Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Immigrants – Family relationships – Canada'
To see the other types of publications on this topic, follow the link: Immigrants – Family relationships – Canada.
Create a spot-on reference in APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, and other styles
Consult the top 22 dissertations / theses for your research on the topic 'Immigrants – Family relationships – Canada.'
Next to every source in the list of references, there is an 'Add to bibliography' button. Press on it, and we will generate automatically the bibliographic reference to the chosen work in the citation style you need: APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, Vancouver, etc.
You can also download the full text of the academic publication as pdf and read online its abstract whenever available in the metadata.
Browse dissertations / theses on a wide variety of disciplines and organise your bibliography correctly.
1
Makkay, Melinda. "Ethnic background and family values : attitudes of senior immigrants." Thesis, McGill University, 2001. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=32827.
Full textAbstract:
During the last fifty years, family life has noticeably changed in industrialized countries. Among many changes, it appears that there is a shift from a "family dominated" society to a more "individualistic" society where the concept of family loses its importance, family ties weakens, and elders lose their essential roles within the family because the continuity between generations in respect to family traditions and values is stopped. Ethnic-elders have different expectations from their family members based on their ethnic-identity, family values, and the extent of their acculturation. These value differences might also influence the accessibility and provision of psycho-social services. Therefore, the purpose of the present cross-cultural study was to understand and compare different ethnic-elders' expectations from their family members and from psychosocial service providers based on their concept of perception of family values. An instrument was designed for this study implementing a 4 point-scale and vignettes. Data were collected from seniors from South Asian (Sri-Lanka), Korean, Hungarian and Jewish communities and from a group of Social Worker (N = 94). Significant differences were found between group values: overall the Social Worker group was the most individualistic/non-traditional with the Jewish group next; the South Asians and Koreans were the most family-oriented/traditional; and these attitudes were the most different from those of the Social Workers. These particularities have important implications for the delivery of social services.
2
Bortnik, Helen Martha. "Acculturation and family values : first, second, and third generation Russian immigrants." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/30374.
Full textAbstract:
This study compared acculturation and familism of first, second, and third generation Russian immigrants. A sample of 71 included 22 first generation, 30 second generation, and 18 third generation male and female Russian immigrants from Vancouver, B.C., ranging in age from 19 to 82. Questionnaires mailed included demographic items, the Bardis Familism Scale (Bardis, 1959), and a revised Short Acculturation Scale (Marin, Sabogal, Marin, Otero-Sabogal, and Perez-Stable, 1987). Results of one-way ANOVA's revealed that there were no significant differences in scores on the Bardis Familism Scale between any of the three generations, contrary to previous studies with other immigrant groups. However, second and third generation subjects scored significantly higher on the acculturation scale than first generation ones, [F (2, 67) =25.00, p = .001]. A high level of Russian speaking ability and a low education level were associated with higher familism scores, and greater length of time in Canada was associated with higher acculturation scores. Since scores on the acculturation scale were consistent with those obtained in studies with other immigrant groups, this study provides support for the validity of this scale for Russian immigrants.Education, Faculty of
Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of
Graduate
3
Mugisha, Julius P. K. "Recognition of common-law spousal relationships in Canadian family law." Thesis, McGill University, 2003. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=80943.
Full textAbstract:
Common-law spousal relationships have become increasingly common with a growing number of Canadians electing to enter into them. This thesis appreciates the injustices suffered by common-law spouses during and at the termination of their spousal relationships, and reinforces the view that the denial of marital property benefits dishonors the dignity of common-law spouses. Common-law spouses experience similar needs as their married counterparts when the relationship ends. Most of the current functions of marriage can be fulfilled within common-law spousal relationships and should more appropriately be called functions of the family.Both Canadian courts and the legislatures have acknowledged and responded to the injustices that often flow from power imbalances in unmarried persons' families and have thereby given increased recognition to common-law spousal relationships. They have taken stock of the fact that by not recognizing the rights of common-law spouses in Canada on the basis of their marital status is an affront to justice. Legislatures have also enacted various statutes and have amended existing ones to extend certain rights to common-law spouses.
