Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Implicit and explicit knowledge bases'

Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Centro de Comunicação e Expressão, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Letras/Inglês e Literatura Correspondente, Florianópolis, 2010
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Baseado na afirmação de que a replicação de estudos é um item importante na pauta da Linguística Aplicada, o presente estudo foi baseado no estudo de Ellis (2006) e teve como objetivo (1) examinar algumas estruturas gramaticais considerando a dificuldade de aprendizado dos alunos a partir de um escopo implícito e explícito, e (2) examinar a relação entre o conhecimento implícito e explícito das estruturas gramaticais investigadas neste estudo e a proficiência da L2. Os dados foram coletados na Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, com 45 alunos estudantes de inglês como língua estrangeira. Todos os participantes fizeram os 4 testes propostos por Ellis (2006) e 31 fizeram um teste de proficiência (PET). A média dos resultados combinados foi calculada para comparar os resultados do conhecimento implícito e explícito em relação as 17 estruturas gramaticais investigadas. A análise estatística empregada demonstrou que a estrutura fácil para conhecimento implícito foi perguntas encaixadas (embedded questions). Para conhecimento explícito as estruturas fáceis foram: complemento verbal, desde/por, orações relativas, perguntas no final da frase (question tags), artigo indefinido, construções bitransitivas (dative alternation), comparativo, e 3ª. pessoa #s. Estruturas difíceis para conhecimento implícito foram: perguntas sim/não, condicionais irreais, desde/por, orações relativas, perguntas no final da frase (question tags), vii possessivo #s, plural #s, artigo indefinido e 3ª. pessoa #s. Além disso, correlações significativas foram encontradas entre os resultados das estruturas gramaticais e o teste de proficiência (PET). A análise de regressão múltipla demonstrou que ambos os tipos de conhecimento prevêem a proficiência da língua de um modo geral.
Based on the claim that the replication of studies is an important item in the agenda of Applied Linguistics, the present study aimed at determining the extent to which the findings of Ellis (2006) can be replicated in a context where participants are foreign language learners. More specifically, the present study aimed at (1) examining some grammatical structures in the light of students# learning difficulty towards an implicit and explicit scope, and (2) examining the relationship between implicit and explicit knowledge of the grammatical structures investigated here and general L2 proficiency. Data was gathered at Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, from 45 Brazilian students of English as an L2. All participants performed the four tests proposed by Ellis (2006). Thirty-one participants volunteered to take the proficiency test (PET). Combined means scores were computed in order to compare the scores of implicit and explicit knowledge towards the seventeen grammatical structures investigated. The statistical analysis employed indicated that the easy structure for implicit knowledge was embedded questions, for explicit knowledge the easy structures found were: verb complement, since/for, relative clauses, question tags, indefinite article, dative alternation, comparative, and, 3rd person #s. Difficult structures for implicit knowledge were: yes/no questions, unreal conditionals, since/for, relative clauses, question tags, possessive #s, plural #s, indefinite article, and 3rd person #s. Moreover, significant correlations were found between the grammatical structures and the proficiency test (PET). A multiple regression analysis demonstrated that both types of knowledge predict general language proficiency.

Spanish
Ph.D.
Although many studies have suggested positive effects for speaking or output practice on L2 grammar development, the question of how speaking affects L2 grammar remains. This study specifically examines how output affects the explicit and implicit knowledge of Spanish indirect object pronouns (IOPs). It also investigates levels of L2 grammar development for participants with low, mid and high levels of background knowledge of Spanish subject-verb agreement. Eight participants were given explicit grammar instruction on the target structure followed by six paired output-focus activities. These included two information-gap tasks, a matching task, a partner interview, original sentence creation, and a dictogloss task. In each task participants were required to orally produce IOPs whether they were reading a prepared IOP or producing one originally based on a prompt. In order to capture qualitative data on the effectiveness of output, all paired interaction was transcribed and coded for language related episodes (LREs). In this study three types of LREs were identified: self-correction, other-correction and metatalk. Learners were also tested on IOPs immediately before instruction, immediately following and three weeks afterward. Quantitative data consisted of these results of pre, post, and delayed posttests, the number of IOPs produced during all instructional activities, and the percentage of correct IOPs produced compared to those omitted or produced incorrectly. Development of explicit knowledge was assessed by an untimed written picture description task, whereas implicit knowledge was assessed on the tests by a timed grammaticality judgment task. The results of the picture description task showed more consistent gains in development of explicit knowledge. The results of the grammaticality judgment task were more irregular and suggested less consistent gains in development of implicit knowledge. Together, quantitative and qualitative results suggest that explicit instruction followed by output practice was most effective for learners in this study with greater knowledge of subject-verb agreement. A comparison of qualitative results and test scores revealed that learners who showed more focus on the lexicon during instructional tasks and did not produce IOPs as often, and also had lower scores on both tests. Stronger learning outcomes were observed for learners who produced more IOPs, had a higher percentage of correct IOPs and were involved in LREs.
Temple University--Theses

Die vorliegende Dissertation untersucht Dissoziationen zwischen Vergessensverläufen für implizites und explizites Wissen. Aus diesem Ansatz können sich wesentliche Einschränkungen ergeben in Bezug auf die Annahme, sowohl impliziten als auch expliziten Prozessen liege ein einziges Gedächtnissystem oder ein einziger Mechanismus zugrunde. Im theoretischen Teil der Arbeit wird implizites Wissen als Information definiert, die ohne Intention gelernt und abgerufen wird, und die generelle Bedeutung einfacher Dissoziationen für Theorien impliziten Wissens erklärt. Ich gebe einen Überblick über die wesentlichen Forschungsprogramme in Hinblick auf Funktionen, Prozesse, Entwicklung, neuronale Korrelate und Vergessensverläufe impliziten Wissens und lege dar, daß der Vergleich der Vergessensverläufe impliziten und expliziten Wissens eine graduelle Perspektive ermöglicht, die die mit an einem einzelnen isolierten Zeitpunkt beobachteten einfachen Dissoziationen verbundenen Probleme überwindet, und auch dazu beitragen kann, die Lücke zwischen der Forschung zum impliziten Lernen und zum impliziten Gedächtnis zu schließen. In einer Reihe von vier Experimenten wurden studentische Versuchsteilnehmer Regelhaftigkeiten in der Umwelt ausgesetzt, die in eine künstliche Grammatikaufgabe (AG) oder Wahlreaktionsaufgabe (SRT) eingebettet waren. Für den Vergleich der Vergessensverläufe wurde das implizite (aus motorischen Reaktionszeiten erschlossene) und explizite (auf Wiedererkennung basierte) Wissen der Versuchspersonen jeweils vor und nach einem Behaltensintervall erfaßt. Die Befunde zeigen, daß sowohl in der AG als auch der SRT explizites Wissen schneller zerfällt als implizites. Darüber hinaus lieferte eine Interferenz-Aufgabe, die anstelle des Behaltensintervalls eingesetzt wurde, das gleiche Dissoziationsmuster. Schließlich wurde anhand einer Reihe von Simulationen geprüft, ob ein komputationales Ein-Speicher-Modell (Shanks, Wilkinson, & Channon, 2003) die experimentellen Befunde erklären kann. Die Simulationen zeigen, daß das Modell nur dann in Übereinstimmung mit den Daten gebracht werden kann, wenn zwischen den verschiedenen Meßzeitpunkten Veränderungen in den Parametern (a) der gemeinsamen Repräsentationsstärke für implizites und explizites Wissen, und (b) der Reliabilität des expliziten Maßes eingeführt werden. Meine Dissertation schlägt also (1) einen konzeptuellen Rahmen für explizites und implizites Wissen vor, erbringt (2) neue empirische Belege für Dissoziationen zwischen den Vergessensverläufen dieser Wissensformen, und identifiziert (3) die spezifischen Randbedingungen für ein Ein-Speicher- bzw. Ein-Prozess-Modell.
In this dissertation I investigate dissociations in the forgetting patterns of implicit and explicit knowledge. I claim that this approach may provide significant constraints for the assumption that a single system or mechanism determines both implicit and explicit processes. In the theoretical part, I construe a definition of implicit knowledge as information learned and retrieved without intention. I also explain the general role of single dissociations in theories of implicit knowledge. And I present an overview of the main lines of research concerned with the functions, operation, development, neural substrates, and forgetting patterns of implicit knowledge. In general, I argue that comparing the forgetting patterns of implicit and explicit knowledge may be best regarded from a graded perspective and may usefully bridge the gap between research on implicit learning and implicit memory. In a series of 4 Experiments university students were exposed to environmental regularities embedded in artificial grammar (AG) and serial reaction time (SRT) tasks. To compare the forgetting patterns, participants’ implicit (motor-performance based) and explicit (recognition based) knowledge was assessed before and after a retention interval. Taken together, the results indicate that explicit knowledge decays faster than implicit knowledge in both AG and SRT tasks. Furthermore, an interference task introduced instead of a retention interval produced the same pattern of dissociations. Finally, I conducted a set of simulations to asses the ability of a single-system model (Shanks, Wilkinson, & Channon, 2003) to account for my experimental results. The simulations showed that the model best fits the empirical data by introducing changes in the parameters related to (a) the common knowledge strength (for implicit and implicit knowledge), and (b) the reliability for the explicit test. In sum, my dissertation (1) suggests a conceptual framework for implicit and explicit knowledge, (2) provides new empirical evidence of dissociations in their forgetting patterns, and (3) identifies specific boundary conditions for a single-system model.

This research addressed the need for in-depth investigation of what actually happens in the practice of risk management in software package implementation projects. There is strong 'official' sanction in the IT literature for the use of formal risk management processes for IT projects but there is a confused picture of their application in practice. While many potential risk factors for IT projects have been identified, and formal procedures have been prescribed for the management of these risks, there has been little work investigating how project managers assess these risks in practice and what countermeasures they employ against these risks in their projects. In particular, the study used an interpretive critical decision interview approach to focus on those areas of risk management knowledge that project managers have acquired through experience, i.e. tacit knowledge. A new categorization of risk factors emanating from three sources -- vendor, client, and third party -reveals risk factors not previously identified. Some of these new factors arise from the three sources noted, while others arise from the package implementation focus of the projects and from aspects arising from the location of the projects in Hong Kong. Key factors that cause problems even when anticipated and mitigated, and the most often unanticipated problems are also identified. The study further presents an examination of the studied managers' risk management practices, and the strategies they use to address both potential and actual problems. This examination revealed close conformance with recommended literature prescriptions at some stages of projects, and significant variation at other stages, with strategies applied being broad and general rather than risk specific. A useful categorization of these strategies into four broad groups relating to different sets of risk factors is presented, reflecting the actual practice of respondents. Tacit knowledge was revealed throughout these investigations in the variances observed between prescribed and actual practice, and particularly from an examination of project managers' decision-making practices from two different perspectives - rational and naturalistic. A hybrid decision-making model is proposed to capture the actual processes observed, and to provide prescriptive guidance for risk management practice. The investigation makes a contribution to the field of IT project risk management in three ways. First, the investigation has addressed the need for empirical studies into IT risk management practices and the factors influencing project managers in their choice and application of strategies to manage risk. Second, by examining how experienced IT project managers approach the task of managing risk in software package implementations, the study has extended our understanding of the nature of the knowledge and skills that effective IT project managers develop through experience. Third, the study makes a theoretical contribution to our understanding of IT project risk management by examining the decision-making processes followed by IT project managers from the perspective of two contrasting theories of decision-making - the rational method and the Naturalistic Decision Making theory.

This research addressed the need for in-depth investigation of what actually happens in the practice of risk management in software package implementation projects. There is strong 'official' sanction in the IT literature for the use of formal risk management processes for IT projects but there is a confused picture of their application in practice. While many potential risk factors for IT projects have been identified, and formal procedures have been prescribed for the management of these risks, there has been little work investigating how project managers assess these risks in practice and what countermeasures they employ against these risks in their projects. In particular, the study used an interpretive critical decision interview approach to focus on those areas of risk management knowledge that project managers have acquired through experience, i.e. tacit knowledge. A new categorization of risk factors emanating from three sources -- vendor, client, and third party -reveals risk factors not previously identified. Some of these new factors arise from the three sources noted, while others arise from the package implementation focus of the projects and from aspects arising from the location of the projects in Hong Kong. Key factors that cause problems even when anticipated and mitigated, and the most often unanticipated problems are also identified. The study further presents an examination of the studied managers' risk management practices, and the strategies they use to address both potential and actual problems. This examination revealed close conformance with recommended literature prescriptions at some stages of projects, and significant variation at other stages, with strategies applied being broad and general rather than risk specific. A useful categorization of these strategies into four broad groups relating to different sets of risk factors is presented, reflecting the actual practice of respondents. Tacit knowledge was revealed throughout these investigations in the variances observed between prescribed and actual practice, and particularly from an examination of project managers' decision-making practices from two different perspectives - rational and naturalistic. A hybrid decision-making model is proposed to capture the actual processes observed, and to provide prescriptive guidance for risk management practice. The investigation makes a contribution to the field of IT project risk management in three ways. First, the investigation has addressed the need for empirical studies into IT risk management practices and the factors influencing project managers in their choice and application of strategies to manage risk. Second, by examining how experienced IT project managers approach the task of managing risk in software package implementations, the study has extended our understanding of the nature of the knowledge and skills that effective IT project managers develop through experience. Third, the study makes a theoretical contribution to our understanding of IT project risk management by examining the decision-making processes followed by IT project managers from the perspective of two contrasting theories of decision-making - the rational method and the Naturalistic Decision Making theory.

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)
With the exponentially growing of data available on the Web, several projects were created to automatically represent this information as knowledge bases(KBs). Knowledge bases used in most projects are represented in an ontology-based fashion, so the data can be better organized and easily accessible. It is common to map these KBs into a graph to apply graph mining algorithms to extract implicit knowledge from the KB, knowledge that sometimes is easy for human beings to infer but not so trivial to a machine. One common graph-based task is link prediction, which can be used not only to predict edges (new facts for the KB) that will appear in a near future, but also to nd misplaced edges (wrong facts present in the KB). In this project, we create algorithms that uses graph-mining (mostly link-prediction based) approaches to nd implicit knowledge from ontological knowledge bases. Despite of common graph-mining algorithms, we mine not just the facts on the KB, but also the ontology information (such as categories of instances and relations among them). The implicit knowledge that our algorithms will nd, is not just new facts for the KB, but also new relations and categories, extending the ontology as well.
Com o crescimento exponencial dos dados disponíveis na Web, diversos projetos foram criados para automaticamente representar esta informação como bases de conhecimento( KBs). As bases de conhecimento utilizadas na maioria destes projetos são representadas através de uma ontologia, então os dados são melhor organizados e facilmente acessíveis. E comum mapear estes KBs utilizando grafos para aplicação de algoritmos de mineração em grafos com o intuito de extrair conhecimento implícito do KB, conhecimento que as pode ser facil para seres humanos inferir mas não são tão triviais para uma maquina. Uma tarefa comum e a predição de arestas, que pode ser usada para encontrar arestas (fatos no KB) que vão aparecer em um futuro próximo, e além disso para encontrar arestas mal alocadas (fatos incorretos no KB). Neste projeto, criamos algoritmos que utilizam mineração em grafos (na maioria baseados em predição de arestas) para encontrar conhecimento implícito em bancos de conhecimento ontológicos. Apesar do uso comum de algoritmos de predição de arestas, vamos minerar também informações da ontologia (como categorias das instancias e relações entre elas). O conhecimento implícito que nossos algoritmos vai encontrar, serão não somente novos fatos para o KB, mas também novas relações e categorias, estendendo também a ontologia.

