Academic literature on the topic 'IL-10 deficiency'

Abstract Accommodation of the fetoplacental unit in human pregnancy requires maternal immune tolerance to this “semiallograft”. Local antiplacental immunity is modified by synthesis of uncommon histocompatibility Ags (e.g., HLA-G), growth factors, and cytokines by the placenta. Placental interleukins have been identified in reproductive tissues, but their roles in adaptive maternal immunity and determining term pregnancy outcomes have not been fully clarified. This study examined the distribution of IL-10 and TNF-α staining in term placentas. Women with proteinuric hypertension (PE, n = 10) were compared with an age-matched group with normal pregnancy (NP, n = 14) and gestational hypertension (GH, n = 6). Using immunohistochemistry of parrafin-fixed tissues, trophoblast cells were identified by cytokeratin 7 and cytokeratin 18 staining. The cytokine binding of villous trophoblast cells was scored depending on the extent of circumferential cytoplasm staining (<25%; intermediate or >75%). The cytokine positive decidual cells were scored as a percentage of total extravillous trophoblast cells. There was a reduction in villous IL-10 immunostaining compared with normal term placenta (PE, 10.2 ± 1.1, mean ± SEM; NP, 14.07 ± 1.16 Mann-Whitney U test; p = 0.02). In these patients, there was an increase in TNF-α immunostaining. Sparse endovascular extravillous trophoblast cells demonstrated nuclear IL-10 staining in 30% of patients with preeclampsia. Serum IL-10 was diminished in women with preeclampsia compared with normal pregnancy. In conclusion, villous trophoblast demonstrated diminished immunostaining of IL-10 in preeclampsia. This abnormality may be associated with heightened maternal antifetal immunity and therefore inadequate placental development in preeclampsia.

Myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is a well-known stimulus for acute inflammatory responses that promote cell death and impair pump function. Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is an endogenous, potent anti-inflammatory cytokine. Recently, it has been proposed that IL-10 inhibits inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) activity after myocardial I/R and consequently exerts cardioprotective effects. However, whether this actually occurs remains unclear. To test this hypothesis, we utilized iNOS-deficient (−/−), IL-10 −/−, and IL-10/iNOS −/− mice to examine the potential mechanism of IL-10-mediated cardioprotection after myocardial I/R. Wild-type, iNOS −/−, IL-10 −/−, and IL-10/iNOS −/− mice were subjected to in vivo myocardial ischemia (30 min) and reperfusion (24 h). Deficiency of iNOS alone did not significantly alter the extent of myocardial necrosis compared with wild-type mice. We found that deficiency of IL-10 resulted in a significantly ( P < 0.05) larger infarct size than that in wild-type hearts. Interestingly, deficiency of both IL-10 and iNOS yielded significantly ( P < 0.01) larger myocardial infarct sizes compared with wild-type animals. Histological examination of myocardial tissue samples revealed augmented neutrophil infiltration into the I/R myocardium of IL-10 −/− and IL-10/iNOS −/− mice compared with hearts of wild-type mice. These results demonstrate that 1) deficiency of endogenous IL-10 exacerbates myocardial injury after I/R; 2) the cardioprotective effects of IL-10 are not dependent on the presence or absence of iNOS; and 3) deficiency of IL-10 enhances the infiltration of neutrophils into the myocardium after I/R.

Little is known about the role of interleukin-10 (IL-10), an anti-inflammatory cytokine, in blood vessels. We used IL-10-deficient mice (IL-10 −/−) to examine the hypothesis that IL-10 protects endothelial function after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment. The responses of carotid arteries were studied in vitro 6 h after injection of a relatively low dose of LPS (10 μg ip). In IL-10 −/− mice, the maximum relaxation to ACh (3 μM) was 56 ± 6% (means ± SE) after LPS injection and 84 ± 4% after vehicle injection ( P < 0.05). Thus endothelium-dependent relaxation was impaired in carotid arteries from IL-10 −/− mice after LPS injection. In contrast, this dose of LPS did not alter relaxation to ACh in vessels from wild-type (IL-10 +/+) mice. Relaxation to nitroprusside and papaverine was similar in arteries from both IL-10 −/− and IL-10 +/+ mice after vehicle or LPS injection. Because inflammation is associated with increased levels of reactive oxygen species, we also tested the hypothesis that superoxide contributes to the impairment of endothelial function by LPS in the absence of IL-10. Results using confocal microscopy and hydroethidine indicated that levels of superoxide are elevated in carotid arteries from IL-10 −/− mice compared with IL-10 +/+ mice after LPS injection. The impaired relaxation of arteries from IL-10 −/− mice after LPS injection was restored to normal by polyethylene glycol-suspended superoxide dismutase (50 U/ml) or allopurinol (1 mM), an inhibitor of xanthine oxidase. These data provide direct evidence that IL-10 protects endothelial function after an acute inflammatory stimulus by limiting local increases in superoxide. The source of superoxide in this model may be xanthine oxidase.