The various ways in which the rights of common-law spouses have been recognized in Canada will be examined and discussed, in particular the remedial notion of constructive trust which is imposed by courts to prevent injustice and unjust enrichment. It is argued this notion of constructive trust has proven effective, especially in cases where property is being divided after a long-term intimate relationship. Common-law spouses have advanced constitutional challenges in their quest to benefit from marital benefits and protections in their relationships since it is argued that both relationships are functionally the same.
Finally, this thesis suggests lessons that can be learned from the Canadian developments of recognizing common-law spouses. It also concludes by examining similar developments that have taken place in other countries of Europe and Africa.
4
Potter, Stephanie M. "The social resources of immigrants, effects on the integration of independent and family class immigrants to Toronto, Canada from South Asia." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1999. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape10/PQDD_0001/NQ41276.pdf.
Full text
5
Nwagbara, Francis Ikefule. "Perception of domestic violence among Nigerian immigrants in the United States." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2004. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2773.
Full textAbstract:
Nigerian immigrants have been largely excluded from studies on issues relating to immigrants living in American society. This study examines the perception of domestic violence among Nigerians and their help seeking counseling for behavior problems.
6
Chung, Lai-ping, and 鍾麗萍. "A study of the family life adaptation of new immigrant wives from China." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 1996. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31250191.
Full text
7
Cruikshank, Sheila Ann. "Chinese families in supportive care." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1990. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/28762.
Full textAbstract:
This study was designed to explore how Chinese families managed the care of an adult member with advanced cancer both in home and hospital settings, to identify factors that affected care management, to examine the influence of cultural beliefs and practices on caregiving, and to examine the preference for location of care, from the perspective of one family member. The method used in conducting this study was the grounded theory approach of qualitative research.
Data were collected through a series of interviews with six Chinese informants (five adult children and one spouse). The initial interviews were guided by the research questions. Constant comparative analysis was employed throughout data collection to permit analytic material to guide and focus the process of constructing the core social process. The informants' degree of ethnic identity was measured using the Ethnic Identity Questionnaire to further validate the researcher's observations pertaining to cultural orientation.
The results indicated that Chinese families managed the care of an adult member with advanced cancer through the balancing process. This process, used when patients were in hospital and home, characterized the struggle the families experienced in managing everchanging caregiving demands and everyday family demands. Balancing was comprised of four interrelated management strategies: gauging, anticipating, sharing the load, and resourcing. It was concluded that the process is not culturally-bound although activities of trying out and patterns of help-seeking were thought to be
culturally based. Factors which were found to influence the balancing process were past experiences and the patients' and family members' style or previous patterns of coping. Cultural beliefs influenced family members' actions and the reasons given for their actions.
The results also indicated that Chinese families preferred care at home to care in the hospital. However, care at home was contingent on four factors: availability and ability of caregivers, family support, information from physician, and patients' physical condition and symptom management. The hospital setting was identified as the place where the ill family would die.
In terms of nursing practice, the results support the need for nurses to be family-focused and support the actions of family members as the families manage the care. The results also suggest nurses to explore their own beliefs as well as beliefs of patients and families to ensure sensitivity is shown to differences. The findings reinforce the importance of educating families, as well as other health care professionals, about nursing's role in providing care, especially in the community. With regard to nursing research, the results reinforce the need to conduct family unit research and further explore the validity of the balancing process with more Chinese families and other ethnic groups.Applied Science, Faculty of
Nursing, School of
Graduate
8
Afroz, Farzana, and University of Lethbridge Faculty of Health Sciences. "Vulnerabilities and strengths in parent-adolescent relationships in Bangladeshi immigrant families in Alberta." Thesis, Lethbridge, Alta. : University of Lethbridge, Faculty of Health Sciences, c2013, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10133/3425.