One of the most controversial topics in Applied Linguistics is the role of learners' metalinguistic knowledge (MK) in second language (L2) learning and teaching. There seems to be no agreement between those who propose that MK is essential for L2 learning and those who believe that it can even be detrimental for L2 acquisition.Additionally, the subjunctive has been reported to be one of the most difficult structures to master for L2 learners of Spanish. It has been suggested that the subjunctive is acquired fairly late in an acquisition hierarchy of Spanish grammar and that, as a consequence, learners must reach a stage where they can produce syntactically sophisticated utterances in order to be "ready" for acquisition.Taking an Information Processing (IP) approach to language learning as a framework, this dissertation investigates the relationship between MK and grammatical accuracy by learners of Spanish at beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels of proficiency. Their MK is assessed through a set of terminology and grammaticality judgment tasks. Their mastery of the Spanish subjunctive is evaluated through a set of receptive and productive tests involving different subordinate clauses.The three groups of participants are compared with respect to their MK and their mastery of the subjunctive, and it is examined whether MK correlates with mastery of the subjunctive. Findings include: 1) an improvement on both subjunctive accuracy and terminology knowledge across levels; 2) a positive correlation between English MK and Spanish MK; 3) a positive correlation between MK and accuracy in the use of the subjunctive; and 4) agreement between the learners' acquisition hierarchy within the subjunctive and teaching order of subjunctive substructures.The findings show that MK has a positive impact on the mastery of this "difficult" structure. They are also consistent with other experimental studies that suggest that explicit instruction has a positive impact on L2 learning. The late and uneven acquisition of the subjunctive demonstrated by the subjects in this study also suports the hypothesis that there are "many subjunctives" to learn and that learners will not acquire this structure until they are developmentally ready (third year of instruction).

The present experiment evaluated Willingham & Goedert-Eschmann’s proposal (1999) that physical practice is required to support the parallel activation of explicit and implicit systems during practice of an SRT task. Individuals either physically executed or observed an individual producing a repeating 12-element sequence. Models and observers were provided with explicit information regarding the sequence or were uninformed. Congruent with previous findings, providing explicit instructions resulted in a significant decrease in response times to sequenced stimuli during acquisition. Individuals who physically performed the sequences during practice exhibited performance during direct and indirect tests consistent with parallel activation of both the explicit and implicit systems. Unexpectedly, performance on the indirect test for the observers that revealed explicit learning was similar to that reported for the model, indicating parallel activation also occurred during observation. This finding addresses some of the predictions made by Willingham’s COBALT (1998). Furthermore, a subset of observers revealed no explicit knowledge of the 12-element sequence but performed well on the indirect test. Learning via the implicit system during observation is congruent with recent behavioral data of Bird and colleagues (2005).

Ämnet kompetensöverföring och kompetensbevaring är ett aktuellt ämne för dagens arbetsmarknad. Generationen Baby Boomers, den ovanligt stora efterkrigsgenerationen, personer födda mellan 1946 – 1964 (Valueoptions, 2015), kommer de kommande 10 åren att gå i pension vilket riskerar att även deras komptetens går förlorad. Kompetensöverföring och kompetensbevaring är även aktuellt vid ett ägarskifte eller en nyanställning. Om kompetensöverföringen inom organisationer inte sker på ett korrekt sätt så löper det en stor risk att värdefull kunskap går förlorad. Kompetensen och den tysta kunskapen är viktiga att identifiera och bevara till nyanställd personal. Vår uppsats syftar till möjliggörandet av kunskapsöverföringen samt hur man kan göra det på ett effektivt sätt. Forskningsfråga Hur kan kompetensbevaring ske i ett personalskifte utan att förlora värdefull kompetens? Syfte Syftet med studien är att se hur man på ett enkelt sätt kan genomföra kompetensbevaring utan att förlora värdefull kompetens. Resultatet kan sedan användas av företag i framtiden. Studien kommer att lyfta fram eventuella problematiska aspekter samt värdefullt verktyg för en lyckad kompetensbevaring. Förutsättningar, differenser samt möjligheter på två helt olika företag kommer att undersökas och analyseras för att nå ett resultat med studien. Metod En kvalitativ forskning har utförts med strukturerade- och semistrukturerade intervjuer på två olika företag där bakgrundsliggande aspekter har undersökts som innefattar kultur, miljö och arbetssätt som möjliggör en god kunskapsöverföring. Vi har intervjuat en HR-specialist på Fortifikationsverket samt två chefer och två rådgivare på SEB-banken. Litteraturen i studien omfattar områden där förutsättningarna för en korrekt organisatorisk kunskapsöverföring uppstår och där personalen i fråga är motiverade och har viljan att delge sina kompetenser.  Resultat Resultat av studien är en innovativ kompetenbevaringsmodell, som kan användas av företag med brister i sin kompetensöverföring vid rekrytering och bevaring av personal. Vi har undersökt förutsättningar, differenser samt möjligheter på två helt olika företag och analyserat det för att nå resultatet.  Modellens validitet har säkerhetsställts av Näshultastugor AB, ett företag som inte var insatta i studien från början, utan togs in endast för detta syfte.

This thesis reports on a study on the ultimate attainment of grammatical intuition in Swedish in 29 adult hearing native signers, bilingual in Swedish Sign Language and Swedish. It is reasoned that measures of such intuition in adults may indicate implicit linguistic entrenchment in Swedish during early language development. Although Sign Language Linguistics and Second Language Research on deaf signers are two established fields of research in Sweden, there is little research on hearing native signers. A few international studies have focused on early child language development in hearing native signers, showing that these children develop their two languages simultaneously from birth even if the signed language dominates the linguistic environment. However, studies focusing on older children indicate that their morphological and syntactic proficiency in the majority language resembles that of second language learners. Deductively this paper rests on neurobiological and psycholinguistic theories claiming that early language development is naturally and genetically constrained within a critical or maturational period. Grammatical intuition was measured through the use of two versions of a GJT-test (written and auditory) and a cloze test. The results showed that the average grammatical intuition of the hearing native signers was comparable to that of a group of early L2 learners of Swedish, but significantly different from that of a group of native speakers of Swedish, indicating that for some of the native signers, Swedish might have been successively learned. This thesis contributes unique data to second language research, while shedding a light on a group of bilinguals that is scarcely known to the study of linguistics.
Denna explorativa och explanatoriska studie testade grammatisk intuition i svenska hos 29 vuxna hörande tvåspråkiga i svenskt teckenspråk och svenska. Vid statistisk analys och jämförelse med testresultat från tidigare andraspråksforskning indikerar denna studie att deltagarna kan ha lärt sig delar av svenskans morfologi och syntax successivt. Teckenspråkslingvistik och svenska som andraspråk för döva är idag två etablerade forskningsområden. Trots en växande kunskap om teckenspråkiga saknas svensk forskning om tvåspråkigheten hos hörande infödda teckenspråkiga. De internationella studier som gjorts har fokuserat på små barn och visar att hörande infödda teckenspråkiga är simultant tvåspråkiga från födseln även om det tecknade språket dominerar den första tiden. Å andra sidan visar studier på lite äldre barn att kunskaper i majoritetsspråket (det talade språket) hos vissa individer, har morfologiska och syntaktiska drag liknande dem som andraspråksinlärare uppvisar.  Med stöd i neurobiologiska och psykolingvistiska teorier om en biologiskt betingad språkinlärningsmekanism som kräver triggning från födseln, undersökte denna studie, hypotes-deduktivt, huruvida deltagarna utvecklat implicita kunskaper i svenska under en kritisk period för språkutveckling. Denna studie bidrar med nya, unika data till tvåspråkighetsforskning och kastar ljus över en inlärarpopulation som tidigare inte uppmärksammats inom språkinlärningsforskningen.

Each organization has its specifics that affect the way knowledge is created and transferred. The existing literature in the field of knowledge creation, studies contemporary organizations and currently does not consider special cases such as high reliability organizations. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is to complement the existing knowledge creation model by describing the knowledge creation process for high reliability organizations using the case study of the Lambohov Fire Station. A qualitative case study was conducted and carried out with the help of Lambohov Fire Station through non-participant observations and semi- structured interviews with one of the fire brigades. Our research has revealed that the learning processes in HROs differs from the existing theoretical framework. According to the literature, knowledge is created through conversion of tacit and explicit knowledge, while at the fire station the conversion involves tacit and implicit types of knowledge.

A principal argument against the use of elicited imitation (EI) to measure L2 oral proficiency is that performance does not require linguistic knowledge, but requires only rote memorization. This study addressed the issue by administering two tests to the same group of students studying English as a second language: (1) a working memory test, and (2) an English oral proficiency EI test. Participants came from a range of English language proficiency levels. A Pearson correlation was performed on the test results for each participant. The hypothesis was that English EI scores and working memory scores would not correlate significantly. This would suggest that the two tests do differ in what they measure, and that the English EI test does measure knowledge of the language to some degree. The results of the Pearson correlation revealed that there was a small positive correlation between working memory and English EI scores, but that it was not significant. There was also a significantly positive correlation between students' English EI scores and ELC level. These findings suggest that the English EI test fundamentally functions as a language test, and not significantly as a working memory test.

This study investigates how learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) whose first language (L1) is Swedish select prepositions in the English language. The study involves two groups, the participants and their respective controls. The participants are advanced EFL students at a Swedish university and their controls are intermediate EFL speakers who are no longer enrolled in an EFL course. The aim of the present psycholinguistic investigation is to elucidate the process of the preposition selection in EFL by means of a think-aloud-protocol. The present study involves the assumption that preposition selection by Swedish EFL learners is based on both implicitly and explicitly acquired knowledge. Data analysis indicates that the participants’ EFL preposition selection is influenced by their L1 knowledge. The results suggest that EFL preposition selection does not differ significantly between the two groups. However, the results are indicative of a variation in EFL preposition selection between the two groups in an EFL proficiency test and a think-aloud-protocol.

This is an in-depth study of word knowledge where the researcher attempts to investigate the need to systematically teach vocabulary in the language classroom. It is motivated by findings within second language (L2) vocabulary testing research that state that the current communicative language learning environment is insufficient for L2 learners to acquire adequate vocabulary knowledge and L2 learners need help with vocabulary learning (Laufer, 2005). This semester-long study explores the need to provide explicit vocabulary instruction from within a meaningful environment. It also investigates the relevance of focus on forms and focus on form practices in helping second language (L2) learners increase the size and depth of word knowledge. The study involved 129 undergraduates from a writing program, and used a pretest and posttest design to measure gains in L2 learners vocabulary knowledge. .The results indicate that the vocabulary gains for both implicit (control) and explicit (treatment) instructional context were not very different though the subjects in the implicit instructional group learned slightly more words compared to the explicit instructional group. However, this has more to do with individual instructor effectiveness and learner proficiency. In terms of word use, L2 learners subjected to explicit focus on forms and focus on form tasks increased their word use while the first language (L1) learners and L2 learners from the control groups did not increase their academic words. Therefore, it is possible to suggest that L2 learners can be taught to increase the depth of their vocabulary knowledge through explicit instructional practices. In terms of L1 and L2 learners, the initial findings revealed that the L2 learners did not benefit from explicit instruction. However, additional analysis revealed that subjects with sufficient vocabulary knowledge at the 2000 word level can increase their word size much more rapidly than the proficient L2 learners in the control group. An additional test on L1 and L2 learners' word collocation skills indicated that while explicit instruction did not help increase L2 learners vocabulary size, it was able to help L2 learners increase their word collocation skills and also make word associations that are closer to L1 learners' associations.

Global Software Development (GSD) team members engage in intellectual activities that involve sharing business domain knowledge and technical knowledge across geographical areas, which is crucial to the successful development of software. In global software development, media choice may influence how virtual teams create and share knowledge. As digital technology advances and organizations become more digitally transformed, current communication theories for media selection lack the explanation to the complicated phenomena with the use of advanced media technologies. There have been many studies focused on the effectiveness of media, but they did not include user’s understanding of system security and its influence on knowledge sharing behavior. However, affordance theory explains the utility with both social actors and technical features. The use of media may be shaped by features of technologies and user’s perception on system security. The goal of this study was to empirically assess the effects of media affordances and media security awareness on knowledge sharing behaviors among GSD team members with the lens of affordance theory. In this study, data was collected through survey from 214 GSD employees, after inviting 1000 employees to participate. The survey data was analyzed to test the effects of communication media affordance and user’s awareness of media security on behavior in knowledge sharing. The analysis results show that awareness of media security had significant moderating effects on the relationships from some actualized media affordances to implicit knowledge sharing. The results of this study revealed positive relationships between perceived media affordances and actualized media affordances. The results also showed that organization tenure had a significant effect on implicit knowledge sharing, and professional tenure had a significant effect on explicit and implicit knowledge behavior. This study contributed to the body of knowledge in organizational communication literature by providing new insights into how technology properties and users’ awareness on technology security shape team members’ knowledge sharing practice.

