Journal articles: 'Implicit language learning'

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DeKeyser, Robert M. "Learning Second Language Grammar Rules." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 17, no. 3 (September 1995): 379–410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s027226310001425x.

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This is a report on a computerized experiment with a miniature linguistic system, consisting of five morphological rules and a lexicon of 98 words. Two hypotheses derived from the literature in cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics were tested: that explicit-deductive learning would be better than implicit-inductive learning for straightforward (“categorical”) rules, and that implicit-inductive learning would be better than explicit-deductive learning for fuzzy rules (“prototypicality patterns”). Implicit-inductive learning was implemented by pairing sentences with color pictures; explicit-deductive learning was implemented by means of traditional grammar rule presentation, followed by picture-sentence pairing. The findings were in the expected direction for both hypotheses, but only the first one could be confirmed through statistically significant results.

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Paciorek, Albertyna, and John N. Williams. "Semantic generalization in implicit language learning." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 41, no. 4 (2015): 989–1002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000100.

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Leung, Janny H. C., and John N. Williams. "CROSSLINGUISTIC DIFFERENCES IN IMPLICIT LANGUAGE LEARNING." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 36, no. 4 (July 28, 2014): 733–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263114000333.

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We report three experiments that explore the effect of prior linguistic knowledge on implicit language learning. Native speakers of English from the United Kingdom and native speakers of Cantonese from Hong Kong participated in experiments that involved different learning materials. In Experiment 1, both participant groups showed evidence of learning a mapping between articles and noun animacy. In Experiment 2, neither group showed learning of a mapping between articles and a linguistically anomalous concept (the number of capital letters in an English word or that of strokes in a Chinese character). In Experiment 3, the Chinese group, but not the English group, showed evidence of learning a mapping between articles and a concept derived from the Chinese classifier system. It was concluded that first language knowledge affected implicit language learning and that implicit learning, at least when natural language learning is concerned, is subject to constraints and biases.

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LICHTMAN, KAREN. "Age and learning environment: Are children implicit second language learners?" Journal of Child Language 43, no. 3 (February 26, 2016): 707–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000915000598.

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AbstractChildren are thought to learn second languages (L2s) using primarily implicit mechanisms, in contrast to adults, who primarily rely on explicit language learning. This difference is usually attributed to cognitive maturation, but adults also receive more explicit instruction than children, which may influence their learning strategies. This study crosses instruction condition with age, teaching forty children aged 5;3 to 7;11 and forty adults an artificial mini-language under implicit or explicit training conditions. Participants produced novel sentences and judged sentence grammaticality equally well in either condition, but both children and adults in the explicit training condition developed greater awareness of the mini-language's structures – and greater awareness was associated with better performance for both age groups. Results show that explicit instruction affects children and adults in the same way, supporting the hypothesis that age differences in implicit vs. explicit L2 learning are not exclusively caused by maturation, but also influenced by instruction.

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Leung, Janny H. C., and John N. Williams. "THE IMPLICIT LEARNING OF MAPPINGS BETWEEN FORMS AND CONTEXTUALLY DERIVED MEANINGS." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 33, no. 1 (February 21, 2011): 33–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263110000525.

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The traditional implicit learning literature has focused primarily on the abstraction of statistical regularities in form-form connections. More attention has been recently directed toward the implicit learning of form-meaning connections, which might be crucial in the acquisition of natural languages. The current article reports evidence for implicit learning of a mapping between a novel set of determiners and thematic roles, obtained using a newly developed reaction time methodology. The results conclude that contextually derived form-meaning connections might be implicitly learned.

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REBUSCHAT, PATRICK, and JOHN N. WILLIAMS. "Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language acquisition." Applied Psycholinguistics 33, no. 4 (October 18, 2011): 829–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716411000580.

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ABSTRACTLanguage development is frequently characterized as a process where learning proceeds implicitly, that is, incidentally and in absence of awareness of what was learned. This article reports the results of two experiments that investigated whether second language acquisition can also result in implicit knowledge. Adult learners were trained on an artificial language under incidental learning conditions and then tested by means of grammaticality judgments and subjective measures of awareness. The results indicate that incidental exposure to second language syntax can result in unconscious knowledge, which suggests that at least some of the learning in this experiment was implicit. At the same time, however, it was also found that conscious (but unverbalizable) knowledge was clearly linked to improved performance in the grammaticality judgment task.

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Batterink, Laura J., Larry Y. Cheng, and Ken A. Paller. "Neural Measures Reveal Implicit Learning during Language Processing." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 28, no. 10 (October 2016): 1636–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00985.