Full textAbstract:
This study investigated the challenges and parent-adolescent relationship factors that
contribute to resilience and the successful adjustment of Bangladeshi families following
immigration to Canada. The systems framework of family resilience (Walsh, 2006) was
used to interpret how Bangladeshi immigrant adolescents and parents experienced and
navigated immigration challenges. Using a qualitative approach, four adolescent girls and
four parents of adolescents were interviewed to inquire into their experience of
challenges related to adolescent development, the immigrant experiences, and parentadolescent
relationships influencing their post-immigration adjustment. Immigrant
adolescents faced language and cultural barriers, bullying and discrimination in their
school environment while rituals, customs and values from their culture of origin
diminished. They felt pressured by their parent’s career expectations and felt they
suffered gender discrimination in the family. Parents faced economic and career
challenges and a difficult parenting experience. Optimism about the future, parental
encouragement, mutual empathy of each other’s struggles, sharing feelings, open and
clear communication, flexibility in parenting style and anchoring in cultural values and
religious beliefs helped parents and adolescents become more resilient in maintaining a
positive outlook with a positive view of their immigration. In some cases, the challenges
of immigration pulled the families closer together in mutual support. It is hoped that
findings from this study will assist in developing effective social programmes to ease
adolescents’ and parents’ transitions among immigrants and to promote resiliency in
immigrant families.ix, 133 leaves ; 29 cm
9
Tang, Choi-ping, and 鄧彩萍. "Family factors affecting immigrant student language achievement: a case study." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 1998. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31960418.
Full text
10
Mya, Daw S. "Experiences and perspectives of Burmese migrant women in sustaining their families in Perth." Thesis, Edith Cowan University, Research Online, Perth, Western Australia, 2007. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/304.
Full textAbstract:
This research focused on Burmese women who migrated to Australia after the 1988 riots in Burma. A large group of Burmese settled in Western Australia and the majority of them resided in Perth metropolitan and suburban areas. With deep rooted cultural and traditional backgrounds guided by religious teaching, the family is the most salient unit in Burmese communities. This dissertation sought to explore migrants from Burma by specifically focusing on the women's experience and their perspectives in sustaining their families in Perth.
11
Choy, Sheung-sheung Maggie, and 蔡湘湘. "An analysis of the pre-migration services preparing mainland wives to join their husbands." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 1998. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31250476.
Full text
12
Ritter, Helen. ""My dearest Mum": a biographical journey based on my mother's letters from Australia to England 1968-1985." Thesis, Edith Cowan University, Research Online, Perth, Western Australia, 2005. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/637.
Full text
13
Hwang, Ray. "The Well-Being of Chinese Immigrant Sons: Importance of Father-Son Attachment, Father Involvement, Father Acceptance and Adolescents' Phenomenological Perceptions of Father-Son Relationship." Antioch University / OhioLINK, 2012. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=antioch1342470551.
Full text
14
Brar, Shakuntla. "Child temperament, parenting styles and externalizing and internalizing behavior of young children of Indian immigrants in Canada." 2003. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations/AAI3096265.
Full textAbstract:
Temperament has been found to be consistently and significantly associated with externalizing and internalizing behavior in children. However, this relationship is in modest to moderate range, suggesting that there are some other factors in child's environment contributing to his/her externalizing and internalizing behavior. Moreover, these direct link (correlational) studies do not explain how the relationship between child temperament and externalizing and internalizing behavior is moderated by other factors. Indian immigrants' children have not been represented in studies on externalizing and internalizing behavior of young children in North America. Therefore, the present study was designed to investigate, first, the role of child temperament and mothers' parenting styles in externalizing and internalizing behavior of young children of Indian immigrants, and second, how mothers' parenting styles moderate the relationship between these two variables. The sample comprised 160 first grade and kindergarten children and their Indian immigrant mothers. Child Behavior Checklist, Temperament Assessment Battery for Children-Revised, and Parenting Styles and Dimensions questionnaires were used to collect the data. Descriptive statistics, correlations and hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to analyze the data. Findings suggest that child impulsivity, negative emotionality, lack of task persistence, and inhibition were associated positively with externalizing and internalizing behavior of children. Activity level was associated positively with externalizing but not with internalizing behavior. Authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were associated positively, whereas, authoritative parenting style was associated negatively with both externalizing and internalizing behavior. The relationship between child temperament and externalizing behavior was moderated by mothers' parenting styles. High authoritative parenting style weakened the relationship between impulsivity and externalizing behavior in children, whereas high authoritarian and permissive parenting styles strengthened this relationship. The relationship of child negative emotionality and lack of task persistence with internalizing behavior of children was not moderated by parenting styles. However, parenting styles made significant contributions in explaining the variance in internalizing behavior of children beyond what was already explained by negative emotionality and lack of task persistence. In terms of relationship between child temperament, parenting styles, and externalizing and internalizing behavior of children, the results of the current study were similar to the findings of the studies conducted on the main stream population in North America.