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar a relação entre conhecimento implícito e explícito em quatro atividades de Língua Portuguesa propostas no material didático do Programa Ler e Escrever. Esse programa orienta práticas de alfabetização em escolas municipais e estaduais do Estado de São Paulo, desde 2007. Buscou-se verificar a presença e o tratamento dado a quatro instâncias linguísticas fonológica, morfológica, sintática e ortográfica nas atividades que compõem a sequência didática Dicionário o pai dos inteligentes, proposta no Caderno Guia de Planejamento e Orientações Didáticas professor 2a série, Volume I. Essa sequência tem como objetivo possibilitar que o aluno aprenda a utilizar dicionários com autonomia, o que implica reconhecer esses livros como representantes de um gênero textual, apropriando-se de suas finalidades e funcionamento. Para a realização da análise foram descritos os objetivos, planejamento e encaminhamento de cada atividade, procurando-se, nesse contexto, identificar os conhecimentos linguísticos presentes em cada etapa, em relação às quatro instâncias mencionadas, tendo-se como foco seus níveis de explicitação. Constatou-se que não há menção explícita às quatro instâncias linguísticas nas orientações e encaminhamentos didáticos quanto às atividades analisadas. A hipótese que justifica a contribuição do presente trabalho é que se professores que orientam e encaminham tais atividades conhecerem tal explicitação eles poderão ter mais intencionalidade e realizar questionamentos que otimizem seu fazer pedagógico. Disso se conclui que, ainda que na etapa da escolarização correspondente ao terceiro ano do Ensino Fundamental os alunos não necessitem da explicitação dos conhecimentos linguísticos relacionados à fonologia, morfologia, ortografia e sintaxe, professores conhecendo esses conteúdos podem promover um ensino da língua com maior nível de intencionalidade e, portanto, qualidade
This paper aims to examine the relation between implicit and explicit knowledge in four Portuguese Language activities proposed in the teaching materials Programa Ler e Escrever (Reading and Writing Program). This program guides literacy practices in state and municipal public schools of São Paulo since 2007. The aim was to verify the presence and treatment of four language instances - phonological, morphological, spelling and syntactic in the activities that make up the instructional sequence Dictionary \"the father of the intelligent ones\" proposed in Caderno Guia de Planejamento e Orientações Didáticas professor 2ª série, Volume I. (Notebook Planning and Teaching Guidelines - teacher - second series, Volume I). This sequence aims to enable the student to learn to use dictionaries with autonomy, which implies recognizing these books as representatives of written text genre, appropriating their purpose and operation. To perform the analysis, objectives were described, as well as the planning and instruction of each activity, looking up, in this context, to identify the language skills present in each step, in relation to the four instances mentioned, having focused their levels of explanation. It was found that there is no clear mention of the four language instances in guidance and educational referrals for the activities analyzed. The hypothesis that justifies the contribution of this study is that if teachers who guide and handle these activities knew such explanations they could have more intentionality and ask questions that would optimize their pedagogical task. It follows that, even that students at the stage of the third grade of elementary school do not require the explicit language skills related to phonology, morphology, syntax and spelling, teachers knowing such content could promote language teaching with higher level of intentionality and therefore quality

Projektarbetsformen blir allt vanligare samtidigt som fler och fler organisationer arbetar i projektform. Inom dessa multiprojektmiljöer bör man kontinuerligt säkerställa att kunskap och erfarenheter förs vidare mellan olika projekt för att bli framgångsrik inom sin marknad. Trots att fördelarna med kunskapsöverföring länge erkänts i projektbaserade organisationer så varierar effektiviteten kring fenomenet. Detta tros bland annat bero på svårigheterna med att gå från teori till praktik samt att de modeller och teorier som finns saknar struktur för själva genomförandet. Efter ett försök att kartlägga litteraturen inom detta mångfacetterade fält hittade vi en kunskapslucka angående hur kunskapsöverföring kan te sig inom tv-branschen. Därfär har en kvalitativ fallstudie gjorts på ett tv-produktionsbolag. Studien syftar till att bidra till ökad förståelse kring hur kunskap överförs mellan projekt samt hur man säkerställer kunskapsöverföring. Studien utgår ifrån att kunskap definieras enligt Nonaka och Takeuchis (1995) teori om implicit och explicit kunskap. Studien bygger på kvalitativ forskning i form av sex intervjuer med projektledare och VD, två fokusgrupper med tio projektanställda samt en dokumentanalys på överlämningar skrivna av projektdeltagare. Resultatet visar att det finns många olika typer av kunskapsöverföring inom organisationen. Den kunskap som överförs mellan projekt i organisationen är mestadels kunskap med explicit karaktär i form av dokument. I dagsläget är det huvudsakligen projektledarna som ansvarar för att kunskapsöverföring sker mellan projekt, i huvudsak genom att uppmana projektdeltagare att göra skriftliga överlämningar. Hos projektdeltagarna finns det god vilja att bidra till kunskapsöverföringen men organisationen saknar en huvudsaklig strategi. Slutsatserna konstaterar att ledningen bör implementera ett systematiskt arbetssätt angående organisationens kunskapsöverföring för ett effektivt arbete mot ett organisatoriskt lärande. Slutsatserna belyser även att synen på kunskap är mångtydig och att det handlar om mer än bara explicit och implicit kunskap. För att diskussionen om kunskapsöverföringen inom organisationen ska kunna utvecklas måste organisationen identifiera kunskapstyperna ytterligare samt förstå dessa för att konkretisera dem.
Project work is becoming more common as more and more organizations are working in project form. Within these multi-project environments, one should continuously ensure that knowledge and experience are passed on between different projects in order to be successful in their markets. Although the benefits of knowledge transfer have long been recognized in projectbased organizations, the effectiveness of the phenomenon varies. This is believed to be due, among other things, to the difficulties in moving from theory to practice as well as to the existing models and theories lacking a structure for implementation. Following an attempt to map the literature in this multifaceted field we found a gap in knowledge regarding how knowledge transfer can look within the television industry. Therefore, a qualitative case study has been done at a television production company. This study aims to contribute to an increased understanding of how knowledge is transferred between projects and how to ensure knowledge transfer. The study assumes that knowledge is defined in accordance with Nonaka and Takeuchi’s (1995) theory of implicit and explicit knowledge. This study is based on qualitative research in the form of seven interviews with project managers and CEO, two focus groups with ten project employees and a document analysis submission written by project participants. The result shows that there are many different types of knowledge transfer within the organization. The knowledge that is transferred between projects in the organization is mainly knowledge with explicit character in the form of documents. Currently the project managers are responsible for the transfer of knowledge between projects, which is done by inviting project participants to make written submissions. The project participants are glad to contribute to the transfer of knowledge, but the organization lacks a main strategy. The conclusions state that management should implement a systemic approach to the organization’s knowledge transfer for effective work towards organizational learning. The conclusions also highlight that the view on knowledge is ambiguous and that it is about more than just explicit and implicit knowledge. In order for the discussion of knowledge transfer within the organization to develop, the organization must further identify the types of knowledge and understand them in order to make them concrete.

The benefits of explicit knowledge for language learning is a much debated issue. In this study this question is approached from a new perspective since it focuses on the correlation between students’ concept images and their language ability. The focused concept is the subordinate clause in German. By means of a short written test the performance of 12 Swedish university-level students in three types of tasks was elicited: translating, correcting an erroneous text and commenting on grammatical differences in parallel German and Swedish texts. The students were asked to think aloud, but complementary questions were also asked if verbalizations were not lucid. A semi-structured interview that focused on school experiences, attitudes towards language learning and grammatical concepts followed. One year later the same procedure was repeated with three of the students who had successfully finished their first year of German.As for the concept images many students had only blurred conceptions of subordinate clauses, especially when they did not have access to texts to refer to. When they had the help from artefacts they often focused on visual clues such as subjunctions and verb position. Many verbalized statements were simply wrong. A common concept image described the subordinate clause as positioned after the main clause with the function of adding extra information. This led to the conclusion that the relative clause is the prototypical subordinate clause.Despite the often vague concept images, most students had no difficulty in producing subordinate clauses or in correcting a text with word order errors. Interestingly, the relative clause proved to cause the most problems.The fact that the students were able to produce subordinate clauses, but not able to explain their chosen solution indicates implicit knowledge. This in turn gives reason to believe that students have formed their own natural concepts from experience and not learned a well defined scientific concept. The students in this study could also be seen to represent stages in the concept building process that begins with a category ‘sentence’. Step by step different types of subordinate clauses break loose and form a new category ‘subordinate clause’. With time the attributes become more refined.The analysis of four Swedish grammars of German showed that three of them had content shortcomings, whereas the fourth placed too much emphasis on linguistic correctness which would leave the learners behind.In the last chapter implications for grammar writing and grammar teaching are discussed. One key point is the necessity of opportunities to verbalize your thoughts since this promotes learning
ZusammenfassungHintergrund, Ziel und ForschungsfragenDie übergreifende Frage dieser Arbeit stammt aus meinem Grammatikunterricht an einer schwedischen Universität. In dem Kontakt mit Studenten lässt sich leicht feststellen, dass sie alle individuelle Charakteristika aufweisen – auch was den Erfolg mit den theoretischen Aspekten der Grammatik als auch mit der Anwendung des Wissens. Einige Studenten haben damit große Schwierigkeiten, während andere einigermaßen korrektes Deutsch produzieren können und anscheinend auch verstanden haben, wie die deutsche Sprache aufgebaut ist, wie die grammatischen Begriffe gebildet sind, usw.Ich habe mich dann gefragt, ob vielleicht Grammatiklernen wie Mathematik¬lernen funktioniert und dass die beobachteten Schwierigkeiten auf ein mangelndes Verständnis grundlegender grammatischer Begriffe wie ,Satz‘ und ,Kasus‘ zurückzuführen sind. Nach einer Beschränkung auf ,Satz‘, aber vor allem ,Nebensatz‘ ließen sich folgende Forschungsfragen formulieren:•    Welche Vorstellungen haben schwedischsprachige Deutschstudenten vom Begriff ,Nebensatz‘?•    Wie verhalten sich die Begriffsvorstellungen eines Studenten zu seiner Fähigkeit, korrekte deutsche Nebensätze zu produzieren?Ein wichtiges Hilfsmittel beim Sprachenlernen und -lehren sind Grammatik¬handbücher. Wenn es um Grammatiken für die Schule, didaktische Gram¬matiken, geht, wird immer eine Auswahl vorgenommen und die Darstellung wird auch in anderer Weise den Schülern und ihren vermuteten Vorkenntnissen angepasst. Eine zweite Spur dieser Arbeit gilt solchen Beschreibungen der Struktur des Deutschen, und eine dritte Hauptfrage lautet:•    Wir wird der Begriff ,Nebensatz‘ in schwedischen Grammatiken für den Unterricht Deutsch als Fremdsprache beschrieben?Das Hauptziel der Arbeit ist es, einen Teil der ”Realität” zu erkunden (die Vorstellungen der Studenten von ,Nebensatz‘ und ihre Fähigkeit, solche zu produzieren, sowie Sprachbeschreibungen) und daraus folgernd mögliche Verbesserungen der Sprachbeschreibungen und des Sprachunterrichts  über¬sichtlich zu diskutieren.Theoretischer RahmenGrundlegende Fragen nach Begriffsvorstellungen betreffen kognitive Prozesse und Produkte. Der theoretische Hintergrund dieser Untersuchung setzt sich deshalb zusammen aus einerseits allgemeinen Lerntheorien sowie Theorien zu Begriffsbildung bzw. Begriffsaneignung, andererseits aus Theorien zum Fremdsprachenerwerb: wie lernen wir? Welche Wissensform ist das Ergebnis? Wie verhalten sich Wissen und Performanz zueinander? In den Gesprächen mit Studenten (s. u.) stellte sich aber heraus, dass die Gespräche an sich und die Möglichkeit, Gedanken und Hypothesen zu verbalisieren, oft zum Lernen führten.Material und MethodeMit zwölf Universitätsanfängern des Fachs Deutsch wurde ein kurzer schriftlicher Test und ein anschließendes gesprächsähnliches Interview durch¬geführt. Die Studenten lösten die Aufgaben individuell und waren aufgefordert, dabei laut zu denken. Wenn die verbalisierten Gedanken nicht aufschlussreich genug waren, wurden spezifische Fragen gestellt. Themen des Interviews waren teils Schulerfahrungen und Einstellung zum Sprachenlernen, teils explizite Fragen zu grammatischen Begriffen. Mit drei dieser Informanten wurde dasselbe Verfahren ein Jahr später wiederholt, nach erfolgreichem Abschluss des ersten Studienjahres. Bei dieser Gelegenheit wurden auch retrospektivisch ausgerichtete Fragen zum Lern- und Begriffsbildungsprozess gestellt.ErgebnisseWas die Begriffsvorstellungen betrifft, zeigte sich ein Unterschied je nach dem, ob konkrete Nebensätze zum Anschauen zugänglich waren oder nicht. Waren solche vorhanden, wurde eher auf visuell beobachtbare Charakteristika wie Einleiter und Verbletztstellung hingewiesen. Ohne die Unterstützung durch ein Artefakt standen ein Vergleich oder eine Verbindung mit einem Hauptsatz im Fokus.Eine zweite Beobachtung war, dass die Studenten häufig Merkmale anführten, die als fehlerhaft zu betrachten sind. So glauben viele, das Vorhandensein eines Kommas würde einen Nebensatz verursachen.Eine häufig vorkommende Vorstellung war, dass der Nebensatz immer dem übergeordneten Satz nachgestellt ist und inhaltlich eine Spezifizierung dazu ausmacht. Daraus lässt sich der Schluss ziehen, dass der Relativsatz der proto¬typische Nebensatz ist.Obwohl viele Studenten vage oder sogar fehlerhafte Vorstellungen vom Begriff ,Nebensatz‘ verbalisierten, hatten sie selten Probleme, deutsche Sätze mit korrekter Wortstellung zu produzieren oder Sätze mit inkorrekter Wort¬stellung zu korrigieren. Interessanterweise verursachte dabei gerade der Relativsatz Schwierigkeiten. Die Tatsache, dass die meisten Informanten also Nebensätze produzieren konnten, gleichzeitig aber Schwierigkeiten hatten, ihre Vorstellungen zu verba¬lisieren und die gewählten Lösungen im Test metasprachlich zu begründen, lässt sich als Indiz für implizites Wissen interpretieren. Das wiederum legt den Schluss nahe, dass sie eher von ihren konkreten Erfahrungen ausgehend, d. h. im Kontakt mit gesprochenem und geschriebenem Deutsch einen natürlichen Begriff gebildet haben, als dass sie sich einen fertigen, genau definierten Begriff angeeignet hätten. In diesem Fall ist es demnach nicht notwendig, im Besitz eines wissenschaftlichen Begriffs zu sein.Weiter stellte sich heraus, dass die Informanten dieser Untersuchung als Vertreter für unterschiedliche Phasen des Begriffsbildungsprozesses gesehen werden können. Dabei scheint eine Kategorie ”mening” (,Vollsatz‘) der Aus¬gangspunkt zu sein, aus dem sich schrittweise die verschiedenen Neben¬satztypen losmachen, um die Kategorie ,Nebensatz‘ zu bilden. Die Kenn¬zeichen, Attribute, die diese Mitglieder aufweisen, werden im Prozess zunehmend verfeinert.In den analysierten Grammatiken, die alle in einer ersten oder späteren Auflage in den 1990er Jahren erschienen, ließ sich eine gewisse Entwicklung von einer relativ starken Fokussierung auf Morphologie zu einer ausführlicheren Behandlung der Syntax sowie einer umfangreicheren Diskussion der Begriffe. Bei drei der Grammatiken waren inhaltliche Mängel und undeutliche Formulierungen zu verzeichnen, während die vierte in so hohem Grad eine sprachwissenschaftlich korrekte Beschreibung angestrebt hatte, dass die Anpassung an die Schüler in Frage gestellt werden musste.Didaktische ImplikationenDas abschließende Kapitel der Arbeit umfasst mögliche didaktische Implikationen der Untersuchung für Sprachbeschreibung und Sprachunterricht. Im ersten Fall werden u. a. der Einsatz der Nebensatzeinleiter als Signalwörter sowie der Gebrauch von Visualisierungen fokussiert. Wenn es um Unterricht geht,  werden die soziokulturellen Lerntheorien wieder aufgegriffen, wobei besonders ihre Betonung der Bedeutung des Gesprächs fürs Lernen thematisiert wird. Ferner wird auf die positive Wirkung eines induktiven Verfahrens hingewiesen
SammanfattningBakgrund, syfte och frågeställningarDen övergripande frågan för denna undersökning har uppstått i min under¬visning i tysk grammatik på universitetsnivå. Som vid all annan undervisning, eller kontakt med människor över huvud taget, konstaterar man ganska snart att individerna är olika. I mitt konkreta fall har vissa studenter stora svårigheter med både den teoretiska grammatiken och tillämpningen av den, medan andra både kan producera god tyska och tycks ha förstått hur tyskan är uppbyggd, hur de grammatiska begreppen är bildade och liknande. Inspirerad av forskning inom matematikdidaktik som visat att svårigheter som dyker upp kan bero på att eleverna inte förstått grundläggande begrepp som ’tal’ och ’mängd’ frågade jag mig om förhållandet kunde vara likartat här, dvs. att de som hade svårigheter inte förstått grundläggande begrepp som ’sats’ och ’kasus’. I denna undersökning inskränktes arbetet till att i någon mån behandla begreppet ’sats’ men i huvudsak omfatta begreppet ’bisats’.De konkreta forskningsfrågorna för undersökningen är:•    Vilka föreställningar har svenskspråkiga tyskstudenter av begreppet ’bisats’?•    Hur förhåller sig en students begreppsföreställning(ar) till förmågan att producera korrekta tyska bisatser?Ett viktigt hjälpmedel vid språkinlärning och -undervisning är handböcker i grammatik. När det gäller grammatikor för skolbruk, didaktiska grammatikor, har alltid ett urval gjorts och framställningen har även på annat sätt anpassats till elever och deras förmodade förkunskaper. Ett annat spår i avhandlingen gäller dessa beskrivningar av tyskans struktur och en tredje huvudfråga lyder därför:•    Hur beskrivs begreppet ’bisats’ i svenska skolgrammatikor för tysk¬undervisningen?Huvudsyftet med undersökningen är att ta reda på hur en del av verkligheten ser  ut (studenternas föreställningar om och förmåga att producera bisatser samt språkbeskrivningar) och utifrån detta diskutera hur man eventuellt kan förbättra språkbeskrivning och språkundervisning så att eleverna lär sig både mer och bättre.Teoretisk förankringDe grundläggande frågorna omkring begreppsföreställningar handlar om kognitiva processer och produkter. Den teoretiska bakgrunden till denna under¬sökning utgörs därför dels av teorier kring lärande generellt och kring begreppsbildning respektive begreppstillägnande, dels av teorier kring frågor om hur förvärvandet av ett främmande språk går till, vilken form av kunskap detta leder till samt hur kunskaper och performans hör samman. I samtalen med studenterna (se nedan) visade det sig dock att dessa samtal i sig och möjligheten att verbalisera sina tankar och hypoteser ofta ledde till lärande. Detta för¬hållande är centralt inom sociokulturella lärandeteorier varför även sådana beaktas – inte minst i diskussionerna kring didaktiska implikationer av resultaten.Material och metodFör att få svar på forskningsfrågorna sammanställdes ett kort skriftligt test. Sammanlagt tolv studenter på första terminens universitetsstudier i tyska löste testuppgifterna enskilt och ombads därvid tänka högt och motivera sina lösningar. Vissa specifika frågor kring deras svar ställdes också för att få dem att verbalisera sina föreställningar. I anslutning till testet genomfördes en lite längre semistrukturerad intervju dels kring deras erfarenheter från skolan och inställning till språkundervisning, dels kring grammatiska begrepp. Med tre av dessa studenter upprepades test och intervju ett år senare då de med framgång avslutat ett års studier i tyska. Då ställdes också frågor som syftade till att retrospektivt försöka klargöra hur begreppsbildning och -utveckling går till.Både testdelen och intervjun spelades in på video. Undersökningen bygger således på det skriftliga testet (performans) och transkriptioner av den samtals¬liknande intervjun.ResultatNär det gäller föreställningarna av begreppet ’bisats’ visade det sig att de skiljer sig åt något när studenterna hade konkreta bisatser att hänvisa till eller iaktta och när de bara besvarade frågan om vad en bisats är. I det första fallet var de visuella signalerna bisatsinledare och ordföljd viktiga, medan en jämförelse eller annan koppling till en huvudsats gjordes när inga hjälpande artefakter fanns.Ytterligare en iakttagelse var att studenterna i många fall anförde känne¬tecken hos bisatser som måste anses vara direkt felaktiga. Så tycks flera av dem utgå från att förekomsten av ett komma förorsakar en bisats. En vanlig föreställning var också att en bisats alltid står efter den över¬ordnade satsen och att den innehållsligt innebär en specificering av denna. Av detta kan man dra slutsatsen att relativsatsen är den prototypiska bisatsen. Trots att många studenter hade luddiga eller till och med felaktiga före¬ställningar av begreppet ’bisats’, hade de sällan problem att själva producera tyska bisatser eller korrigera satser med felaktig ordföljd. Intressant nog visade sig relativsatsen förorsaka mest problem i studenternas egna produktion. Det faktum att de flesta informanterna således kunde producera bisatser samtidigt som de hade svårigheter att verbalisera sina föreställningar och att motivera sina lösningar i testet i någon metaspråklig form kan ses som ett tecken på att de besitter implicit kunskap. Det i sin tur kan tolkas som att de utifrån sina konkreta erfarenheter med bisatser, det vill säga genom sin kontakt med tyskan i tal och skrift snarare bildat ett naturligt begrepp än tillägnat sig ett färdigt, väldefinierat begrepp. Att besitta en begreppsföreställning som motsvarar det vetenskapliga är alltså i detta fall inte nödvändigt.Det visade sig också att de studenter som ingår i denna undersökning kan ses som representanter för olika faser i begreppsbildningsprocessen. I denna tycks utgångspunkten vara en kategori ’mening’ från vilken olika bisatstyper stegvis lösgör sig för att bilda kategorin ’bisats’. De kännetecken, attribut, som dessa uppvisar blir med tiden allt mer förfinade.I de analyserade skolgrammatikorna, som alla utgavs i en första eller senare upplaga under olika skeden av 1990-talet, kunde en viss utveckling från en förhållandevis stark fokusering på morfologi i de äldre mot en utförligare behandling av syntax liksom ökad diskussion av begreppen. Tre av gramma¬tikorna kunde sägas uppvisa innehållsliga brister och otydliga formuleringar, medan den fjärde i så hög grad eftersträvat en språkvetenskapligt korrekt beskrivning att anpassningen till eleverna kunde ifrågasättas. Didaktiska implikationerI det avslutande kapitlet diskuteras de didaktiska implikationer som under¬sökningen har eller kan ha för språkbeskrivning och språkundervisning. I det första fallet fokuseras bland annat hur bisatsinledare kan framhävas som signalord och hur visualiseringar kan bidra till framställningen. När det gäller undervisningen återkopplas bland annat till de sociokulturella teorierna och deras betoning av samtalets betydelse för lärandet samt visas på möjligheterna med ett induktivt arbetssätt.