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Language input is highly variable; phonological, lexical, and syntactic features vary systematically across different speakers, geographic regions, and social contexts. Previous evidence shows that language users are sensitive to these contextual changes and that they can rapidly adapt to local regularities. For example, listeners quickly adjust to accented speech, facilitating comprehension. It has been proposed that this type of adaptation is a form of implicit learning. This study examined a similar type of adaptation, syntactic adaptation, to address two issues: (1) whether language comprehenders are sensitive to a subtle probabilistic contingency between an extraneous feature (font color) and syntactic structure and (2) whether this sensitivity should be attributed to implicit learning. Participants read a large set of sentences, 40% of which were garden-path sentences containing temporary syntactic ambiguities. Critically, but unbeknownst to participants, font color probabilistically predicted the presence of a garden-path structure, with 75% of garden-path sentences (and 25% of normative sentences) appearing in a given font color. ERPs were recorded during sentence processing. Almost all participants indicated no conscious awareness of the relationship between font color and sentence structure. Nonetheless, after sufficient time to learn this relationship, ERPs time-locked to the point of syntactic ambiguity resolution in garden-path sentences differed significantly as a function of font color. End-of-sentence grammaticality judgments were also influenced by font color, suggesting that a match between font color and sentence structure increased processing fluency. Overall, these findings indicate that participants can implicitly detect subtle co-occurrences between physical features of sentences and abstract, syntactic properties, supporting the notion that implicit learning mechanisms are generally operative during online language processing.

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Kuhn, Gustav, and Zoltán Dienes. "Implicit Learning of Nonlocal Musical Rules: Implicitly Learning More Than Chunks." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 31, no. 6 (2005): 1417–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.31.6.1417.

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Khalifa, AlBara, Tsuneo Kato, and Seiichi Yamamoto. "Learning Effect of Implicit Learning in Joining-in-type Robot-assisted Language Learning System." International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) 14, no. 02 (January 30, 2019): 105. http://dx.doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v14i02.9212.

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The introduction of robots into language learning systems has been highly useful, especially in motivating learners to engage in the learning process and in letting human learners converse in more realistic conversational situations. This paper describes a novel robot-assisted language learning system that induces the human learner into a triad conversation with two robots through which he or she improves practical communication skills in various conversational situations. The system applies implicit learning as the main learning style for conveying linguistic knowledge, in an indirect way, through conversations on several topics. A series of experiments was conducted using 80 recruited participants to evaluate the effect of implicit learning and the retention effect in a joining-in-type robot-assisted language learning system. The experimental results show positive effects of implicit learning and repetitive learning in general. Based on these experimental results, we propose an improved method, integrating implicit learning and tutoring with corrective feedback in an adaptive way, to increase performance in practical communication skills even for a wide variety of proficiency of L2 learners.

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Chang, Franklin, Marius Janciauskas, and Hartmut Fitz. "Language adaptation and learning: Getting explicit about implicit learning." Language and Linguistics Compass 6, no. 5 (April 30, 2012): 259–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/lnc3.337.

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Tagarelli, Kaitlyn M., Simón Ruiz, José Luis Moreno Vega, and Patrick Rebuschat. "VARIABILITY IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 38, no. 2 (May 18, 2016): 293–316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263116000036.

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Second language learning outcomes are highly variable, due to a variety of factors, including individual differences, exposure conditions, and linguistic complexity. However, exactly how these factors interact to influence language learning is unknown. This article examines the relationship between these three variables in language learners.Native English speakers were exposed to an artificial language containing three sentence patterns of varying linguistic complexity. They were randomly assigned to two groups—incidental and instructed—designed to promote the acquisition of implicit and explicit knowledge, respectively. Learning was assessed with a grammaticality judgment task, and subjective measures of awareness were used to measure whether exposure had resulted in implicit or explicit knowledge. Participants also completed cognitive tests.Awareness measures demonstrated that learners in the incidental group relied more on implicit knowledge, whereas learners in the instructed group relied more on explicit knowledge. Overall, exposure condition was the most significant predictor of performance on the grammaticality judgment task, with learners in the instructed group outperforming those in the incidental group. Performance on a procedural learning task accounted for additional variance. When outcomes were analyzed according to linguistic complexity, exposure condition was the most significant predictor for two syntactic patterns, but it was not a predictor for the most complex sentence group; instead, procedural learning ability was.

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Thomas, Margaret, and Nick C. Ellis. "Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages." Language 73, no. 2 (June 1997): 420. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/416043.

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Godfroid, Aline, and Kathy MinHye Kim. "THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF IMPLICIT-STATISTICAL LEARNING APTITUDE TO IMPLICIT SECOND-LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43, no. 3 (May 19, 2021): 606–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263121000085.

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AbstractThis study addresses the role of domain-general mechanisms in second-language learning and knowledge using an individual differences approach. We examine the predictive validity of implicit-statistical learning aptitude for implicit second-language knowledge. Participants (n = 131) completed a battery of four aptitude measures and nine grammar tests. Structural equation modeling revealed that only the alternating serial reaction time task (a measure of implicit-statistical learning aptitude) significantly predicted learners’ performance on timed, accuracy-based language tests, but not their performance on reaction-time measures. These results inform ongoing debates about the nature of implicit knowledge in SLA: they lend support to the validity of timed, accuracy-based language tests as measures of implicit knowledge. Auditory and visual statistical learning were correlated with medium strength, while the remaining implicit-statistical learning aptitude measures were not correlated, highlighting the multicomponential nature of implicit-statistical learning aptitude and the corresponding need for a multitest approach to assess its different facets.