15
Lee, Eun-Kyong. "Intergenerational solidarity in Asian immigrant families : subtitle the experience of employed Canadians." Thesis, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/12813.
Full textAbstract:
The main purpose of this study was to examine the Asian perspective in regard to the
intergenerational solidarity framework developed by Bengtson and his colleagues.
Focusing on normative solidarity and functional solidarity within Asian families, adult
children's provision of assistance to elderly relatives was investigated in relation to
norms of filial responsibility. A subsample of 109 employed Asian immigrants in Canada
was selected from a national survey of Work and Family conducted by CARNET (The
Canadian Aging Research Network). The study tested three hypotheses: 1) stronger
norms of filial responsibility (normative solidarity) are positively associated with higher
levels and more hours of assistance provided to elderly relatives (functional solidarity); 2)
older age at immigration and/or shorter length of residence (immigrant status) are
positively associated with higher levels and more hours of assistance provided to elderly
relatives (functional solidarity); and 3) there is an interaction effect of norms of filial
responsibility and immigrant status on levels and hours of assistance provided to elderly
relatives. The results showed that there was no relationship between norms of filial
responsibility and the provision of assistance to elderly relatives; nor was there a
relationship between immigrant status and the provision of assistance to elderly relatives.
Coresidence with the elderly relative, as an alternative measure of norms of filial
responsibility in Asian families, was investigated with regard to the provision of
assistance to the elderly relative in the post hoc analysis. The results showed that there
was a significant relationship between coresidence and higher levels and more hours of
assistance provided to elderly relatives.
16
Zhang, Yujie. "Construction and transformation of identity and power relationship : mainland Chinese women immigrants in Vancouver." Thesis, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/12304.
Full textAbstract:
This study is an attempt to examine contemporary Chinese women immigrants from
Mainland China and their adaptation into Canadian society. In this locally based research,
I focus on how Chinese women integrate into Canadian society as immigrants; how they
identify themselves in the new social context; what factors affect their identification; and
how inherent power relationships between men and women within Chinese society have
been redefined and transformed as the immigrant women assert themselves in the new
society in response to new opportunities and obligations that are presented to them. This
study is based on a series of face-to-face interviews that were chosen through snowball
sampling method. 20 interviews were conducted and the data were qualitatively analyzed.
I found that changes occurred with their multiple identities, which include class identity,
ethnic and cultural identity, and gender identity. Most women experienced downward
mobility in social and economic status after immigration due to lack of appropriate
positions in the labor market and also the feeling of a lack of power as a consequence of
ethnic minority membership; almost all of them have bidimentional cultural identity
which means they identify with some aspects of Canadian culture while maintaining their
Chinese culture of origin; and traditional Chinese gender ideology still plays a main role
in redefining.gender identity which is embodied in the immigration decisions and the
conflict between family and occupation. Economic, educational, occupational, social and
relational power resources are factors affecting the transformation and redefinition of the
power relationship between husband and wife. These factors work together in changing
the allocation of power resources between husband and wife and affect the decision
making process within a family.
17
Wang, Lurong. "Immigration, Literacy, and Mobility: A Critical Ethnographic Study of Well-educated Chinese Immigrants’ Trajectories in Canada." Thesis, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/1807/27608.