This study explored the relationship between implicit and explicit knowledge of 13 second language (L2) English grammar points and the relationship of each type of knowledge with language learning aptitude and working memory capacity in 90 Mexican learners of L2 English at three different levels of proficiency (Level 5, Level 7, Level 9). An elicited imitation test and an oral narrative test were used to measure implicit knowledge, and a metalinguistic knowledge test was used to measure explicit knowledge. With respect to language learning aptitude and working memory, the former was operationalised by the LLAMA test, and the latter by the backward digit span test. With regard to the relationship between implicit and explicit knowledge, implicit knowledge correlated positively and weakly with explicit knowledge while an analysis by grammar point showed a non-significant negative correlation approaching significance between implicit and explicit scores. These results indicate that learners found some grammar points easy in terms of explicit knowledge and other grammar points easy in terms of implicit knowledge, and vice versa. Learners’ language aptitude and working memory did not significantly predict explicit or implicit knowledge of the targeted difficult and easy grammar points for the cohort of participants as a whole. Another analysis by level group (Level 5, Level 7, Level 9) indicated that the cognitive variables did not significantly predict explicit knowledge of easy or difficult grammar points. However, with respect to implicit knowledge, working memory significantly predicted implicit knowledge of easy grammar points in Level 5, and language aptitude marginally predicted implicit knowledge of difficult grammar points in Level 5. Overall, the findings support the view that language aptitude and working memory are better predictors at lower levels of proficiency. The findings of this study contribute to researchers’ understanding of the distinction between implicit and explicit knowledge and the relevance of language aptitude and working memory at different levels of proficiency.

The main aim of this thesis was to develop and evaluate a theory and evidence-based "focused educational intervention", that could be delivered in less than two hours, to improve stigmatizing attitudes in a population of student nurses in the context of schizophrenia. Additionally the thesis reports the development of two new major measures to assess "explicit" aspects of stigma and "implicit" negative stereotypes. A shorter measure was also developed to record "perceptions of knowledge" in relation to schizophrenia. In order to overcome the methodological shortcomings identified in previous work a quasi-randomised cohort study was implemented using rigorous processes including randomisation, an "appropriate" control condition, and a follow-up assessment point three months after the main trial. Prior to implementing the main trial it was necessary to clarify the concept of stigma in relation to schizophrenia. The findings from a literature review and a series of focus groups elicited a new definition where stigma is seen as a broad mix of stereotypes, health beliefs, attributions, and negative emotional and behavioural reactions. It is argued that this more detailed description is more relevant and applicable to contemporary mental health and social care contexts than the earlier, broader theories of stigma found in the psychological and sociological literature.

The aim of this study was to conduct a thorough theoretical study on the relevant aspects involved in knowledge management and organizational learning, and thence assess the level of organisational learning within the ferrometallurgical industry. From the outcomes of the assessment, recommendations to improve the state of affairs were to be made. Knowledge can be defined as actionable information. The creation, acquisition, sharing and leveraging of knowledge in today's industries are critical. Knowledge is now termed the fourth productive resource, and some authors claim, with some justification, that the widespread knowledge within a company is the only source of sustainable competitive advantage. With this in mind, it is obvious that companies need to nurture knowledge creation and effective utilisation thereof in order to meet organisational goals. Knowledge can be codified if it is explicit, but needs to be transferred using personalisation if it is tacit. Implicitness of tacit knowledge further confounds the issue. Knowledge management practices underpin the process of organisational learning. The level of organisational learning within the ferrometallurgical industry in South Africa was assessed, using a survey questionnaire obtained from the Harvard Business School. The results show that the industry lags behind the medians in the ten constructs measured, and much work will be required to significantly improve the situation. Key areas of concern are in the areas of psychological safety, time for reflection, education and training, and collection of information. As a consequence, a practical strategy for improving the state of knowledge management and organisational learning in the ferrometallurgical industry was developed.
Thesis (M.B.A.)--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2010.

Det finns mycket tidigare forskning inom området knowledge management och allt vad det kan innefatta. Den här fallstudien fokuserar på kunskapsöverföring av tyst och explicit kunskap som vi identifierade ett kunskapsgap för praktiska hjälpmedel och verktyg för kunskapsbevaringen. Tidigare studier tar snarare upp vad tyst och explicit kunskap är samt definitioner för det, snarare än hur företag praktiskt bör förhålla sig till det. I och med det har studenterna identifierat att det saknas ett informationslogistiskt perspektiv för lämpliga verktyg hur tyst och explicit kunskap bör bevaras. Problematiken för studien är att Electrolux Professional AB i Ljungby påstår att de i dagsläget inte använder några verktyg för kunskapsbevaring och kunskapsspridning. Företaget befinner sig i en period när många nyckelpersoner som arbetat på Electrolux under många år inom flera olika avdelningar och/eller befattningar slutar och går i pension. Nyckelpersonerna besitter bred kunskap, som riskerar att lämna företaget när nyckelpersonerna antingen säger upp sig eller går i pension. Problematiken har studerats genom intervjuer där problematiken har belysts genom intervju av sju anställda och för att identifiera deras perspektiv på hur de bevarar, sprider och lagrar kunskap. Genom resultatet lyfts olika verktyg och hjälpmedel fram som används idag på olika avdelningar. Studien har haft sin utgångpunkt i de teoretiska ramverken: Knowledge management, tyst och explicit kunskap, samt det intellektuella kapitalet. Studien har påvisat att Electrolux visst använder olika typer av hjälpmedel och verktyg för kunskapsspridning. Ett av det viktigast verktyget för kunskapsspridning är individernas sociala nätverk som den enskilda medarbetaren succesivt bygger upp på Electrolux med tidens gång. Faktorer som studien påstår påverka kunskapsbevaring, är en bredd på kunskapen, tidigare erfarenheter samt individens medvetenhet för hur viktig spridning, bevaring och lagring av kunskap är.Avslutningsvis kan vi inte nog understryka vikten och dess fördelar med att kartlägga det sociala nätverket med olika individer och befattningars kunskapsområden. Kartläggningen ger stora fördelar för att lagra, bevara och sprida kunskapen på ett optimalt och effektivt sätt i organisationer.
There is much previous research in the area of knowledge management and all that it may include. This case study focuses on knowledge transfer of tacit and explicit knowledge, where we identified a knowledge gap for practical tools for knowledge retention. We find that previous studies address what tacit and explicit knowledge is and the definitions for it, rather than how companies should practically use it. With this, the students have identified that there is missing an information logistic perspective for suitable tools for how tacit and explicit knowledge should be preserved in organizations. The problem in this study is that Electrolux Professional AB in Ljungby currently claim that they don't use any tools for knowledge retention and dissemination. The company is in a period when many key people who have worked at Electrolux for many years in several different departments and / or positions quit and retire. The key people possess broad knowledge, which risks leaving the company when the key people either resign or retire. The problem has been studied through interviews where the problem has been highlighted through interviews by seven employees to identify their perspective on how they preserve, disseminate and store knowledge. The result of the study highlights various tools that Electrolux use today in different departments. The study is based on the theoretical frameworks: Knowledge management, tacit and explicit knowledge, and intellectual capital.The result has shown that Electrolux already use different types of tools for spreading knowledge. The conclusion for this study is that the most important tools for the dissemination of knowledge is the individual's social network, which the individual employee gradually builds up on Electrolux over time. Factors that the study claims to influence knowledge retention are a breadth of knowledge, past experiences and the individual's awareness of how important the dissemination, preservation and storage of knowledge is. We cannot emphasize enough the importance and benefits of mapping the social network with different individuals and positions of knowledge. The mapping provides great advantages for storing, retaining and disseminating knowledge in an optimal and efficient way in organizations.