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Desmottes, Lise, Thierry Meulemans, and Christelle Maillart. "Implicit Spoken Words and Motor Sequences Learning Are Impaired in Children with Specific Language Impairment." Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 22, no. 5 (April 11, 2016): 520–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s135561771600028x.

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AbstractObjectives: This study aims to compare verbal and motor implicit sequence learning abilities in children with and without specific language impairment (SLI). Methods: Forty-eight children (24 control and 24 SLI) were administered the Serial Search Task (SST), which enables the simultaneous assessment of implicit spoken words and visuomotor sequences learning. Results: Results showed that control children implicitly learned both the spoken words as well as the motor sequences. In contrast, children with SLI showed deficits in both types of learning. Moreover, correlational analyses revealed that SST performance was linked with grammatical abilities in control children but with lexical abilities in children with SLI. Conclusions: Overall, this pattern of results supports the procedural deficit hypothesis and suggests that domain general implicit sequence learning is impaired in SLI. (JINS, 2016, 22, 1–10)

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Pham, Theresa, Joel Hosung Kang, Alisha Johnson, and Lisa M. D. Archibald. "Feature-focusing constraints on implicit learning of function word and meaning associations." Applied Psycholinguistics 41, no. 2 (March 2020): 401–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716420000041.

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AbstractRecent research has begun to investigate implicit learning at the level of meaning. The general consensus is that implicitly linking a word with a meaning is constrained by existing linguistic knowledge. However, another factor to consider is the extent to which attention is drawn to the relevant meanings in implicit learning paradigms. We manipulated the presence of cue saliency during implicit rule learning for a grammatical form (i.e., articles) linked to meaning (i.e., animacy vs. varying notions of size). In a series of experiments, participants learned four novel words but did not know that article usage also depended on a hidden rule, creating an opportunity for implicit rule learning. We found implicit learning through the use of a highly salient meaning (Experiment 1) or if image size was made salient by being explicitly cued (Experiment 3), but not in a low salient paradigm for intrinsic object size (Experiment 2). The findings suggest that implicit learning of semantic information might not be as constrained as previously argued. Instead, implicit learning might be additionally influenced by feature-focusing cues that make the meaning contrasts more salient and thereby more readily available to learning.

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Chan, Ricky KW, and Janny HC Leung. "Implicit learning of L2 word stress regularities." Second Language Research 30, no. 4 (July 4, 2014): 463–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0267658313510169.

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This article reports an experiment on the implicit learning of second language stress regularities, and presents a methodological innovation on awareness measurement. After practising two-syllable Spanish words, native Cantonese speakers with English as a second language (L2) completed a judgement task. Critical items differed only in placement of stress. We assessed participants’ awareness of the hidden stress regularities by verbal reports and a novel methodology: inclusion–exclusion production tasks adapted from Jacoby (1991) and from Destrebecqz and Cleeremans (2001). Participants who remained unaware of the underlying regularities nevertheless performed significantly above chance in identifying correctly pronounced novel words. We conclude that L2 word stress regularities may be learnt implicitly.

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Williams, John N. "The Neuroscience of Implicit Learning." Language Learning 70, S2 (June 2020): 255–307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/lang.12405.

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Tang, Yinjie, and Shaoqian Luo. "Possibilities and Caveats of Implicit Language Aptitude Measurements." Language Teaching Research Quarterly 31 (December 2022): 119–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.32038/ltrq.2022.31.09.

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This paper probes into implicit language aptitude (LA), a set of cognitive abilities that showcase learners’ unconscious, automatic second language (L2) attainment. Implicit LA is becoming an important part of aptitude research, and advances the understanding of L2 learning mechanism. This paper critiques the construct of implicit LA and proposes that implicit learning ability and implicit memory ability are two key components of implicit LA. We then explore the measurements of implicit LA. We raise a number of caveats derived from the validation of these measurements, and discuss how to circumvent these issues. One apparent reason for these caveats is the lack of empirical research that focuses exclusively on implicit LA, and thus, aptitude researchers are encouraged not only to include implicit LA measurements in their test batteries, but also to address the connection between the construct and its measurements.

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MacWhinney, Brian. "IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT PROCESSES." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19, no. 2 (June 1997): 277–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263197002076.

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The relation between experimental psychology and second language acquisition research has gone through at least two major swings of the pendulum. During the heyday of behaviorism, the pendulum swung strongly toward psychology. The behaviorist psychologists advised us to think of language learning as nothing more than habit formation (Mowrer, 1960), and second language learning materials reflected an emphasis on repetition, drill, rewards, practice, and conditioning. During the early years of the cognitive revolution, Chomsky (1959) argued that viewing language as a conditioned response (Skinner, 1957) ignores the complexities of both language structure and cognition. Persuaded by these arguments, second language researchers turned away from behaviorist psychology and sought the explanation for language acquisition in universals of language structure (Dulay & Burt, 1974).