Full textAbstract:
This dissertation interrogates the deficit assumptions about English proficiency of skilled immigrants who were recruited by Canadian governments between the late 1990s and early 2000s. Through the lens of literacy as social practice, the eighteen-month ethnographic qualitative research explores the sequential experiences of settlement and economic integration of seven well-educated Chinese immigrant professionals. The analytical framework is built on sociocultural approaches to literacy and learning, as well as the theories of discourses and language reproduction. Using multiple data sources (observations, conversational interviews, journal and diary entries, photographs, documents, and artifacts collected in everyday lives), I document many different ways that well-educated Chinese immigrants take advantage of their language and literacy skills in English across several social domains of home, school, job market, and workplace.
Examining the trans-contextual patterning of the participants’ language and literacy activities reveals that immigrant professionals use literacy as assistance in seeking, negotiating, and taking hold of resources and opportunities within certain social settings. However, my data show that their language and literacy engagements might not always generate positive consequences for social networks, job opportunities, and upward economic mobility. Close analyses of processes and outcomes of the participants’ engagements across these discursive discourses make it very clear that the monolithic assumptions of the dominant language shape and reinforce structural barriers by constraining their social participation, decision making, and learning practice, and thereby make literacy’s consequences unpredictable. The deficit model of language proficiency serves the grounds for linguistic stereotypes and economic marginalization, which produces profoundly consequential effects on immigrants’ pathways as they strive for having access to resources and opportunities in the new society.
My analyses illuminate the ways that language and literacy create the complex web of discursive spaces wherein institutional agendas and personal desires are intertwined and collide in complex ways that constitute conditions and processes of social and economic mobility of immigrant populations. Based on these analyses, I argue that immigrants’ successful integration into a host country is not about the mastery of the technical skills in the dominant language. Rather, it is largely about the recognition and acceptance of the value of their language use and literacy practice as they attempt to partake in the globalized new economy.
18
Pelto, Debra Jane. "Intimate Negotiations: The Political Economy of Gender, Sex, and Family among Mexican Immigrants in New York City." Thesis, 2012. https://doi.org/10.7916/D8D21VP4.
Full textAbstract:
This ethnographic project examines sexual communication and negotiation in the context of the political economy of migration. Using participant observation as well as in-depth and life history interviews and secondary sources, the research goals are to explicate the meanings and practices related to gender and sexuality among the transnational population of mid-life heterosexual Mexicans in New York; map ideologies and practices regarding family size and family planning, including histories of negotiation within the context of relationships and couples, embedded within processes of sexual socialization and historical-political-economic structures in the selected population; map experiences with accessing health care services, in the context of this community of low-wage, undocumented, uninsured workers; and explicate the relationships between gender, sexuality, reproduction, parenthood, and labor migration, within the political economy of Mexican migration to New York. The research population consists of Mexican-born women and men in Queens, New York City, ages twenty-two to forty-five. This project aims to contribute to our understanding of how culture changes through interactions between agents and structures; to contribute to an area of sexuality research that has received insufficient attention, which intersects the fields of gender, migration, demography, and health; to increase our understanding of sexual communication among mid-life cohabiting adult migrants; to identify gaps between service needs and utilization; and to offer suggestions on how to improve health programs and services for this emerging immigrant population.
19
Robinson, Georgina. "Predictors of empowerment among parents of school-age children with disabilities : the role of family-centered bahavior." Thesis, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/17063.
Full textAbstract:
In this study, the perceptions of parents of elementary school age children with
disabilities, constructs of family-centered behavior (e.g., Petr, Allen, & Brown, 1995) and
empowerment (e.g., Zimmerman, 1995, 2000) were examined. Parent perceptions of the
importance and frequency of an empowerment process, family-centered teacher behavior,
were explored. Previous work of family support researchers is extended by exploring the
effects of parents' perceptions of family-centered teacher behavior on psychological
empowerment, and by considering the relative importance of parent and child variables
and family-centered teacher behavior, in predicting parent psychological empowerment,
specific to the elementary school context.