Durant la dernière décennie, l’évolution du Web a été marquée par une forte croissance des services publiés et qui s’est accompagnée d’une explosion considérable du nombre d’usagers dont les profils et contextes sont divers et variés. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse traitent de l’optimisation de requêtes de services Web où le profil/contexte de l’utilisateur joue un rôle central. Il s’agit de sélectionner un service ou une combinaison de services pertinents parmi une masse importante de candidats compétitifs et capables de réaliser une tâche requise. Ces services candidats devant répondre au mieux aux exigences demandées par l’utilisateur selon un ensemble de critères non-fonctionnels. Dans notre approche, les critères non-fonctionnels considérés sont tous associés aux préférences du demandeur de service. Un intérêt plus important est alors porté à l’utilisateur qui se trouve au coeur du processus de sélection. La diversité du profil et du contexte de l’utilisateur, et également ceux des services cibles,rend ce processus encore plus complexe. Notre étude se focalise, dans un premier lieu,sur l’analyse des différentes approches de sélection de services Web existant dans la littérature. Nous mettons, notamment, en évidence leur contribution à la résolution des problèmes inhérents à la sélection des meilleurs services dans le but de satisfaire les critères non-fonctionnels formulés dans la requête. Dans un second temps, notre intérêt s’est porté sur la modélisation de spécification de l’offre et la demande de services,de leurs contextes et profils ainsi que les deux classes de préférences utilisateurs :explicites et implicites. Enfin, nous proposons une nouvelle famille d’approches d’optimisation qui intègre une stratégie de reformulation de requêtes par introduction des préférences implicites. Le concept clé de ces approches est un mécanisme d’inférence flou permettant d’accomplir un raisonnement déductif sur les informations liées au profil et contexte de l’utilisateur. Le principe consiste à combiner les deux familles de préférences utilisateur, tout en considérant conjointement les profils et les contextes des services et de l’utilisateur. L’application de la théorie des ensembles flous dans l’optimisation des requêtes à préférences des utilisateurs, en intégrant un module de raisonnement sur les informations liées à l’utilisateur, s’avère d’un intérêt majeur dans l’amélioration des qualités des résultats retournés. Nous présentons à la fin de l’étude une série d’expérimentations pour montrer la validité et la pertinence des approches proposées
The internet has completely transformed the way how we communicate (access toinformation). Its evolution was marked by strong growth of published services which has been accompanied by a large explosion in the number of users and a diversity oftheir profiles and their contexts.The work presented in this thesis deal with the adaptive optimization of Web services queries to user needs. This problem is to select a service or a combination of relevant services from a collection of candidates able to perform a required task. These candidate services must meet the requirements requested by the user, the selection makes his/herchoice from non-functional criteria. In our approach, non-functional criteria considered are all associated with preferences of service requester. A significant interest is therefore carried to the user who is at the core of the selection system. This selection is generally considered a complex task because of the diversity of profile and context of the service,which it is performed.Our study focuses mainly on the analysis of different service selection approaches.We especially highlight their contribution to solving the problems inherent in selecting the best services in order to meet the non-functional parameters of the request. Second, our interest has focused on modeling the specification of supply and demand for services, their context and profile as well as the two families preferences : explicit and implicit. Finally, we propose a novel optimization approach that integrates a query reformulation strategy by introducing implicit preferences based on the fuzzy inference process. The idea is to combine the two families of preferences required by the user with consideration of profiles and contexts of services and the user simultaneously. The application of fuzzy set theory in the optimization of preference query of customers by integrating reasoning module on information related to the user leads of great interest in improving the quality of results. We present at the end a set of experiments to demonstrate the validity and relevance of the proposed approach

This is a qualitative study inquiring ”What does it entail to be a sex worker in Sweden today?” Four female sex workers were interviewed in semi-structured interviews. Using methods for reflexive analysis, interpreting the interviews and their context theoretically through notions of Competence and Stigma, the results of this study shows that sex workers may be both competent agents and stigmatized. This informs the understanding of sex work, stigma and how learning, subjective room for action and social agency can be aggravated or hindered by stigma. The results are viewed in the context of Swedish legislation against sex purchase in relation to previous research which shows that said legislation is problematic. This study recommends; further studies on varieties of competence, room for action and social agency among sex workers; further studies on how sex workers subjective room for action is affected by the Swedish law against sex purchase; further studies on how the Swedish law against sex purchase affect sex workers prospects for learning; studies on how stigma and discrimination against people in socially vulnerable and/or excluded groups affect individual learning; as well as updated estimations on the prevalence of male, female and transgender sex workers in Sweden. It is also suggested that Sweden could look to other countries for constructive ideas on how to reform sex purchase laws. In this context, New Zealand and Germany are mentioned specifically.

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Esta é uma pesquisa mestrado desenvolvida no âmbito do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química do Instituto de Química da Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, câmpus de Araraquara. A pesquisa teve como objetivo investigar sobre a implementação de Unidade Didática Multiestratégica (UDM) no âmbito das disciplinas de Instrumentação para o Ensino de Química e Estágio Curricular Supervisionado V. Para tanto, foi formulada o seguinte problema de pesquisa: de que modo a implementação de UDM incide sobre o princípio de um processo de construção do conhecimento profissional de professores de química em formação inicial? Para a consecução do objetivo de pesquisa, optou-se pela realização de uma pesquisa não-experimental quantitativa e qualitativa do tipo estudo de caso. Com o intuito de operacionalizar o processo de investigação e viabilizar a resposta do problema de pesquisa, foram formuladas as seguintes questões de pesquisa: 1. quais são as concepções prévias acerca do conhecimento escolar dos licenciandos?; 2. quais são os conhecimentos explícitos dos licenciandos presentes no planejamento da UDM?; 3. quais conhecimentos implícitos presentes nos licenciandos são identificados na reflexão sobre a aplicação da UDM?; 4. como o processo de implementação de uma UDM incide sobre a explicitação, conscientização e crítica dos conhecimentos implícitos de professores de química em formação inicial? Conforme a abordagem de pesquisa escolhida, as fontes de informação foram: sujeitos e documentos. Os sujeitos foram: 15 alunos de graduação do curso de licenciatura em química que frequentaram as disciplinas de Instrumentação para o Ensino de Química e Estágio Curricular Supervisionado V, que foram ministradas no primeiro e segundo semestre de 2016, respectivamente. Os documentos utilizados foram: a elaboração de uma UDM e o trabalho em grupo para propor justificativas às modificações que foram realizadas na reelaboração da UDM. Como conclusão do estudo de caso, pode-se verificar que os licenciandos apresentaram concepções prévias acerca do conhecimento escolar bastante distantes de concepções marcadamente tradicionais, mostrando claros indícios de mudança e evolução de suas concepções de ensino e aprendizagem. Os conhecimentos explícitos da docência apresentam elementos que levam os licenciandos a elaborarem seu planejamento de acordo com teorias pedagógicas mais complexas e contemporâneas. Porém, foram identificados também alguns elementos característicos dos Enfoques Tradicional, Tecnicista e Espontaneísta. Evidenciaram-se a incidência e resistência de alguns conhecimentos implícitos relacionados a visões superficiais sobre os processos de ensino e aprendizagem e análises simplificadoras dos problemas enfrentados na prática, além da presença de rotinas não fundamentadas e pouco refletidas oriundas da formação ambiental. No entanto, o processo de reflexão crítica e fundamentada se mostrou profícuo e fez emergir alguns conhecimentos implícitos, bem como favoreceu o desenvolvimento do conhecimento profissional docente. Por fim, conclui-se que a implementação da UDM apresenta um grande potencial na formação de professores de ciências como profissionais reflexivos, críticos e pesquisadores da própria prática.
This is a master's degree research developed in the scope of the Graduate Program in Chemistry of the Institute of Chemistry of the Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, Araraquara campuses. The research’s aim has been to investigate the implementation of a Multistrategic Teaching Unit (MTU) in the scope of the Instrumentation disciplines for Teaching Chemistry and Supervised Curricular Internship V. Therefore, the following research question have been formulated: how does the implementation of MTU affect the principle of a building process of the professional knowledge of chemistry teachers in initial formation? In order to achieve the research objective, a quantitative and qualitative non-experimental research of the case study type have been chosen. In order to operationalize the research process and make the research problem feasible, the following research questions have been formulated: 1. What are the previous conceptions about the school knowledge of the undergraduates ?; 2. What is the explicit knowledge of the undergraduates present in the planning of the MTU ?; 3. What implicit knowledge is identified in the MTU application ?; 4. How does the process of implementing a MTU promote awareness and criticism of the implicit knowledge identified and the development of professional teacher knowledge? According to the chosen research approach, the sources of information have been: subjects and documents. The subjects have been: 15 undergraduate students of the Chemistry course who have attended the courses of Instrumentation for Teaching Chemistry and Supervised Curricular Internship V, which have taught in the first and second semester of 2016, respectively. The documents that have been used: the elaboration of a MTU and the group work with justifications for the modifications that have been made in the re-elaboration of the MTU. As conclusion of the case study, it can be verified that the undergraduates have presented previous conceptions about the school knowledge quite distant of conceptions markedly traditional, showing clear signs of change and evolution of their conceptions of teaching and learning. The explicit knowledge of the teacher presents elements that lead him to elaborate his planning according to more complex and contemporary pedagogical theories. However, characteristic elements of the Traditional, Technicist and Spontaneist Approaches have also been identified. It has been evidenced the incidence and resistance of some implicit knowledge related to superficial visions about the teaching and learning process and simplifying analyzes of the problems faced in practice and the presence of unreflected and poorly thought out routines from environmental training. However, the process of critical and grounded reflection have been proved to be profitable and it have been given rise some implicit knowledge, as well this have favored the development of professional teacher knowledge. Finally, the MTU implementation has great potential in the training of science teachers as reflective professionals, critics and researchers of the practice itself, favoring a better development in professional teacher knowledge.

Three main theoretical approaches to the study of the causation of prejudice can be distinguished within psychological research. The cognitive approach suggests that prejudice is a function of cognitive processes where stereotypic information about social groups, stored in memory, is automatically activated and affects people’s judgements and behavior toward members of the target group. The personality approach suggests that prejudice is a function of people’s personality characteristics. Finally, the social psychological approach emphasizes people’s group membership and group identification as the as major source of causation.

Previous research has almost entirely focused on only one approach of causation at a time. The focus has also shifted periodically – with attention paid to one approach at each period of time. The present thesis is an attempt to integrate these approaches and suggests an integrative model where the relative contribution of each approach could be assessed. The underlying assumption is that all three approaches are meaningful and that prejudice is a complex phenomenon that is best explained by taking into account all approaches jointly.

Examining the cognitive approach, Paper I revealed that people are knowledgeable of the cultural stereotypes and that stereotypic information is automatically activated and affects people’s judgments. Paper II (and Paper III) supported the personality approach and revealed that prejudice is highly related to primary personality characteristics and, in line with a central idea in this approach, different types of prejudice (ethnic prejudice, sexism, homophobia, and prejudice toward disabled people) are highly correlated. The results of Paper III revealed the importance of group membership and group identification, supporting the social psychology approach.

The findings are discussed in relation to previous research and the necessity to integrate various approaches and disciplines to explain psychological phenomena in general and prejudice in particular. Also, implications of the findings for prejudice prevention are discussed.

Esta investigación se enmarca dentro del campo de la enseñanza-aprendizaje de segundas lenguas, concretamente, dentro del ámbito de la enseñanza del español como segunda lengua. El marco teórico en el que se inscribe es el que aporta la teoría sociocultural y la metodología de investigación utilizada proviene del paradigma interpretativo (cualitativo). En síntesis, este trabajo ha consistido en el estudio de los procesos de construcción y gestión del conocimiento explícito durante la instrucción formal de la lengua objeto de estudio, en dos grupos multilingües de nivel principiante de una escuela oficial de idiomas, sin lengua vehicular común a todos los aprendientes. Hemos analizado y hemos descrito el tipo de comunicación que se genera entre profesor y aprendiente en la clase de español/ L2, entendiendo por comunicación tanto la verbal como la no verbal (kinésica y proxémica), y hemos comparado las percepciones que tanto profesores como aprendientes tienen de todo este proceso
This research is framed in the second language acquisition field, specifically, in the studies of Spanish as a second language. The theoretical framework in which this research is included is the one that provides with the sociocultural tradition and the methodology used for comes from the interpretative (qualitative) paradigm. In summary, this research work consisted in the study of how is constructed and negotiated explicit knowledge during the formal instruction of the language studied in class, in two multilingual groups of beginners without a common vehicular language to all the learners. We studied and we described the way of communication that is generated among teacher and students during Spanish formal instruction, understanding the communication concept both verbal and non-verbal communication, and we compared the perceptions that teachers and students have about all this process

