected artists and movements: Carolee Schneeman and Robert Morris, Judy Chicago and Robert Smithson, Fluxus and the Judson Dance Theater, and so on.
16
Irwin, Terence H. Mental Health as Moral Virtue. Edited by K. W. M. Fulford, Martin Davies, Richard G. T. Gipps, George Graham, John Z. Sadler, Giovanni Stanghellini, and Tim Thornton. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199579563.013.0004.
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Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics identify mental health with moral virtue. Are they right? We might be inclined to disagree with him if we believe that mental health is good for the agent, whereas virtues of character are good for other people. These philosophers answer that the mental features of the virtues of character are also features of a person's good. Still, their demands for psychic unity and cohesion might appear to exaggerate reasonable conditions on mental health. In the view of these philosophers, our conception of mental health should make us aware of the aspects of agency that we value. We do not refer to different characteristics when we think of mental health and when we think of moral virtue. The main question is not about whether we choose to confine the expression "mental health" to the minimal condition, but about what makes the minimal condition valuable. It turns out to be difficult to explain why the minimal condition is valuable without also endorsing the moral virtues.
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Weinstock, Daniel M. How the Interests of Children Limit the Religious Freedom of Parents. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198794394.003.0016.
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This chapter argues that parents have a right to raise their children according to the tenets of the religions that they profess. That right can be seen as grounded in the interest that children have in enjoying the kind of intimacy within the family context that is facilitated by participation in practices and rituals rooted in comprehensive conceptions of the good. It also argues, however, that children have a right to be raised in a manner that does not foreclose their future autonomy. These two rights can be reconciled if we distinguish acceptable and unacceptably asymmetrical upbringings. Parents can incline their children toward certain values and practices in accordance with their comprehensive conceptions, on condition that they also provide children with the conditions that will allow them to make autonomous decisions in the future.
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Ivanhoe, Philip J. Conclusion. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190840518.003.0008.
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The primary claim of this study is that when we come to understand the true nature of what we are as individuals and as a species, we cannot fail to acknowledge our connections and interdependencies with the rest of the world, and this can, does, and should incline us toward greater care for other people, creatures, and things. The conclusion warns us about some potentially bad forms of oneness and recalls earlier arguments showing how such mistaken conceptions violate established imperatives to present metaphysically, psychologically, and socially plausible views that can serve as the basis for integrated, sustainable, and happy lives in community with others. The new conceptions of oneness this study recommends differ from traditional view in being open-ended ideals; we can find support for such ideals in the world, but we can and must continue to build and innovate upon them.
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Manning, Jane. Vocal Repertoire for the Twenty-First Century, Volume 1. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199391028.001.0001.
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In this new follow-up to her highly regarded New Vocal Repertory, volumes 1 and 2, English concert and opera soprano Jane Manning provides a seasoned expert’s guidance and insight into the vocal genre she calls home. This book contains a diverse array of contemporary vocal music available in the twentieth century. It provides specific pieces for different voices, abilities, and occasions. Choices range from substantial song cycles to shorter pieces suitable for encores, examinations, or auditions. Almost all works are for voice and piano, but there are some for solo voice. This volume also contains a rich variety of musical styles, which is reflected here along with some revised and updated articles on works featured in the previous edition, in order to keep them in circulation. Furthermore, this volume includes the broadest possible selection of works which are confined to settings of the English language. Two works in Latin as well as one piece in fake Russian are the only exceptions. In addition, there are certain songs culled from some diploma syllabus many years ago, which seem to have progressed unchallenged through successive generations despite a wealth of viable alternatives. Teachers can thus be inclined to steer students in the direction of pieces they are already familiar with in this book.
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Schafer, Karl, and Nicholas F. Stang, eds. The Sensible and Intelligible Worlds. Oxford University PressOxford, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199688265.001.0001.
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Abstract For much of its history, analytic Kant scholarship has been dominated by the idea of Kant as a deeply anti-metaphysical philosopher. But in the last quarter century, analytically inclined Kant scholars have increasingly become skeptical of interpreting Kant as a philosopher who wished to truly “leave metaphysics behind.” Although such readings interpret Kant’s metaphysics in radically different ways, they share a common commitment to the idea that Kant’s philosophy cannot be properly understood without careful attention to its metaphysical presuppositions and, in particular, to how those metaphysical presuppositions are compatible with Kant’s critique of more “dogmatic” forms of metaphysical thought. This volume brings together a variety of leading figures in this renaissance in interest in “the metaphysical Kant.” These authors approach Kant’s thought from a wide variety of different perspectives—emphasizing, not just the familiar Leibnizian background to Kant’s metaphysics, but also its broadly Aristotelian underpinnings and its relationship with metaphysical themes in post-Kantian German Idealism. Similarly, although most of the chapters in this volume relate in some way to the familiar question of how to best interpret Kant’s transcendental idealism, they also deal with a wide range of other topics, ranging from Kant’s modal metaphysics to his views on the continuum to his epistemology of the a priori to the foundations of his “metaethical” views. Thus, we hope this volume will contribute to longstanding debates about the metaphysical and epistemological foundations of Kant’s project, while also opening up new topics in Kant scholarship.
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Pettigrew, Richard. Epistemic Risk and the Demands of Rationality. Oxford University PressOxford, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192864352.001.0001.