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KITTLESON, MEGAN M., JESSICA M. AGUILAR, GRY LINE TOKERUD, ELENA PLANTE, and ARVE E. ASBJØRNSEN. "Implicit language learning: Adults' ability to segment words in Norwegian." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 13, no. 4 (March 9, 2010): 513–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728910000039.

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Previous language learning research reveals that the statistical properties of the input offer sufficient information to allow listeners to segment words from fluent speech in an artificial language. The current pair of studies uses a natural language to test the ecological validity of these findings and to determine whether a listener's language background influences this process. In Study 1, the “guessibility” of potential test words from the Norwegian language was presented to 22 listeners who were asked to differentiate between true words and nonwords. In Study 2, 22 adults who spoke one of 12 different primary languages learned to segment words from continuous speech in an implicit language learning paradigm. The task consisted of two sessions, approximately three weeks apart, each requiring participants to listen to 7.2 minutes of Norwegian sentences followed by a series of bisyllabic test items presented in isolation. The participants differentially accepted the Norwegian words and Norwegian-like nonwords in both test sessions, demonstrating the capability to segment true words from running speech. The results were consistent across three broadly-defined language groups, despite differences in participants’ language background.

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Long, Michael M. "Instructed second language acquisition (ISLA)." Instructed Second Language Acquisition 1, no. 1 (July 4, 2017): 7–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/isla.33314.

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Definitions are proposed for instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) and ISLA research. The quantity of research is partly driven by external geopolitical forces, its quality improved by such methodological developments as the growing deployment of statistical meta-analyses, new technology, especially eyetracking, and new instrumentation, e.g. Hi-Lab, a measure of aptitudes for both explicit and implicit language learning. Three major constraints on the design of L2 instruction are that: (1) the learning task is too large for either explicit or implicit learning alone; (2) direct effects of instruction are limited to manipulations of the linguistic environment, with intended cognitive processes ultimately under learner control; and (3) development of implicit knowledge is the priority. Three learning conditions that speak to what can best be achieved through incidental and intentional language learning are illustrated by recent studies of (1) resetting L1 parameters and dealing with blocking, and (2) instance learning of lexical items and collocations. Comparisons of L2 learning under the three conditions can help resolve long-standing disagreements over the merits of codefocused and meaning-focused instructional approaches.

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Lichtman, Karen. "Developmental Comparisons of Implicit and Explicit Language Learning." Language Acquisition 20, no. 2 (April 2013): 93–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10489223.2013.766740.

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Kerz, Elma, Daniel Wiechmann, and Florian B. Riedel. "IMPLICIT LEARNING IN THE CROWD." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 39, no. 4 (April 3, 2017): 711–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s027226311700002x.

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AbstractA growing field of research has made use of a semiartificial language paradigm to investigate the role of awareness in L2 acquisition. A central and empirically still unresolved issue in this field concerns the possibility of learning implicitly, that is, without intention to learn and without awareness of what has been learned. Up until now, studies on implicit learning have mainly been conducted in laboratory settings under highly controlled conditions with university students as participants. The present study investigated whether and to what extent the results obtained in such settings can be extrapolated to the general population. Building on Williams (2005), we designed two crowdsourcing experiments that examined the learning of novel form-meaning mappings under incidental conditions in 163 participants. Our design allowed us to disentangle the effects of awareness at the level of noticing and understanding. The results of the two experiments demonstrated the implicit learning effect outside the lab in a more varied sample of participants and indicated that awareness at both levels appears to have a facilitative effect on learning outcomes.

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Drake, Shiloh, Isabel Preligera, and Melissa M. Baese-Berk. "Implicit learning versus explicit instruction in morphophonological learning." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 151, no. 4 (April 2022): A275. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/10.0011319.

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This study uses an artificial grammar learning task to probe the learning of abstract morphophonological structure. Two sets of nonce words were created, one with plural forms using concatenative morphology (similar to English) and the other using non-concatenative morphology (similar to Arabic). Both sets had multiple phonologically conditioned allomorphs. Half of the participants were provided with instruction and feedback, and half were not. These results show that even minimal instruction and feedback leads to learning abstract morphological structure through the use of nonce words. While instruction and feedback at this level may not make non-concatenative morphology more straightforward to English speakers, their subconscious understanding of the morphophonological system is improved and leads to higher quality guesses on the derivations of the nonce words than on previous work with implicit learning of non-concatenative morphology alone (e.g., Drake, 2018). Feedback provides negative input for a second-language learner to narrow possibilities when following an otherwise abstract morphophonological pattern, particularly in a morphophonological system unlike that employed by their primary language.

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KERKHOFF, ANNEMARIE, ELISE DE BREE, MAARTJE DE KLERK, and FRANK WIJNEN. "Non-adjacent dependency learning in infants at familial risk of dyslexia." Journal of Child Language 40, no. 1 (December 5, 2012): 11–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000912000098.