Досадашања истраживања указују на позитиван допринос примене ЛЕМ, односно сваке врсте експеримената (ученичких – УЕ и демонстрационих - ДЕ) знању ученика разредне наставе из интегрисаних природних наука. УЕ подразумевају примену имплицитне инструкције, док демонстрациони експерименти подразумевају примену експлицитне инструкције при њиховом извођењу. Међутим, није довољно истражено када при обрађивању одговарајућег садржаја интегрисаних природних наука, у одређеној старосној доби ученика, треба дати приоритет одређеној врсти екперимената, односно којој врсти инструкција за њихову реализацију. Ово је нарочито значајно када се одређени садржаји, које су ученици учили у претходним разредима (вертикално повезани) усложњавају по квалитету, квантитету и обиму. Једни од таквих садржаја су и садржаји о кретању и особинама материјала у трећем разреду.Основни циљ истраживања у овој докторској дисертацији јесте да се испита: допринос примене ЛЕМ, односно УЕ и ДЕ квалитету и трајности знања ученика трећег разреда о кретању и особинама материјала у односу на традиционалну методу (ТМ), као и разлика у доприносу између примене УЕ и ДЕ на истој варијабли (когнитивни домен); мишљење ученика о доприносу примене ЛЕМ (УЕ и ДЕ) стицању тих знања (афективни домен) као и; корелација између квалитета и трајности знања ученика о одабраним садржајима са њиховим мишљењем о доприносу примене ЛЕМ (УЕ и ДЕ) стицању тих знања (когнитивно-афективни домен). У истраживању је учествовао N = 141 ученик трећег разреда из три основне школе са територије Општине Темерин, који су били подељени у три групе: Е1 (која је одабране садржаје учила уз примену УЕ – имплицитна инструкција), Е2 (која је одабране садржаје учила уз примену ДЕ – експлицитна инструкција) и К (која је исте садржаје учила уз примену ТМ – експлицитна инструкција). Методе итраживања су: метода теоријске анализе, експериментална метода, дескриптивна метода и статистичка метода. Примењене технике су тестирање и анкетирање. Тестирање знања ученика о кретању и особинама материјала спроведено је помоћу теста (пре-теста, пост-теста и ре- теста). Анкетирње је реализовано помоћу анкете (пре-анкете и пост-анкете). Питања у обе анкете су креирана према петостепеној скали Ликертовог типа. Пре-анкетом испитано је мишљење ученика Е1 и Е2 групе пре реализације садржаја о кретању и особинама материјала, како би се стекао увид у њихово мишљење о значају примене ЛЕМ у стицању њихових знања у претходним разредима. Пост-анкетом је испитано мишљење ученика Е1 и Е2 групе после реализације ових садржаја, како би се утврдило да ли је дошло до промене у њиховом мишљењу о значају примене ЛЕМ у стицању њихових знања. Резултати пост- анкете су коришћени и за анализу корелације између знања ученика Е1 и Е2 групе на пост-тесту и ре-тесту са њиховим мишљења о доприносу примене ЛЕМ.ЛЕМ више (у већој мери УЕ, него ДЕ) у односу на ТМ доприноси укупном квалитету и трајности знања ученика о кретању и особинама материјала. Ученици Е1 групе остварили су квалитетнија знања (на нивоу евалуације) у односу на ученике Е2 групе, као и квалитетнија знања (на нивоу анализе, евалуације и синтезе) у односу на ученике К групе. Ученици Е2 групе остварили су квалитетнија знања (на нивоу примене евалуације и синетезе) у односу на ученике К групе. Трајност знања ученика Е1 групе о приближна је трајности знања ученика Е2 групе на свим когнитивним нивоима. Међутим, ученици Е1 групе показали су знатно боље задржавање наученог о одабраним садржајима у односу на ученике К групе на нивоу разумевања, примене и евалуације. Ученици Е2 групе остварили су приближна знања ученицима К групе по трајности на свим когнитивним нивоима.Када се упореде резултати пре-анкете и пост-анкете закључује се да су после реализације садржаја о кретању и особинама материјала помоћу ЛЕМ ученици обе групе показали позитивније мишљење (на пост- анкети) о доприносу примене ЛЕМ стицању њихових знања. Поред наведеног уочено је и то да су ученици Е1 групе показали и знатно позитивније мишљење од ученика Е2 групе о доприносу примене ЛЕМ разумевању одабраних садржаја, њиховој заинтересованости на часовима и развоју социјалне интеракције.Постоји позитивна корелација између квалитета (на нивоу знања, разумевања, примене, анализе и евалуације) и трајности знања (на нивоу знања, разумевања и примене) ученика Е1 групе о одабраним садржајима и њиховог мишљења о доприносу примене ЛЕМ стицању тих знања. Позитивна корелација уочена је и између квалитета (на свим нивоима) и трајности знања (на нивоу знања, разумевања, примене, анализе и евалуације) ученика Е2 групе о одабраним садржајима и њиховог мишљења о доприносу примене ЛЕМ тим знањима. Јача корелација између испитиваних варијабли код ученика Е2 групе у односу на ученике Е1 групе само је производ тога колико су остварене вредности у оквиру сваке варијабле приближне. С обзиром на то да су ученици Е2 групе остварили слабији успех у односу на ученике Е1 групе у оквиру свих испитиваних варијабли (квалитет и трајност знања о одабраним садржајима и мишљење ученика о доприносу примене ЛЕМ тим знањима), важно је нагласити да су остварене вредности (резултати) између њиховог знања и мишљења приближније (што је проузроковало и јачу корелацију), него код ученика Е1 групе (што је проузроковало нешто слабију корелацију).Сугерише се да би садржаје о кретању и особинама материјала у трећем разреду требало реализовати уз примену једноставних експеримената (УЕ и ДЕ), при чему би предност требало дати УЕ, који се реализују уз примену имплицитне инструкције. Већом применом УЕ, у односу на ДЕ; утицало би се не само на квалитет и трајност знања ученика разредне наставе о природи, природним процесима и појавама, него и на њихово позитивно мишљење (ставове) о значају примене ЛЕМ у стицању тих знања, али и на сам развој експерименталних вештина и навика, које су ученицима касније неопходне за што самосталнију примену комплекснијих лабораторијских експеримената (у настави диференцираних природних наука).
Dosadašanja istraživanja ukazuju na pozitivan doprinos primene LEM, odnosno svake vrste eksperimenata (učeničkih – UE i demonstracionih - DE) znanju učenika razredne nastave iz integrisanih prirodnih nauka. UE podrazumevaju primenu implicitne instrukcije, dok demonstracioni eksperimenti podrazumevaju primenu eksplicitne instrukcije pri njihovom izvođenju. Međutim, nije dovoljno istraženo kada pri obrađivanju odgovarajućeg sadržaja integrisanih prirodnih nauka, u određenoj starosnoj dobi učenika, treba dati prioritet određenoj vrsti ekperimenata, odnosno kojoj vrsti instrukcija za njihovu realizaciju. Ovo je naročito značajno kada se određeni sadržaji, koje su učenici učili u prethodnim razredima (vertikalno povezani) usložnjavaju po kvalitetu, kvantitetu i obimu. Jedni od takvih sadržaja su i sadržaji o kretanju i osobinama materijala u trećem razredu.Osnovni cilj istraživanja u ovoj doktorskoj disertaciji jeste da se ispita: doprinos primene LEM, odnosno UE i DE kvalitetu i trajnosti znanja učenika trećeg razreda o kretanju i osobinama materijala u odnosu na tradicionalnu metodu (TM), kao i razlika u doprinosu između primene UE i DE na istoj varijabli (kognitivni domen); mišljenje učenika o doprinosu primene LEM (UE i DE) sticanju tih znanja (afektivni domen) kao i; korelacija između kvaliteta i trajnosti znanja učenika o odabranim sadržajima sa njihovim mišljenjem o doprinosu primene LEM (UE i DE) sticanju tih znanja (kognitivno-afektivni domen). U istraživanju je učestvovao N = 141 učenik trećeg razreda iz tri osnovne škole sa teritorije Opštine Temerin, koji su bili podeljeni u tri grupe: E1 (koja je odabrane sadržaje učila uz primenu UE – implicitna instrukcija), E2 (koja je odabrane sadržaje učila uz primenu DE – eksplicitna instrukcija) i K (koja je iste sadržaje učila uz primenu TM – eksplicitna instrukcija). Metode itraživanja su: metoda teorijske analize, eksperimentalna metoda, deskriptivna metoda i statistička metoda. Primenjene tehnike su testiranje i anketiranje. Testiranje znanja učenika o kretanju i osobinama materijala sprovedeno je pomoću testa (pre-testa, post-testa i re- testa). Anketirnje je realizovano pomoću ankete (pre-ankete i post-ankete). Pitanja u obe ankete su kreirana prema petostepenoj skali Likertovog tipa. Pre-anketom ispitano je mišljenje učenika E1 i E2 grupe pre realizacije sadržaja o kretanju i osobinama materijala, kako bi se stekao uvid u njihovo mišljenje o značaju primene LEM u sticanju njihovih znanja u prethodnim razredima. Post-anketom je ispitano mišljenje učenika E1 i E2 grupe posle realizacije ovih sadržaja, kako bi se utvrdilo da li je došlo do promene u njihovom mišljenju o značaju primene LEM u sticanju njihovih znanja. Rezultati post- ankete su korišćeni i za analizu korelacije između znanja učenika E1 i E2 grupe na post-testu i re-testu sa njihovim mišljenja o doprinosu primene LEM.LEM više (u većoj meri UE, nego DE) u odnosu na TM doprinosi ukupnom kvalitetu i trajnosti znanja učenika o kretanju i osobinama materijala. Učenici E1 grupe ostvarili su kvalitetnija znanja (na nivou evaluacije) u odnosu na učenike E2 grupe, kao i kvalitetnija znanja (na nivou analize, evaluacije i sinteze) u odnosu na učenike K grupe. Učenici E2 grupe ostvarili su kvalitetnija znanja (na nivou primene evaluacije i sineteze) u odnosu na učenike K grupe. Trajnost znanja učenika E1 grupe o približna je trajnosti znanja učenika E2 grupe na svim kognitivnim nivoima. Međutim, učenici E1 grupe pokazali su znatno bolje zadržavanje naučenog o odabranim sadržajima u odnosu na učenike K grupe na nivou razumevanja, primene i evaluacije. Učenici E2 grupe ostvarili su približna znanja učenicima K grupe po trajnosti na svim kognitivnim nivoima.Kada se uporede rezultati pre-ankete i post-ankete zaključuje se da su posle realizacije sadržaja o kretanju i osobinama materijala pomoću LEM učenici obe grupe pokazali pozitivnije mišljenje (na post- anketi) o doprinosu primene LEM sticanju njihovih znanja. Pored navedenog uočeno je i to da su učenici E1 grupe pokazali i znatno pozitivnije mišljenje od učenika E2 grupe o doprinosu primene LEM razumevanju odabranih sadržaja, njihovoj zainteresovanosti na časovima i razvoju socijalne interakcije.Postoji pozitivna korelacija između kvaliteta (na nivou znanja, razumevanja, primene, analize i evaluacije) i trajnosti znanja (na nivou znanja, razumevanja i primene) učenika E1 grupe o odabranim sadržajima i njihovog mišljenja o doprinosu primene LEM sticanju tih znanja. Pozitivna korelacija uočena je i između kvaliteta (na svim nivoima) i trajnosti znanja (na nivou znanja, razumevanja, primene, analize i evaluacije) učenika E2 grupe o odabranim sadržajima i njihovog mišljenja o doprinosu primene LEM tim znanjima. Jača korelacija između ispitivanih varijabli kod učenika E2 grupe u odnosu na učenike E1 grupe samo je proizvod toga koliko su ostvarene vrednosti u okviru svake varijable približne. S obzirom na to da su učenici E2 grupe ostvarili slabiji uspeh u odnosu na učenike E1 grupe u okviru svih ispitivanih varijabli (kvalitet i trajnost znanja o odabranim sadržajima i mišljenje učenika o doprinosu primene LEM tim znanjima), važno je naglasiti da su ostvarene vrednosti (rezultati) između njihovog znanja i mišljenja približnije (što je prouzrokovalo i jaču korelaciju), nego kod učenika E1 grupe (što je prouzrokovalo nešto slabiju korelaciju).Sugeriše se da bi sadržaje o kretanju i osobinama materijala u trećem razredu trebalo realizovati uz primenu jednostavnih eksperimenata (UE i DE), pri čemu bi prednost trebalo dati UE, koji se realizuju uz primenu implicitne instrukcije. Većom primenom UE, u odnosu na DE; uticalo bi se ne samo na kvalitet i trajnost znanja učenika razredne nastave o prirodi, prirodnim procesima i pojavama, nego i na njihovo pozitivno mišljenje (stavove) o značaju primene LEM u sticanju tih znanja, ali i na sam razvoj eksperimentalnih veština i navika, koje su učenicima kasnije neophodne za što samostalniju primenu kompleksnijih laboratorijskih eksperimenata (u nastavi diferenciranih prirodnih nauka).
Recent studies indicate that there is a positive contribution of the application of LEM, i.e. of every kind of experiments (student - UE and demonstration - DE) to the knowledge of students of classroom teaching in integrated natural sciences. UEs imply implicit instruction, while demonstration experiments imply explicit instruction in their application. However, it has not been sufficiently investigated when, in addressing the appropriate content of integrated natural sciences, at a given age of the student, priority should be given to a particular type of experiment or to what type of instruction for their realization. This is especially important when certain content which students have learned in previous classes (vertically connected) is complicated on the basis of its quality, quantity and scope. One of these is content about the movement and properties of materials in third grade. The main aim of the research in this doctoral dissertation is to examine the contribution of LEM application i.e. the UE and DE quality and durability of knowledge of third grade students about the movement and properties of materials in relation to the traditional method (TM). Furthermore, it will also look into the difference in contribution between UE and DE application on the same variable (cognitive domain) and students' opinion on the contribution of the application of LEM (UE and DE) to the acquisition of this knowledge (affective domain), as well as the correlation between quality and durability of students' knowledge of selected content with their opinion on the contribution of LEM (UE and DE) application to the acquisition of that knowledge (cognitive-affective domain). This research included N = 141 third grade students from three elementary schools from the territory of Temerin Municipality which were divided into three groups: E1 (which learned selected content using UE - implicit instruction), E2 (which learned selected content using DE - explicit instruction) and K (which learned the same content using TM - explicit instruction). The research methods are as follows: theoretical analysis method, experimental method, descriptive method and statistical method. The used techniques are testing and interviewing. Testing of students' knowledge of movement and material properties was conducted using a test (pre-test, post-test and re-test). Surveys were implemented through a questionnaire (presurvey and post-survey). The questions in both surveys were designed according to a five-point Likert-type scale. Pre-survey examined the opinion of E1 and E2 group students before the realization of the content on movement and material properties, in order to gain insight into their opinion on the importance of applying LEM in acquiring their knowledge in the previous grades. The post-survey examined the opinion of E1 and E2 students after the realization of these contents, in order to determine whether there was a change in their opinion about the importance of applying LEM in acquiring their knowledge. Post-survey results were also used to analyze the correlation between E1 and E2 group students' knowledge on post-test and re-test with their opinions on the contribution of LEM implementation. Compared to TM, LEM contributes more (more UE than DE) to the overall quality and durability of students' knowledge of movement and material properties. E1 group students achieved higher quality (at the level of evaluation) compared to E2 group students, as well as better knowledge (at the level of analysis, evaluation and synthesis) than the K group students. The students of the E2 group achieved higher quality knowledge (at the level of application of evaluation and synthesis) than the students of the K group. The durability of knowledge of E1 group students is approximate to that of E2 students at all cognitive levels. However, the E1 group students showed significantly better retention of the selected content compared to the K group students at the level of understanding, application and evaluation. The E2 group students gained an up-to-date knowledge of the K group students in durability at all cognitive levels. When comparing the results of the pre-survey and the post-survey, it is concluded that after the realization of the content about the movement and the material properties with the LEM, students from both groups showed a more positive opinion (at the post-survey) about the contribution of the application of the LEM to the acquisition of their knowledge. In addition, it was noted that E1 group students showed significantly more positive opinions than E2 group students about the contribution of LEM application to understanding of selected content, their interest in classes and the development of social interaction. There is a positive correlation between the quality (at the level of knowledge, understanding, application, analysis and evaluation) and the durability of knowledge (at the level of knowledge, understanding and application) of E1 group students on selected content and their opinion on the contribution of LEM application to the acquisition of that knowledge. Furthermore, a positive correlation was noticed between the quality (at all levels) and the permanence of knowledge (at the level of knowledge, understanding, application, analysis and evaluation) of E2 group students on selected content and their opinion on the contribution of LEM application to this knowledge. The stronger correlation between the examined variables in the E2 group students compared to the E1 group students is only a product of how the values are close to each variable. Considering that the students of the E2 group achieved less success than the students of the E1 group within all the examined variables (quality and durability of knowledge about the selected contents and students' opinion on the contribution of applying LEM to this knowledge), it is important to emphasize that the achieved values (results) between their knowledge and opinion are closer (which also caused a stronger correlation) than for E1 group students (which caused a slightly weaker correlation). It is suggested that the contents about the movement and properties of the materials in the third class should be realized using simple experiments (UE and DE), with preference given to UEs, which are realized using implicit instruction. Greater use of UEs than DEs; would affect not only the quality and durability of students' knowledge of the classroom teaching about nature, natural processes and phenomena, but also their positive opinion (attitudes) about the importance of applying LEM in acquiring this knowledge, but also to the development of experimental skills and habits itself, which are later necessary for students to apply complex laboratory experiments as independently as possible (in teaching differentiated natural sciences).