Parents (n = 256) of elementary school-age children (ages 5-14) with a wide
range of disabilities/special needs completed a questionnaire assessing: their perceptions
of the importance and frequency of family-centered teacher behavior, psychological
empowerment, parent status variables (income and education level) and child disability
characteristics. As hypothesized, respondents rated family-centered teacher behavior as
very important, but they identified that they only "sometimes" experienced it in the
elementary school setting. In addition, a significant discrepancy between parent ratings of
importance and frequency was found, suggesting that parents overall are not satisfied
with the levels of family-centered behavior they receive from teachers. Some
relationships between parent and child characteristics and psychological empowerment
were found. As hypothesized, the importance of parents' perceptions of family-centered
teacher behavior in predicting psychological empowerment, specific to the school
context, above and beyond parent and child characteristics, was supported. Child
disability characteristics (severity of child behavior and diagnostic category) also
contributed to the prediction of empowerment, but parent characteristics were not
important or significant in the final increment of the regression model. Implications and
the potential of this study to inform practice and policy and to contribute to new
directions in research are discussed.Education, Faculty of
Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of
Graduate
20
Beckford, Sharlene Tanica. "Relationships among differential acculturation, family environment, and delinquency in first and second generation immigrant youths." 2001. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/theses/2373.
Full text
21
Straight, Karen S. "Saris, spouses, and software: Gender and assimilation among South Indian high -tech and homemaker immigrants in Portland, Oregon." 2003. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations/AAI3078722.
Full textAbstract:
This dissertation is concerned with the experiences of South Indian male and female immigrants in the Portland. Oregon area, where some—but not all—of the sample has been employed in high-technology. Twenty South Indian high-tech men, 18 South Indian high-tech women, and 20 South Indian homemakers were interviewed to explore the effect of employment on gender role ideology and assimilation. The sample was further confined to South Indian Hindus who have lived in the U.S. between four and 20 years, and are married (but not to each other). The stories of South Indian men and women shed light on the consequences for assimilation of ‘where you start’ in terms of traditional vs. modern values, as well as the consequences of being male or female. Homemakers and men married to homemakers experience the greatest change in comparison with dual professional high-tech couples in terms of gender roles, behavior, and ideology. This is brought about by a transition from a relatively more conservative and restrictive environment into a more open and less restrictive environment. The change is less dramatic for high-tech couples, as their ideas and behaviors in India were more similar to the ideas and behaviors that govern their world today. This research v indicates that immigration brings structural changes in one's environment—greater independence, autonomy, and isolation. The structural changes lead to cultural changes—increased liberalism in regard to gender roles and relations. The significance of these changes and the implications for gender roles, values, and behaviors, is negotiated within the family. Viewing the family as a site of struggle as well as a source of cultural maintenance, allows one to see how gender roles and relations are negotiated over time in the new cultural milieu.
22
Waniganayake, Manjula Subodhini. "Ethnic identification during early childhood : the role of parents and teachers." Phd thesis, 1992. http://hdl.handle.net/1885/123807.
Full textAbstract:
The primary purpose of this thesis is to examine the interconnections between
the roles played by parents and teachers and children’s own sense of ethnic
identification during early childhood. Although the study of ethnicity and
multiculturalism received much attention during the 1980s associated research applicable
within the Australian early childhood scene remains largely an unchartered territory.
Much of the research todate has focussed on adults’ perceptions, paying little regard to
children’s view of the world.
This study is based on twenty-seven children aged between 5 to 8 years,
descendants of Scottish, Finnish and Indian immigrants living in Canberra, Australia.
To analyse the differences between the learning environments of home and school, a
typology based on the participants’ perceptions of their roles is advanced. The findings
confirm the view that ethnic identification is a product of socialisation processes and
that its outcomes are difficult to predict. More importantly, there is evidence to suggest
that the process of learning to be Scottish, Finnish or Indian does not follow a serial or
linear path, progressing neatly from the home to the school. It was found that although
parents and teachers can alter the context of learning, children’s capacity for
independent thought and their everyday experiences with grandparents, siblings and
peers, for instance, also contribute to children’s sense of ethnic identification. Hence,
when examining the contexts of learning, both adult and child perspectives must be
considered together.