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ABSTRACTThis study tests the hypothesis that developmental dyslexia is (partly) caused by a deficit in implicit sequential learning, by investigating whether infants at familial risk of dyslexia can track non-adjacent dependencies in an artificial language. An implicit learning deficit would hinder detection of such dependencies, which mark grammatical relations (e.g. between ‘is’ and ‘-ing’ in ‘she is happily singing’). In a head-turn experiment with infants aged 1;6, family risk and typically developing infants were exposed to one of two novel languages containing dependencies of the type a-X-c, b-X-d or a-X-d, b-X-c, with fixed first and third elements and twenty-four different X elements. During test, typically developing children listened longer to ungrammatical strings (i.e. that did not correspond to their training language). However, family-risk children did not discriminate between grammatical and ungrammatical strings, indicating deficient implicit learning. The implications of these findings in relation to dyslexia and other language-based disorders are discussed.

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Plante, Elena, Dianne Patterson, Michelle Sandoval, Christopher J. Vance, and Arve E. Asbjørnsen. "An fMRI study of implicit language learning in developmental language impairment." NeuroImage: Clinical 14 (2017): 277–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2017.01.027.

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Li, Shaofeng, and Jiancheng Qian. "EXPLORING SYNTACTIC PRIMING AS A MEASURE OF IMPLICIT LANGUAGE APTITUDE." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43, no. 3 (March 22, 2021): 574–605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263120000698.

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AbstractThis study investigates the validity of syntactic priming as a measure of implicit language aptitude. Syntactic priming refers to the tendency to reproduce a linguistic structure due to a previous exposure to the structure. The validity of the construct was verified by collating evidence for divergent validity—whether it is dissociable from explicit aptitude; convergent validity—whether it is correlated with other measures of implicit aptitude; and predictive validity—whether it is predictive of learning attainment. One hundred sixty-six university EFL learners completed three tests of implicit aptitude: syntactic priming, sequence learning, and LLAMA_D; three tests of explicit aptitude: LLAMA_B, _E, and _F; and three tests of L2 proficiency: untimed grammaticality judgment, metalinguistic knowledge, and elicited imitation. The results showed that syntactic priming was dissociable from explicit aptitude, but it failed to converge with the other measures of implicit aptitude, and it also failed to predict L2 proficiency. The results also showed that priming was negatively correlated with sequence learning and that sequence learning was a negative predictor of learners’ metalinguistic knowledge. On the other hand, the construct validity of explicit aptitude was strong. The results suggest the multidimensionality of implicit aptitude and the need for more research into the construct validity of syntactic priming as a cognitive ability for implicit learning.

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Graham, Calbert R., and John N. Williams. "IMPLICIT LEARNING OF LATIN STRESS REGULARITIES." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 40, no. 1 (December 1, 2016): 3–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263116000371.

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This study examines whether Japanese native (L1) listeners can implicitly learn stress pattern regularities, not present in their L1, after a brief auditory exposure. In the exposure phase, the participants listened to and repeated words bearing stress patterned after Latin, but with a highly restricted consonant inventory. They performed a judgment task designed to test whether they had learned the relevant stress pattern regularities from the brief listening experience. We assessed participants’ awareness of the inherent stress regularities by analyzing confidence in making decisions and by verbal report. Results suggest that although participants remained unaware of the underlying stress regularities they performed significantly above chance in endorsing correctly stressed novel items even when they claimed to be guessing. In addition, there was no difference in confidence between correct and incorrect judgments. These results suggest that brief exposure resulted in implicit knowledge of abstract stress assignment rules. However, participants rejected correctly stressed words that contained consonants that were not present in the test phase. On the basis of this finding, we speculate that in the acquisition of second language phonology, a violation at the segmental level may be deemed more costly than a violation in the prosodic domain.

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Tellier, Angela, and Karen Roehr-Brackin. "Metalinguistic awareness in children with differing language learning experience." EUROSLA Yearbook 13 (August 2, 2013): 81–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/eurosla.13.06tel.

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Theoretical research concerned with the notion of second language (L2) learning difficulty has resulted in specific criteria that can be used to predict the learning difficulty of different languages in terms of both explicit and implicit knowledge. The characteristics of the constructed language Esperanto suggest that this language has lower explicit and implicit learning difficulty than other languages. It may therefore be a suitable ‘starter language’ for child L2 learning in the classroom. Specifically, we propose that Esperanto may facilitate the development of metalinguistic awareness and, as a consequence, boost children’s budding capacity for explicit learning. This would be particularly advantageous in the minimal-input setting of the average foreign language classroom. We present findings from an empirical study which compared 11 to 12-year-old English-speaking children who had learned Esperanto and a European L2 (N = 35) with children who had learned various combinations of European and non-European L2s (N = 168) in terms of their performance on a measure of metalinguistic awareness. No significant differences in overall level of metalinguistic awareness were identified, but the Esperanto group significantly outperformed the comparison group on one of the eleven metalinguistic tasks included in the measure. Moreover, the Esperanto group displayed a more homogeneous performance than the other groups of children. This suggests that learning Esperanto may have a lasting levelling effect, reducing differences between children with varying metalinguistic abilities.