The desire to enhance and make ourselves better is not a new one and it has continued to intrigue throughout the ages. Individuals have continued to seek ways to improve and enhance their well-being for example through nutrition, physical exercise, education and so on. Crucial to this improvement of their well-being is improving their ability to remember. Hence, people interested in improving their well-being, are often interested in memory as well. The rationale being that memory is crucial to our well-being. The desire to improve one’s memory then is almost certainly as old as the desire to improve one’s well-being. Traditionally, people have used different means in an attempt to enhance their memories: for example in learning through storytelling, studying, and apprenticeship. In remembering through practices like mnemonics, repetition, singing, and drumming. In retaining, storing and consolidating memories through nutrition and stimulants like coffee to help keep awake; and by external aids like notepads and computers. In forgetting through rituals and rites. Recent scientific advances in biotechnology, nanotechnology, molecular biology, neuroscience, and information technologies, present a wide variety of technologies to enhance many different aspects of human functioning. Thus, some commentators have identified human enhancement as central and one of the most fascinating subject in bioethics in the last two decades. Within, this period, most of the commentators have addressed the Ethical, Social, Legal and Policy (ESLP) issues in human enhancements as a whole as opposed to specific enhancements. However, this is problematic and recently various commentators have found this to be deficient and called for a contextualized case-by-case analysis to human enhancements for example genetic enhancement, moral enhancement, and in my case memory enhancement (ME). The rationale being that the reasons for accepting/rejecting a particular enhancement vary depending on the enhancement itself. Given this enormous variation, moral and legal generalizations about all enhancement processes and technologies are unwise and they should instead be evaluated individually. Taking this as a point of departure, this research will focus specifically on making a case for ME and in doing so assessing the ESLP implications arising from ME. My analysis will draw on the already existing literature for and against enhancement, especially in part two of this thesis; but it will be novel in providing a much more in-depth analysis of ME. From this perspective, I will contribute to the ME debate through two reviews that address the question how we enhance the memory, and through four original papers discussed in part three of this thesis, where I examine and evaluate critically specific ESLP issues that arise with the use of ME. In the conclusion, I will amalgamate all my contribution to the ME debate and suggest the future direction for the ME debate.

This thesis is placed in the context of the ongoing debate on the issue whether second language acquisition occurs on the basis of innate language-specific learning mechanisms or general learning mechanisms. The author shares the view of scholars who propose that an innate knowledge base underlying first language acquisition does not extend to second language acquisition due to the lack of uniform success in the acquisition of native speaker competence, the possibility of fossilisation and the facilitative potential of form-focused instruction. It is, thus, assumed that the sequential second language acquisition process can be accounted for by general learning mechanisms. The key to these learning mechanisms is, firstly, the investigation of the nature of the knowledge underlying the grammatical encoding procedures for speech production in the context of M. Pienemann’s (1998a) Processability Theory and, secondly, the investigation of the nature of its acquisition process. Pienemann’s Processability Theory explains and predicts the sequential acquisition process of a second language as the result of the hierarchically ordered development of the processing procedures of the grammatical processor to grammatically encode conceptual information. It shares with Levelt’s (1989) theory of speech production the assumptions concerning the nature of the knowledge underlying the grammatical encoding procedures, which require further investigations for verification. Since the Processability Theory does not specify how the assumed knowledge underlying grammatical encoding is acquired, an investigation of the nature of its acquisition process is necessary. This investigation highlights the interdependence between the nature of the knowledge to be acquired and the nature of its acquisition process by demonstrating that the knowledge underlying grammatical encoding is predominantly implicit and, consequently, determines the implicit nature of its acquisition process. Such implicit knowledge is dissociated from explicit knowledge, which determines the explicit nature of its acquisition process. This investigation also demonstrates that explicit grammar teaching and practice in the context of the manipulation of the learners’ attentional orientation mediated by alertness may contribute to the implicit learning process under certain conditions. In conjunction with the provision of guidance by the Processability Theory in regard to the achievement of instructional focus and the independent finding that comprehensible input is needed in order for second language acquisition to occur, these results constitute the basis for the formulation of detailed instructional measures for the effective organisation of the sequential second language acquisition process. These measures are exemplified by their implementation for the initial stages of the acquisition of German as a second language.
PhD Doctorate

This thesis is placed in the context of the ongoing debate on the issue whether second language acquisition occurs on the basis of innate language-specific learning mechanisms or general learning mechanisms. The author shares the view of scholars who propose that an innate knowledge base underlying first language acquisition does not extend to second language acquisition due to the lack of uniform success in the acquisition of native speaker competence, the possibility of fossilisation and the facilitative potential of form-focused instruction. It is, thus, assumed that the sequential second language acquisition process can be accounted for by general learning mechanisms. The key to these learning mechanisms is, firstly, the investigation of the nature of the knowledge underlying the grammatical encoding procedures for speech production in the context of M. Pienemann’s (1998a) Processability Theory and, secondly, the investigation of the nature of its acquisition process. Pienemann’s Processability Theory explains and predicts the sequential acquisition process of a second language as the result of the hierarchically ordered development of the processing procedures of the grammatical processor to grammatically encode conceptual information. It shares with Levelt’s (1989) theory of speech production the assumptions concerning the nature of the knowledge underlying the grammatical encoding procedures, which require further investigations for verification. Since the Processability Theory does not specify how the assumed knowledge underlying grammatical encoding is acquired, an investigation of the nature of its acquisition process is necessary. This investigation highlights the interdependence between the nature of the knowledge to be acquired and the nature of its acquisition process by demonstrating that the knowledge underlying grammatical encoding is predominantly implicit and, consequently, determines the implicit nature of its acquisition process. Such implicit knowledge is dissociated from explicit knowledge, which determines the explicit nature of its acquisition process. This investigation also demonstrates that explicit grammar teaching and practice in the context of the manipulation of the learners’ attentional orientation mediated by alertness may contribute to the implicit learning process under certain conditions. In conjunction with the provision of guidance by the Processability Theory in regard to the achievement of instructional focus and the independent finding that comprehensible input is needed in order for second language acquisition to occur, these results constitute the basis for the formulation of detailed instructional measures for the effective organisation of the sequential second language acquisition process. These measures are exemplified by their implementation for the initial stages of the acquisition of German as a second language.
PhD Doctorate

博士
國立臺灣師範大學
教育心理與輔導學系
93
This study used four measuring methods, Priming, Test, Rating, and Q-sort, to examine the concept similarities on science from 421 elementary school students. 14 important concepts were chosen by 4 expert teachers to examine their similarities, and these results were analyzed by Pathfinder Analysis. The purposes of this study was to probe: (1) whether the results measured by Priming has the construct validity; (2) whether the explanatory power of each similarity index and measuring method have differences on learning achievement; (3) whether the knowledge structure formed by each measuring method has different characteristics; (4) whether the assumptions of MTMM (multitrait-multimethod) and MDMM (multidimension-multimethod) models are supported. Based on these purposes, new rPF index and MDMM model were suggested to proceed a field study by concept similarities questionnaire, knowledge structure test, learning achievement test, SuperLab computer program, and concept similarities sort-card. The results of this study were found as follows: 1. About the construct validity of Priming method Using the similarity indices conducted by Pathfinder Analysis on the measuring results of Priming method to represent knowledge structure can fit the assumptions of implicit memory systems on Age independence, Low variability, and IQ independence. Namely, the semantic network models in Pathfinder Analysis were adopted to represent the results measured by Priming method. Moreover, the results measured by Priming method meet the internal consistency reliability and the convergent validity as well. 2. About the criterion-related validity of similarity indices and four measuring methods (1) Using rPF index as an indicator of the latent variable “knowledge structure” to proceed regression analysis on learning achievement has significant explanatory power in Rating method and Q-sort method. Besides, proceeding regression analysis on learning achievement makes rPF index has significant explanatory power in Test method. Moreover, rPF index in Test method can also increase the explanatory power different from the ones by the other three indices: PFC, GTD, and PRX. (2) PRX index has the highest explanatory power when proceeding regression analysis on learning achievement, and PFC index is the next. (3) When using four similarity indices as indicators of the latent variable “knowledge structure” to proceed regression analysis on the latent variable “learning achievement”, Rating method has the highest explanatory power, and Test method is the next. 3. About the comparisons of knowledge structures formed by different measuring methods (1) The characteristics of comparing with each referent structure: a. Different links: Priming method has the least links (13), and the Test method has the most (17). b. Different explanatory power: referent structures formed by Priming and Test methods were more different to teaching materials, and some links were hard to interpret by teaching content; referent structures formed by Rating and Q-sort methods were more similar to teaching materials, and all links meet the logic of teaching content. c. Different similarities: referent structure formed by Priming method was more different from the ones formed by other measuring methods; referent structure formed by Rating method was more similar to the one formed by Q-sort. (2) Comparing the knowledge structures of two high-achieving subjects with the results of referent structures in “links”, “explanatory power”, and “similarities”, most results of referent structures can generalize to the knowledge structures of high-achieving subjects. (3) Furthermore, the consistencies on central concepts among knowledge structures of these two subjects are distinctive due to different measuring methods. Test method has more consistencies: its referent structure and knowledge structure of subjects show the same central concepts. This result was not found in other three methods 4. About the test of MTMM and MDMM models (1) This study accepted the assumptions of competing model 2 in MTMM: implicit and explicit knowledge structures were two independent traits. (2) This study accepted the assumptions of baseline model in MDMM: PFC, GTD, and PRX are relevant. Suggestions for future researches conducted by Pathfinder Analysis or probe into the new latent variable “implicit knowledge structure” found in this study were provided in the end.

碩士
國立交通大學
工業工程與管理系所
106
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of redescription, practice and anomaly on emergence of explicit memory from implicit memory. One hundred and thirty- two participants were randomly assigned to the 2 (redescription) x 2 (anomaly) experimental conditions to work on 8 blocks of a dual-task embedded with an implicit rule. Half of participants were asked to describe their experiences after each block and the other half of them were asked to detect wrong words in articles. Anomalous instances of the rule were presented in the block 6. Implicit learning was examined by the speed and accuracy in the signal detection task. Explicit knowledge of the implicit rule was measured by the contents of redescription, the accuracy and confidence rating in rule judgement task, and the content of post-experiment questionnaire. Data showed 39 participants (60%) in redescription condition were able to extract a rule. But most of their rules were far from correct. The rule judgement accuracy and confidence data further showed that practice and anomaly could facilitate the extraction of explicit knowledge from implicit learning. Although none of effects related to redescription was significant, data showed that those who were in redescription and anomaly condition scored highest among the four groups on accuracy and confidence in rule judgement task. Implications for how to bridge the gap between the consciousness and the unconsciousness by practice, redescription, and anomaly were discussed.

In a dynamically changing world with unprecedented uncertainty, complexity and turbulence, continual learning and adapting is vital for one’s living and well-being. According to dual-systems accounts of cognition, learning has two major forms, implicit learning (System 1) that is fast and frugal but sometimes error-prone, and explicit learning (System 2) that is reliable but slow and effortful. These two systems are separate but must interact with each other. We gain implicit knowledge from experiencing trials and making errors (e. g., making financial investments repeatedly), receive vicarious knowledge transmitted to us in summarized forms (e.g. a quarterly report of investment options and past returns), and derive our own explicit knowledge (e.g. investment strategies) from experience to inform our future practices or to use in advising others. The present project explores the interaction between these forms of learning in the context of repeated decisions. Is it merely implicit behavioral tendencies that are learned from experience? If so, would articulating or summarizing what is implicitly learned change subsequent choice behaviors? To address these questions, three experimental studies are conducted with online participants to investigate whether asking individuals to explicitly summarize what they have learned in a Decision from Experience (DfE) paradigm will create an explicit-implicit learning interaction that will affect their subsequent choice patterns. Decisions from explicit descriptions (DfD) refers to situations where quantitative information regarding the outcome values and probabilities of decision options is provided to the decision maker. Behavior in such situations has been found to exhibit irrational choice patterns characterized by cumulative prospect theory (CPT), overweighting the rare events while underweighting the more likely events (Tversky & Kahneman, 1992). In comparison, DfE is characterized by a different pattern of initial irrationality (underweighting the rare events while overweighting the more likely events) but moving gradually over time towards rationality as defined by Expected Value (EV)-maximization (Chen & Corter, 2014; Hertwig et al., 2004). The different choice biases between DfE and DfD is known as the Description-Experience Gap (“D-E gap”, Hertwig & Erev, 2009). The present project investigates if explicit summarization of knowledge gained from experience can affect subsequent choice patterns in DfE. Two main hypotheses are examined. Firstly, explicit summarization might accelerate a shift to EV-maximization because summarization might promote the externalization of the implicitly learned behavior tendency in the pure DfE paradigm. A second possibility is that explicit summarization might lead to a choice pattern consistent with that in DfD characterized by a CPT-like pattern, because the summarized information of option payoffs resembles that in the DfD paradigm. In the described studies, three summarization conditions are compared including: summarizing knowledge and estimating payoff probabilities for themselves (Self condition), summarizing for another hypothetical player (Other condition), and not summarizing such information (Control condition). The results across the three studies found a consistent summarization effect, particularly for low probability gain (Gain-Low) and high probability loss (Loss-High) problems. Those who summarized to another person (Other condition) made decisions more consistent with CPT predictions, choosing significantly more choices associated with higher CPT values. In contrast, participants in the pure DfE (Control) condition exhibited a similar DfE choice pattern, which is in the opposite direction compared to those in the Other condition. Participants in the Other condition gave more accurate probability estimates (closer to the true objective probabilities) for the risky outcomes for low-probability gains and high-probability losses. In contrast, participants in the Self condition tend to show underestimation for both high- and low-probability gains but overestimation for both high- and low-probability losses. Also, a majority of participants in the Other condition recommended to choose the EV-maximization choices in their summarizations, yet showed CPT-approximating choices in their own subsequent choices. In general, the overall findings suggest that “a probabilistic mindset” induced by the social messages in the Other condition seems to attenuate the D-E gap. Implications for learning and decision making are also discussed in the end.