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Abstract How much does rationality constrain what we should believe on the basis of our evidence? According to this book, not very much. For most people and most bodies of evidence, there is a wide range of beliefs that rationality permits them to have in response to that evidence. The argument, which takes inspiration from William James’ ideas in ‘The Will to Believe’, proceeds from two premises. The first is a theory about the basis of epistemic rationality. It’s called epistemic utility theory, and it says that what it is epistemically rational for you to believe is what it would be rational for you to choose if you were given the chance to pick your beliefs and, when picking them, you were to care only about their epistemic value. So, to say which beliefs are permitted, we must say how to measure epistemic value, and which decision rule to use when picking your beliefs. The second premise is a claim about attitudes to epistemic risk, and it says that rationality permits many different such attitudes. These attitudes can show up in epistemic utility theory in two ways: in the way you measure epistemic value; and in the decision rule you use to pick beliefs. This book explores the latter. The result is permissivism about epistemic rationality: different attitudes to epistemic risk lead to different choices of prior beliefs; given most bodies of evidence, different priors lead to different posteriors; and even once we fix your attitudes to epistemic risk, if they are at all risk-inclined, there is a range of different priors and therefore different posteriors they permit.
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Halvorsen, Tar, and Peter Vale. One World, Many Knowledges: Regional experiences and cross-regional links in higher education. African Minds, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.47622/978-0-620-55789-4.
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Various forms of academic co-operation criss-cross the modern university system in a bewildering number of ways, from the open exchange of ideas and knowledge, to the sharing of research results, and frank discussions about research challenges. Embedded in these scholarly networks is the question of whether a global template for the management of both higher education and national research organisations is necessary, and if so, must institutions slavishly follow the high-flown language of the global knowledge society or risk falling behind in the ubiquitous university ranking system? Or are there alternatives that can achieve a better, more ethically inclined, world? Basing their observations on their own experiences, an interesting mix of seasoned scholars and new voices from southern Africa and the Nordic region offer critical perspectives on issues of inter- and cross-regional academic co-operation. Several of the chapters also touch on the evolution of the higher education sector in the two regions. An absorbing and intelligent study, this book will be invaluable for anyone interested in the strategies scholars are using to adapt to the interconnectedness of the modern world. It offers fresh insights into how academics are attempting to protect the spaces in which they can freely and openly debate the challenges they face, while aiming to transform higher education, and foster scholarly collaboration. The Southern African-Nordic Centre (SANORD) is a partnership of higher education institutions from Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Botswana, Namibia, Malawi, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. SANORDs primary aim is to promote multilateral research co-operation on matters of importance to the development of both regions. Our activities are based on the values of democracy, equity, and mutually beneficial academic engagement.
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Scolding, Neil. Vasculitis and collagen vascular diseases. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198569381.003.0862.
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That part of the clinical interface between neurology and general medicine occupied by inflammatory and immunological diseases is neither small nor medically trivial. Neurologists readily accept the challenges of ‘primary’ immune diseases of the nervous system: these tend to be focussed on one particular target such as oligodendrocytes or the neuro-muscular junction present in predictable ways, and are amenable as a rule to rational, methodological diagnosis, and occasionally even treatment. This is proper neurology.‘Secondary’ neurological involvement in diseases mainly considered systemic inflammatory conditions—for example, SLE, sarcoidosis, vasculitis, and Behçet’s—is a rather different matter. It may be difficult enough to secure such a diagnosis even when systemic disease has previously been diagnosed and new neurological features need to be differentiated from iatrogenic disease, particularly drug side effects or the consequences of immune suppression. But all the diseases mentioned may present with and confine themselves wholly to the nervous system; they may mimic one another, and pursue erratic and unpredictable clinical courses. In central nervous system disease, diagnosis by tissue biopsy is potentially hazardous and unattractive. Few neurologists enjoy excesses of confidence or expertise when faced with such clinical problems: the cautious diagnostician is perplexed, and the evidence-based neuroprescriber confounded. Unsurprisingly, great variations in approaches to diagnosis and management are seen (Scolding et al. 2002b).But rheumatologically inclined general, renal or respiratory physicians, comfortable when managing inflammation affecting their system or indeed other parts of the body designed to support the nervous system, are generally also ill at ease when faced with neurological features whose differential diagnosis may be large, particularly given the near universal diagnostic non-specificity of either imaging or CSF analysis.Here then is the subject material for this chapter: the diagnosis and management of central nervous system involvement in inflammatory and immunological systemic diseases (Scolding 1999a). In not one of these neurological conditions has a single controlled therapeutic trial been reported, and much that is published on these conditions is misleading or inaccurate. And yet the frequency with which the diagnosis is only confirmed or even first emerges at autopsy bears stark witness to both the severity and evasiveness of these disorders.
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Gur, Noam. Legal Directives and Practical Reasons. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199659876.001.0001.
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This book investigates law’s interaction with practical reasons. What difference can legal requirements—be they traffic rules, tax laws, work safety regulations, or others—make to normative reasons relevant to our action? The book critically examines some of the existing answers to that question and puts forward an alternative account. At the outset, two competing positions are pitted against each other: first, the view taken by Joseph Raz, that when the law satisfies certain conditions that endow it with legitimate authority, it acquires pre-emptive force, namely it constitutes reasons for action that exclude and take the place of some other reasons; second, an antithetical position, according to which legal requirements cannot exclude otherwise applicable reasons, but can at most provide us with reasons that operate, and compete with opposing reasons, in terms of their weight. These positions are examined from several perspectives, such as justified disobedience cases, law’s conduct-guiding function, and the phenomenology associated with authority. It is found that, although each of the above positions offers insight into the relation between law and practical reasons, they both suffer from significant flaws. These observations lay the basis on which, in the final part of the book, an alternative position is put forward and defended. On this position, the existence and operation of a reasonably just and well-functioning legal system constitutes some reasons that are neither ordinary reasons for action nor pre-emptive ones, but rather reasons to adopt an (overridable) disposition that inclines its possessor towards compliance with the system’s requirements.