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Morgan-Short, Kara, ZhiZhou Deng, Katherine A. Brill-Schuetz, Mandy Faretta-Stutenberg, Patrick C. M. Wong, and Francis C. K. Wong. "A VIEW OF THE NEURAL REPRESENTATION OF SECOND LANGUAGE SYNTAX THROUGH ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE LEARNING UNDER IMPLICIT CONTEXTS OF EXPOSURE." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 37, no. 2 (May 20, 2015): 383–419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263115000030.

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The current study aims to make an initial neuroimaging contribution to central implicit-explicit issues in second language (L2) acquisition by considering how implicit and explicit contexts mediate the neural representation of L2. Focusing on implicit contexts, the study employs a longitudinal design to examine the neural representation of L2 syntax and also considers how the neural circuits underlying L2 syntax vary among learners who exhibit different levels of performance on linguistic and cognitive tasks. Results suggest that when exposed to a L2 under an implicit context, some learners are able to quickly rely on neural circuits associated with first language grammar and procedural memory, whereas other learners increasingly use extralinguistic neural circuits related to control mechanisms to process syntax. Thus, there may be multiple ways in which L2 is represented neurally, at least when learned under implicit contexts.

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Bowers, Jeffrey S., Sven L. Mattys, and Suzanne H. Gage. "Preserved Implicit Knowledge of a Forgotten Childhood Language." Psychological Science 20, no. 9 (September 2009): 1064–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02407.x.

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Previous research suggests that a language learned during early childhood is completely forgotten when contact to that language is severed. In contrast with these findings, we report leftover traces of early language exposure in individuals in their adult years, despite a complete absence of explicit memory for the language. Specifically, native English individuals under age 40 selectively relearned subtle Hindi or Zulu sound contrasts that they once knew. However, individuals over 40 failed to show any relearning, and young control participants with no previous exposure to Hindi or Zulu showed no learning. This research highlights the lasting impact of early language experience in shaping speech perception, and the value of exposing children to foreign languages even if such exposure does not continue into adulthood.

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Drew, Ion. "Reading in the second language classroom: Consideration of first language approaches in second language contexts." Acta Didactica Norge 12, no. 2 (May 29, 2018): 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.5617/adno.5570.

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AbstractThis article reviews research on how three first language (L1) approaches designed to promote reading and other literacy skills have been applied to second language (L2) classrooms in Norway: The Early Years Literacy Programme (EYLP), Reading and Writing Workshops, and Readers Theatre (RT). Key ways that L2 readers differ from L1 readers are initially addressed, high-lighting the needs of L2 readers. Following Grabe (2009), L2 readers would benefit from a balanced approach to developing their reading skills, one that incorporates both implicit and explicit teaching and learning. Implicit learning involves plenty and frequent reading input, for example through extensive reading. Explicit learning involves, for example, the development of learners’ metacognitive and metalinguistic awareness, and an understanding of what it means to be a strategic reader. Benefits and challenges involved in the implementation of the three approaches are addressed. With the exception of RT, no research is known to exist at present on how these approaches have been adapted to L2 contexts outside of Norway. The research in Norway shows that each approach can help English as a foreign language (EFL) learners to develop their reading skills both implicitly and explicitly, as well as their metacognition, but that there are challenges, especially of a practical nature, involved in their implementation. Of the three, RT is arguably the easiest to apply to an L2 context.Keywords: L1/L2 reading approaches, implicit/explicit learning, metacognitionLesing i andrespråksklasser: Overveielser over førstespråkstilnærminger i andrespråkskonteksterSammendragDenne artikkelen går gjennom forskning på hvordan tre tilnærminger til lese- og skriveopplæring i førstespråket er blitt anvendt i andrespråksundervisning i Norge: The Early Years Literacy Programme (EYLP), lese- og skriveverksted, og leseteater. Innledningsvis diskuteres viktige forskjeller mellom førstespråkslesing og andrespråkslesing, med vekt på andrespråksleseres behov. Med utgangspunkt i Grabe (2009), vil andrespråkslesere dra fordel av en balansert tilnærming til å utvikle leseferdigheter, en tilnærming som inkluderer både implisitt og eksplisitt læring. Implisitt læring innebærer mye og hyppig lesing, for eksempel gjennom ekstensiv lesing. Eksplisitt læring innebærer for eksempel utvikling av elevenes metalingvistiske og metakognitive bevissthet og en forståelse av hva det betyr å være en strategisk leser. Fordeler og utfordringer ved å implementere disse tre tilnærmingene blir omtalt. Med unntak av leseteater, kjennes det ikke til forskning på hvordan disse tilnærmingene har blitt tilpasset andrespråkskontekster utenfor Norge. Forskning i Norge viser at hver av de tre tilnærmingene, både implisitt og eksplisitt, kan hjelpe elever til å utvikle sine leseferdigheter og metakognisjon, men at det fins utfordringer, særlig av en praktisk art, når de skal anvendes i andrespråkssammenheng. Av de tre tilnær-mingsmåtene synes leseteater å være den enkleste å anvende.Nøkkelord: førstespråkslesing, andrespråkslesing, implisitt/eksplisitt læring, metakognisjon

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Yim, Dongsun, and John Rudoy. "Implicit Statistical Learning and Language Skills in Bilingual Children." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 56, no. 1 (February 2013): 310–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2012/11-0243).