Abstract Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that plays an important role in regulating the local inflammatory immune response, but regulatory mechanisms of this cytokine have not been fully elucidated. Here we demonstrate that IL-10 deficiency renders LPS treatment ineffective in regulating expression of CD40, CD80, CD86, B7-H2 and B7-DC on dendritic cells (DCs) and blocks up-regulation of IL-27. This inability to respond to LPS was found in both IL-10-/- bone marrow-derived and splenic DCs. Compared to wild type DCs, IL-10-/- DCs expressed similar levels of TLR4 and CD14, but produced less LPS binding protein (LBP). The deficiency in LBP production may explain the failure of IL-10-/- DCs to respond normally to LPS. Moreover, lack of IL-10 modulated the proportions of CD11c+CD8+ and CD11c+B220+ DCs, which play an important role in local inflammatory responses and tolerance. IL-10 deficiency also blocked expression of galectin-1, CD205 and CD103, which are necessary for central and peripheral tolerance. While they did not respond to LPS, IL-10-/- DCs produced increased levels of IL-6 and CCL4 after TNF-α treatment. Together, our results demonstrate that IL-10 deficiency affects the immune functions of DCs, which may contribute to the increased severity of autoimmune diseases seen in IL-10-/- mice.

Stroke induces inflammation that can aggravate brain damage. This work examines whether interleukin-10 (IL-10) deficiency exacerbates inflammation and worsens the outcome of permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO). Expression of IL-10 and IL-10 receptor (IL-10R) increased after ischemia. From day 4, reactive astrocytes showed strong IL-10R immunoreactivity. Interleukin-10 knockout (IL-10 KO) mice kept in conventional housing showed more mortality after pMCAO than the wild type (WT). This effect was associated with the presence of signs of colitis in the IL-10 KO mice, suggesting that ongoing systemic inflammation was a confounding factor. In a pathogen-free environment, IL-10 deficiency slightly increased infarct volume and neurologic deficits. Induction of proinflammatory molecules in the IL-10 KO brain was similar to that in the WT 6 hours after ischemia, but was higher at day 4, while differences decreased at day 7. Deficiency of IL-10 promoted the presence of more mature phagocytic cells in the ischemic tissue, and enhanced the expression of M2 markers and the T-cell inhibitory molecule CTLA-4. These findings agree with a role of IL-10 in attenuating local inflammatory reactions, but do not support an essential function of IL-10 in lesion resolution. Upregulation of alternative immunosuppressive molecules after brain ischemia can compensate, at least in part, the absence of IL-10.