Language acquisition and performance are believed to be sustained by two memory systems – the system of declarative and procedural knowledge (Paradis, 2009; Ullman, 2004). There is a general consensus that declarative knowledge arises primarily from explicit declarative learning, and procedural knowledge is formed via implicit statistical learning mechanisms that require input of high frequency. Efficiency of implicit linguistic learning has been evidenced to be constrained in adulthood, especially in the domain of syntax, which has implications for learning a second or foreign language (L2). Studies show that the sole exposure to the L2 devoid of metalinguistic rules renders low levels of language accuracy, as compared to instruction with substantial explicit focus on grammar, which produces rapid and ubiquitous learning gains (e.g. Norris & Ortega, 2000; Spada & Tomita, 2010). Those gains, however, concern primarily explicit declarative knowledge, whose deployment is less efficient (i.e. slower and more cognitively taxing) than the use of native-like implicit procedural knowledge nourished by implicit learning. The fact that implicit learning is grossly limited in adults triggered questions if it can be assisted by declarative learning. This has grown to become one of the central topics in second language acquisition research, known as the interface issue. This thesis set out to investigate the efficiency of developing implicit procedural and explicit declarative knowledge of L2 syntactic patterns under implicit and explicit exposure conditions. Particular emphasis is put here on the possible ways in which implicit procedural and explicit declarative systems may interact. Based on research into domain general learning within cognitive psychology and neuro- and psycholinguistic studies, this thesis proposes and pursues the verification of three hypothetical interface scenarios: (1) the no interface scenario, (2) the enhancement scenario, whereby declarative learning directly aids attaining procedural knowledge, and (3) the blocking scenario, which predicts that the development of procedural knowledge is hindered by declarative learning. The issues emerging from the theoretical part of the thesis have been pursued via two experimental studies on Polish adult intermediate learners of L2 English. Both studies followed a repeated-measures design and used self-paced reading and untimed focus on form tasks, as separate measures tapping into implicit procedural and explicit declarative knowledge, respectively. Moreover, the frequency of occurrence of the target structures was strictly controlled to ensure it was the same across all the learning conditions. Study 1 (N = 73) investigated the development of the form-meaning mappings of English definite and indefinite articles the and an, a complex structure absent from participants’ L1, via three types of training: implicit, explicit and semi-implicit. In contrast, Study 2 (N = 59) centered on the acquisition of English relative pronoun placement patterns thorough an engaging task, whose overt aim was to learn 30 Tagalog words embedded in English sentences. Moreover, the explicit group received supplementary rule explication on the distribution of the target pronouns. Both studies reported convergent results. In line with the previous research, the growth of explicit declarative knowledge was found for explicit, but not implicit, groups. However, no processing changes pointing to the growth of implicit procedural knowledge were observed in either study, regardless of whether the training did or did not involve the presentation of metalinguistic rules. The results point to the major constraints in L2 proceduralization in adulthood, which cannot be bridged by additional declarative learning in short-term training.
W procesach przyswajania oraz używania języka uczestniczą dwa systemy pamięciowe: system pamięci deklaratywnej i proceduralnej (Paradis, 2009; Ullman, 2004). Wiedza deklaratywna powstaje w wyniku jawnego uczenia deklaratywnego, a u podstaw powstawania wiedzy proceduralnej leżą mechanizmy utajonego uczenia statystycznego, które wymagają bodźców językowych o wysokiej frekwencji. Badania dowiodły, że skuteczność działania mechanizmów utajonych jest znacząco ograniczona w dorosłości, szczególnie w zakresie nabywania składni, co ma istotne konsekwencje dla procesu nauki języka drugiego lub obcego (L2). Natomiast, nauczanie składni explicite prowadzi do lepszego przyswojenia docelowych struktur składniowych, niż uczenie pozbawione reguł metajęzykowych (np. Norris & Ortega, 2000; Spada & Tomita, 2010). Z kolei, uczenie jawne prowadzi do powstania wiedzy deklaratywnej, której wydobywanie jest wolniejsze i wymaga większej kontroli poznawczej niż aktywacja wiedzy proceduralnej. Ponieważ rozwój wiedzy proceduralnej jest ograniczony w dorosłości, pojawiły się pytania, czy uczenie deklaratywne może w jakiś sposób wspomagać ten proces. Te pytania urosły do rangi jednego z kluczowych pytań w dziedzinie nabywania L2 – tak zwanego problemu interfejsu (ang. the interface issue). Celem niniejszej rozprawy doktorskiej jest badanie efektywności przyswajania wiedzy deklaratywnej i proceduralnej dotyczącej składni języka obcego w warunkach jawnej i utajonej ekspozycji. Praca kładzie szczególny nacisk na poszukiwanie odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy systemy pamięci deklaratywnej i proceduralnej mogą wchodzić ze sobą w interakcje. W oparciu o badania z zakresu psychologii poznawczej, neuro- oraz psycholingwistyki, zaproponowane zostały trzy hipotetyczne scenariusze takich interakcji (tj. interfejsu). Są to: (1) scenariusz braku interfejsu, (2) scenariusz bezpośredniego pozytywnego wpływu wiedzy deklaratywnej na kształtowanie się wiedzy proceduralnej, (3) scenariusz negatywnego wpływu (poprzez blokowanie) wiedzy deklaratywnej na powstawanie wiedzy proceduralnej. Problemy omówione w części teoretycznej były przedmiotem dwóch badań eksperymentalnych z udziałem dorosłych rodowitych użytkowników języka polskiego uczących się języka angielskiego (jako L2) na poziomie średniozaawansowanym. Oba badania, zaprojektowane w schemacie z powtarzanymi pomiarami, wykorzystały zadanie pomiaru czasów reakcji podczas czytania (ang. selfpaced reading), jako zadanie angażujące wiedzę proceduralną, oraz klasyczne zadania testowe sprawdzające wiedzę gramatyczną, jako zadania angażujące wiedzę deklaratywną. Ponadto, w badaniach ściśle kontrolowano, aby frekwencja prezentacji docelowych form była taka sama we wszystkich warunkach eksperymentalnych. Badanie 1 (N = 73) dotyczyło nabywania związków formy i znaczenia kodowanych w angielskich przedimkach określonych i nieokreślonych, the oraz a (struktura ta nie występuje w języku polskim) w warunkach treningu jawnego, utajonego i półutajonego. Badanie 2 (N = 59) dotyczyło przyswajania konstrukcji przydawkowych wymagających użycia zaimków względnych which lub what w zdaniach złożonych. Konstrukcje te były prezentowane w kontekście zadania w języku angielskim, którego jawnym celem była nauka słownictwa w języku tagalskim. W warunku treningu jawnego osoby badane dodatkowo otrzymywały prezentację dotyczącą reguł metajęzykowych związanych z użyciem zaimków. Oba badania wykazały, że uczenie się deklaratywne było skuteczne jedynie w warunkach treningu jawnego. Co więcej, niezależnie od typu treningu, nie zaobserwowano zmian w przetwarzaniu reguł docelowych podczas czytania, które mogłyby wskazywać na rozwój językowej wiedzy proceduralnej. Wyniki wskazują na znaczne ograniczenia w proceduralizacji gramatyki języka obcego w dorosłości, które, podczas krótkiego treningu, nie są niwelowane przez dodatkową wiedzę deklaratywną.

Dissertação de mestrado integrado em Psicologia
Several studies acknowledged the problems with the use of the standard two-alternative-forced choice (2-AFC) task to assess statistical learning (SL) in a valid and reliable way. The purpose of this study was to directly examine the cost that the use of multiple repetition of same items during the 2-AFC task involve. Furthermore, to test whether that cost might be modulated by words’ predictability and the prior knowledge of the to-be-learned regularities, “words” with transitional probabilities (TPs) of 1.0 (easy “words”) and TPs of .50 (hard “words”) were used during the familiarization phase of an SL task performed under incidental (implicit) and intentional (explicit) conditions. Although results from all participants failed to show signs of detrimental effects of item repetition, the analyses including only the participants who showed clear evidence of learning in each of the SL tasks indicated that item repetition had indeed detrimental effects on the 2-AFC performance particularly for hard “words” under implicit conditions.
Vários estudos reconheceram os problemas que a utilização da tarefa de escolha forçada entre duas alternativas (2-AFC) para avaliar a aprendizagem estatística acarretam. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de examinar o custo que a repetição dos mesmos itens numa tarefa 2-AFC envolve. Além disso, testámos se esse custo seria modulado pela previsibilidade das palavras e pelo conhecimento prévio das regularidades a aprender usando "palavras" com probabilidades de transição (TPs) de 1.0 (palavras fáceis) e TPs de .50 (palavras difíceis) durante a fase de familiarização de uma tarefa de aprendizagem estatística realizada sob condições acidentais (implícitas) e intencionais (explícitas) de aprendizagem. Embora os resultados das análises conduzidas com de todos os participantes não tenham revelado sinais de efeitos prejudiciais da repetição dos itens, os resultados das análises conduzidas apenas os participantes que mostraram evidência clara de aprendizagem em cada uma das tarefas, indicaram que a repetição de itens teve de facto efeitos prejudiciais no desempenho da tarefa 2-AFC, particularmente para "palavras" difíceis em condições implícitas.
Este estudo integra-se no âmbito do projeto "Correlatos neurodesenvolvimentais dos mecanismos implícitos-explícitos de aprendizagem em crianças com Perturbação Específica de Linguagem: Evidência com potenciais evocados cerebrais" (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-028212) financiado pela Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) e pelo Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior, através de fundos nacionais, e co-financiado pelo FEDER, através do COMPETE2020, no âmbito do acordo Portugal 2020.

The context surrounding the tasks of and demands on Employment Agencies is a multi faceted one, containing a variety of interested parties. This results in a complex assignment for the Employment officer to manage, especially when it comes to issues of knowing the contextual terrains as well as the needs of the clients. This study aims at reflecting upon the process of knowledge of 5 Em-ployment officers in 3 numbers of Employment Agencies through an anlysis of their experiences of knowledge. In a series of semi structured interviews with experienced Employment officers. The study explores ways of comprehending different kinds of knowledge, and the manner in which knowledge is situated and shaped in a complex interplay between setting, coworkers and ar-tefacts. The study discusses ways in which the knowledge pro-cesses employed by the Employments officers is in fact composed. The result suggest that the knowledge process of the Employment officers is an ongoing interplay between context, implicit, explicit knowledge and mediating resources as artefacts and coworkers. The knowledge of the Employment officers is situated knowledge and is created within the context of the organization and their dis-cursive practice. The result indicate that the knowledge of Em-ployment officers are in first place driven by a practice based knowledge.
Arbetsförmedlingens omvärld är mångfacetterad bestående av en stor mängd intressenter. Detta resulterar i ett komplext uppdrag, både i relation till kontexten och de arbetssökandes behov som ar-betsförmedlarna är satta att hantera. Syftet med denna uppsats är att genom arbetsförmedlares tankar och resonemang kring kunskap öka förståelsen för hur deras kunskapsprocesser samspelar. Genom 5 semistrukturerade intervjuer med arbetsförmedlare med lång er-farenhet från 3 arbetsförmedlingskontor undersöks kunskapens olika delar och på vilket sätt dessa skapas genom medarbetare, kontext och artefakter.   Resultatet beskriver hur arbetsförmedlarnas kunskap bildas i ett ständigt pågående samspel mellan kontext, implicit, explicit kun-skap och medierande resurser i form av artefakter och kollegor. Arbetsförmedlarnas kunskap är situerad och utvecklas i relation till Arbetsförmedlingens kontext och diskursiva praktik.

Corticeira Amorim is, for many years, the worldwide leader in cork manufacturing, setting the pace and pointing the way forward in its sector. However, in the late 1990s, cork stoppers market, since always the company’s main product, was very seriously threatened due to the emergence of a strong substitute – the plastic stopper – ready to dethrone the cork stopper. The two main reasons for its emergence were a huge increase in the cork price, which tripled between 1994 and 2000, and growing customers’ complaints about TCA, deemed responsible for damaging the taste of wine in bottles using cork stoppers. This instigated an organizational and strategic change at Corticeira Amorim in the beginning of the 21st century, converting it from a cork stoppers business into a knowledge company, committed to add value to cork no matter the format. The fact that the company, despite its big size, is a family owned business has played an important role in its evolution and strategic options, throughout its whole history and notably in this critical moment, which denotes a long term concern and deserves analysis. The strong investment in R&D and Innovation, and the growing recognition of knowledge, in its different forms, as a potential source of competitive advantage, also in usually less high-tech sectors, is another perspective to be discussed. This context was the basis for the preparation of a pedagogical case study and teaching note. The case was field based, notably with interviews, as primary data source, and also compiled from published sources, as secondary date source. It is intended to be used as the basis for class discussion rather than as an endorsement, source of primary data or illustration of the effective or ineffective handling of a management situation.

This research was a pilot study in a larger project that focused on how to retrieve knowledge from retiring long-term employees of a small university utility plant, incorporate that material into their existing training program, and during the process reduce the training time for current and future employees. Wade utility plant faced the retirement of eight employees with nearly 200 years of corporate knowledge within three years, but their current training program required seven to nine years to complete. The study utilized interviews, first-hand observation and partnership with current employees to explore how best to obtain the corporate knowledge that would be lost when the proletarian workers retired. The study revealed that the training program needed to be updated, and communication, trust and training evaluation continuity needed to be addressed. Due to these issues, trust was built through transparency by the researcher, and suggestions were made to management for moving forward. This study adds to the body of knowledge by utilizing knowledge capture techniques in a utility plant, highlighting effective knowledge capture techniques for proletarian workers, the importance of corporate planning for the effect of group retirements, and how incorporating proletarian workers into training creation can make a positive impact on company relationships.

Dissertação de mestrado em Português Língua Não Materna
A flexão verbal e nominal é um domínio muito resistente à plena aquisição no processo de aprendizagem de português língua segunda (PL2) por parte de alunos chineses, mesmo os que já têm um nível muito avançado de português. O presente trabalho dedica-se ao estudo do grau de conhecimento implícito e explícito da flexão nominal e verbal de PL2 em aprendentes chineses, utilizando uma Tarefa de Imitação Provocada (TIP, Elicited Imitation Task) e uma TJG (Tarefa de Juízo de Gramaticalidade), que testam o conhecimento implícito e explícito dos informantes, respetivamente. Procedeu-se a uma análise detalhada dos resultados dos dois testes aplicados a um grupo de 15 aprendentes chineses de PL2, de nível avançado de português, todos residentes na China. Os resultados permitem concluir que: i) o método de recolha de dados não permite distinguir claramente os dois tipos de conhecimento, mas possibilita testar o conhecimento implícito dos informantes; ii) os aprendentes têm conhecimento explícito das regras, e as causas fundamentais das falhas de flexão verbal e nominal são o fraco conhecimento implícito e o processamento desse conhecimento no ato de produção de fala; iii) no caso da flexão nominal, existe uma tendência marcada para substituir o plural pelo singular para substituir o feminino pelo masculino; iv) no caso da flexão verbal, existe a tendência para substituir o pretérito perfeito ou imperfeito do indicativo pelo presente do indicativo porque as duas línguas possuem dois sistemas de tempo bastante diferentes; e a tendência de substituir a terceira pessoa do plural pela terceira pessoa do singular; v) existe um desequilíbrio em termos de nível de desenvolvimento do conhecimento implícito das diferentes categorias.
The verbal and nominal inflection system is a very resistant category to be fully acquired by Chinese students of Portuguese as second language (PL2), even for students who already have a very advanced level of Portuguese. This research is devoted to the study of the implicit and explicit knowledge of the nominal and verbal inflection of PL2 by Chinese learners. The study uses an elicited imitation test and a grammaticality judgments task, which intent to test the implicit and explicit knowledge of the informants, respectively. A detailed analysis of the results of the two tests carried out by a group of 15 highly proficient Chinese L2 learners of Portuguese allows to conclude that: i) the way of collecting data can not absolutely avoid the use of the explicit knowledge of the informants, but the elicited imitation test is somehow reliable to test the implicit knowledge of the informants; ii) the Chinese students have explicit knowledge of the rules, failures in producing correct verbal and nominal inflection are caused mainly by weak implicit knowledge; iii) in the case of nominal inflection, there is a tendency to replace the plural by the singular and to replace the feminine by the masculine; iv) in the case of verbal inflection, there is: a) a tendency to replace the past perfect or imperfect tense of the indicative with the present indicative because the two languages have two quite different tense systems; b) a tendency to substitute the third person in the plural for the third person singular; v) there is an imbalance in terms of the level of development of the implicit knowledge of the different categories.

Text in English
This study examined the vocabulary and academic literacy levels of undergraduate students at the University of Namibia, as well as the effects of an explicit and an implicit vocabulary programme on vocabulary development and academic literacy. The study also sought to determine the effects of the programmes on students’ attitudes about vocabulary and explicit vocabulary strategies. The relationship between students’ vocabulary size, academic literacy levels, and their self-assessment of their vocabulary knowledge was examined. Many students had not reached the desired word mastery and did not have adequate academic literacy skills to cope with the demands of university. Students in the explicit group modestly improved receptive vocabulary knowledge at the end of the intervention but there was no significant improvement in academic literacy skills. Overall, students showed an increase in positive responses regarding their attitudes to vocabulary.
Linguistics and Modern Languages
M.A. (Applied Linguistics)