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Wilkinson, Leonora, and David R. Shanks. "Intentional Control and Implicit Sequence Learning." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 30, no. 2 (2004): 354–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.30.2.354.

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Hartman, Marilyn, David S. Knopman, and Mary J. Nissen. "Implicit learning of new verbal associations." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 15, no. 6 (1989): 1070–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.15.6.1070.

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Stadler, Michael A. "Statistical structure and implicit serial learning." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 18, no. 2 (March 1992): 318–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.18.2.318.

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Stadler, Michael A. "Role of attention in implicit learning." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 21, no. 3 (1995): 674–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.21.3.674.

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Heuer, Herbert, Volker Schmidtke, and Thomas Kleinsorge. "Implicit learning of sequences of tasks." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 27, no. 4 (2001): 967–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.27.4.967.

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Paciorek, Albertyna, and John N. Williams. "IMPLICIT LEARNING OF SEMANTIC PREFERENCES OF VERBS." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 37, no. 2 (April 24, 2015): 359–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263115000108.

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Previous studies of semantic implicit learning in language have only examined learning grammatical form-meaning connections in which learning could have been supported by prior linguistic knowledge. In this study we target the domain of verb meaning, specifically semantic preferences regarding novel verbs (e.g., the preference for a novel verb to take abstract objects). Using a reaction time methodology we show that, after exposure to correct verb-noun combinations, reaction times to incorrect combinations are slowed down even for participants who are unaware of the semantic regularity. This effect was obtained on a decision that was irrelevant to the actual underlying regularity, suggesting that the knowledge that has been acquired exerts its influence automatically, hence satisfying one criterion for implicitness. Combined with a lack of verbalizable knowledge, these experiments provide strong evidence for semantic implicit learning in language.

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Perruchet, Pierre. "WHY IS THE COMPONENTIAL CONSTRUCT OF IMPLICIT LANGUAGE APTITUDE SO DIFFICULT TO CAPTURE?" Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43, no. 3 (July 2021): 677–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s027226312100019x.

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AbstractAlthough this special issue reveals some promising achievements, most of the contributions show that tasks of implicit learning are not or are only weakly correlated with each other, and they have inconsistent predictive power on L2 acquisition. This commentary examines four possible explanations for this surprising pattern: The (suboptimal) selection of tasks, the low reliability of measures, the deep influence of the starting level even for nominally “new” implicit tasks, and the fact that the mastery of L2 may involve other implicit processes than implicit learning measured through laboratory tasks.

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Case, Julie, Scott Seyfarth, and Susannah V. Levi. "Does Implicit Voice Learning Improve Spoken Language Processing? Implications for Clinical Practice." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 61, no. 5 (May 17, 2018): 1251–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2018_jslhr-l-17-0298.

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Purpose In typical interactions with other speakers, including a clinical environment, listeners become familiar with voices through implicit learning. Previous studies have found evidence for a Familiar Talker Advantage (better speech perception and spoken language processing for familiar voices) following explicit voice learning. The current study examined whether a Familiar Talker Advantage would result from implicit voice learning. Method Thirty-three adults and 16 second graders were familiarized with 1 of 2 talkers' voices over 2 days through live interactions as 1 of 2 experimenters administered standardized tests and interacted with the listeners. To assess whether this implicit voice learning would generate a Familiar Talker Advantage, listeners completed a baseline sentence recognition task and a post-learning sentence recognition task with both the familiar talker and the unfamiliar talker. Results No significant effect of voice familiarity was found for either the children or the adults following implicit voice learning. Effect size estimates suggest that familiarity with the voice may benefit some listeners, despite the lack of an overall effect of familiarity. Discussion We discuss possible clinical implications of this finding and directions for future research.

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Schuchard, Julia, Michaela Nerantzini, and Cynthia K. Thompson. "Implicit learning and implicit treatment outcomes in individuals with aphasia." Aphasiology 31, no. 1 (February 19, 2016): 25–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2016.1147526.

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Nakamura, Daisuke. "Methodological considerations in studying awareness during learning. Part 2: Second Language Acquisition." Polish Psychological Bulletin 44, no. 3 (September 1, 2013): 337–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/ppb-2013-0037.

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AbstractThis paper considers methodological issues of awareness during adult second language acquisition (SLA). Specifically, the paper deals with (a) the issue of instructional orientations, (b) the issue of biases in knowledge measurement, and (c) the issue of reactivity in the online think-aloud protocol. Detailed reviews of prominent SLA research that has investigated the possibility of implicit SLA reveal (1) that the instruction on implicit learning does not guarantee that learners engage in the implicit learning mode, (2) that the majority of SLA research has employed only tests of “explicit learning” such as untimed grammaticality judgment, and (3) that there is some evidence that the online think-aloud protocol causes negative reactivity particularly when it is metalinguistic in nature.

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ROGERS, JOHN, ANDREA RÉVÉSZ, and PATRICK REBUSCHAT. "Implicit and explicit knowledge of inflectional morphology." Applied Psycholinguistics 37, no. 4 (July 21, 2015): 781–812. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716415000247.

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ABSTRACTThis study set out to test the degree to which second language inflectional morphology can be acquired as a result of incidental exposure and whether the resulting knowledge is implicit (unconscious) or explicit (conscious) in nature. Participants were exposed to an artificial language system based on Czech morphology under incidental learning conditions. In the testing phase, a grammaticality judgment test was utilized to assess learning. In addition, subjective measures of awareness and retrospective verbal reports were used to measure whether the acquired knowledge was conscious or not. The results of the experiment indicate that participants can rapidly develop knowledge of second language inflectional morphology under incidental learning conditions in the absence of verbalizable rule knowledge.

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Li, Shaofeng, and Robert DeKeyser. "IMPLICIT LANGUAGE APTITUDE: CONCEPTUALIZING THE CONSTRUCT, VALIDATING THE MEASURES, AND EXAMINING THE EVIDENCE." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43, no. 3 (July 2021): 473–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263121000024.

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AbstractThis article discusses the conceptualization, measurement, and validity of a recently emerged construct in the field of second language acquisition (SLA)—implicit language aptitude (alternatively “implicit aptitude”). Implicit aptitude is a set of cognitive abilities that enable learners to make unconscious computations of the distributional and transitional probabilities of linguistic input. Implicit aptitude is key to an accurate understanding of the cognitive foundation of language learning and contributes significantly to the advancement of SLA theory and pedagogy. The article starts by clarifying the concept and components of implicit aptitude, elaborating its role in SLA theories, identifying its attributes, and discussing its measurement. It then synthesizes the empirical evidence on its divergent, convergent, and predictive validity, which refers to whether it is distinct or separable from explicit aptitude, whether measures of implicit aptitude are correlated, and whether it is predictive of learning outcomes, respectively. Next, the article provides an overview of the seven empirical studies included in this special issue that examined implicit aptitude from various perspectives. The article concludes by identifying future directions.

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Granena, Gisela. "COGNITIVE APTITUDES AND L2 SPEAKING PROFICIENCY." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 41, no. 2 (November 9, 2018): 313–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263118000256.

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AbstractThis study investigated the underlying structure of a set of eight cognitive tests from the two most recent language aptitude test batteries: the LLAMA (Meara, 2005) and the Hi-LAB (Linck et al., 2013) to see whether they had any underlying constructs in common. The study also examined whether any of the observed constructs could predict L2 speaking proficiency in terms of complexity, accuracy, or fluency. Participants were 135 college-level students learning Spanish as an L2 in the United States. Results showed that the LLAMA and the Hi-LAB include tests that tap the same constructs. Specifically, the tests from the two batteries loaded onto three different factors, interpreted as “Explicit Aptitude,” “Implicit Memory Ability,” and “Implicit Learning Ability.” The results further showed that Implicit Memory Ability was a significant predictor of L2 speed fluency and interacted with Implicit Learning Ability as a predictor of lexical complexity. This finding suggested that L2 learners with greater Implicit Memory Ability may be better at accessing and retrieving previously learned or known information effortlessly. In the case of lexical complexity, the effect of Implicit Memory Ability depended on the level of Implicit Learning Ability.

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Miller, Zachary F., and Aline Godfroid. "EMOTIONS IN INCIDENTAL LANGUAGE LEARNING." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 42, no. 1 (August 20, 2019): 115–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s027226311900041x.

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AbstractWe investigated how positive, negative, and neutral mood states influence aspects of second language acquisition, either directly or in interaction with certain personality characteristics (openness, intuition, emotional intelligence, foreign language anxiety, and impulsivity). After completing individual differences questionnaires, 120 participants were randomly assigned to either a Comparison group or one of three emotionally induced treatment groups. They were trained on a semiartificial language under incidental learning conditions. Immediate testing measured participants’ knowledge of the target syntactic forms, while source-attribution data gauged the nature (implicit, explicit, or a combination of both) of their knowledge. Contrary to some previous studies, knowledge gains were chiefly conscious-explicit. Participants exhibited substantial variability in how emotions impacted their learning, with self-reported stress management and premeditation resulting in higher learning in the Negative group. Overall, participants that claimed higher levels of intellect showed the best results.

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Lichtman, Karen. "Age, ability, and awareness in implicit and explicit second language learning." LSA Annual Meeting Extended Abstracts 4 (May 7, 2013): 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/exabs.v0i0.771.

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Hosny Yusuf, Nermin. "Implicit Learning in Second Language Acquisition: Insights from Neuroscientific Data." Communication and Linguistics Studies 7, no. 2 (2021): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.11648/j.cls.20210702.11.

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Michas, Irene C., and Dianne C. Berry. "Implicit and explicit processes in a second-language learning task." European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 6, no. 4 (December 1994): 357–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09541449408406520.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Implicit language learning'

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