Los mastocitos (MC) pueden participar en la respuesta a microorganismos mediante diversos receptores de reconocimiento de patrones (PRRs). Luego de su activación a través de estos receptores, los MC pueden orquestar una respuesta mediante la secreción de mediadores inmunológicos como las citocinas. Entre éstas, la interleucina 10 (IL-10) es una citocina importante por sus características inmunomoduladoras, así como también, por su capacidad de regular la expresión de proteasas en MC. Adicionalmente, gracias a la existencia de modelos murinos modificados genéticamente, como los ratones IL-10 deficientes (IL-10-/-), que desarrollan colitis de forma espontánea, es posible investigar el rol potencial de la IL-10 en la respuesta de MC frente a la activación con antígenos de diversos microorganismos. Por otra parte, el uso de este modelo animal permite investigar la influencia de esta citocina sobre la composición de la microbiota intestinal. Este trabajo ha explorado el rol funcional de la IL-10 en mastocitos diferenciados in vitro, así como los efectos de la deficiencia de IL-10 sobre la composición de la microbiota y la expresión de factores relacionados con la respuesta inmune, antes (6 semanas) y al inicio (20 semanas) de la colitis. Para este propósito, se ha caracterizado el efecto de la deficiencia de IL-10 sobre el fenotipo mastocitario y tras su activación vía PRRs. Adicionalmente, se evaluó el efecto que produce la carencia de IL-10 sobre la composición de la microbiota, la expresión de TLRs y citocinas proinflamatorias, así como la producción de IgA luminal, en las mismas etapas y tras el tratamiento con antibióticos. Los resultados obtenidos indicaron que la deficiencia de IL-10 produjo distintos efectos dependiendo del fenotipo mastocitario, de la edad y del tipo de ligando PRR. Así, en ausencia de IL-10, MC de tipo mucosa (MLMC) mostraron una menor expresión de TLR4 y NOD2 a las 6 semanas y TLR7 a las 20 semanas. Además, ambos fenotipos de MC (mucosa y conectivo), mostraron una menor secreción de IL-6 y TNFα tras la activación de TLR2 La activación de TLR4 y TLR7 en MLMC generó una menor secreción de IL-6 a las 6 semanas, mientras MLMC secretaron menos TNFα a las 20 semanas. Finalmente, tras la estimulación de NOD2 no se observó secreción de citocinas en ninguno de los fenotipos mastocitarios. Por otra parte, se observó que en animales IL-10-/- existen factores que potencialmente favorecerían el desarrollo de colitis. Así, los ratones IL-10-/- a las 6 semanas mostraron representantes del filo Verrucomicrobia y una menor abundancia relativa de los taxa Rikenellaceae y Lachnospiraceae. Mientras que a las 20 semanas en los ratones IL-10-/- se observaron microorganismos del filo TM7, una menor expresión de IL-1β, IL-6, TLR6, -7 y -8, y un incremento de TNFα e IgA. Adicionalmente, el uso de antibióticos antes del inicio de la colitis indujo una disminución en la diversidad y una reestructuración de la microbiota, junto con una disminución en la expresión de TLRs, citocinas y menor producción de IgA luminal. En resumen, estos hallazgos proveen nuevas perspectivas sobre la función de los MC y la IL-10 en la interacción microorganismo-huésped. Muestran cómo la ausencia de IL-10 puede afectar la composición de la microbiota y la expresión de factores asociados a la respuesta inmune. Y sugieren que la modificación temprana de la microbiota mediante la utilización de antibióticos en individuos genéticamente susceptibles podría alterar la progresión de la colitis.
Mast cells (MC) can participate in the response to microorganisms by various pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). After their activation through these receptors, MC can orchestrate a response by secreting immunological mediators such as cytokines. Among these, interleukin 10 (IL-10) is an important cytokine due to its immunomodulatory characteristics, as well as its ability to regulate the expression of MC proteases. Additionally, thanks to the existence of genetically modified murine models, such as IL-10 deficient (IL-10-/-) mice that develop colitis spontaneously, it is possible to investigate the potential role of IL-10 in MC response to activation with antigens of different microorganisms. On the other hand, the use of this animal model allows investigating the influence of this cytokine on the composition of the intestinal microbiota. This work has explored the functional role of IL-10 in differentiated MC in vitro, as well as the effects of IL-10 deficiency on the composition of the microbiota and the expression of factors related to the immune response, before (6 weeks) and at the onset (20 weeks) of colitis. For this purpose, the effect of IL-10 deficiency has been characterized on MC of different phenotype and after its activation via PRRs. Additionally, the effect produced by the lack of IL-10 on the microbiota composition, the expression of TLRs and proinflammatory cytokines, as well as the production of luminal IgA, in the same stages and after antibiotics treatment was evaluated. The results obtained indicated that the IL-10 deficiency produced different effects depending on the MC phenotype, age and type of PRR ligand. Thus, in the absence of IL-10, mucosal-like MC (MLMC) showed lower expression of TLR4 and NOD2 at week 6 and TLR7 at week 20. In addition, both MC phenotypes (mucosa and connective), showed a lower secretion of IL-6 and TNFα after TLR2 activation. The TLR4 and TLR7 activation in MLMC generated a lower secretion of IL-6 at week 6, while MLMC secreted less TNFα at week 20. Finally, after NOD2 stimulation, no cytokine secretion was observed in any of the MC phenotypes. On the other hand, it was observed that in IL-10-/- animals there are factors that potentially favor the development of colitis. Thus, IL-10-/- mice at week 6 showed representatives of Verrucomicrobia phylum and a lower relative abundance of Rikenellaceae and Lachnospiraceae taxa. Meanwhile at week 20 in IL-10-/- mice, microorganisms of the phylum TM7 were observed, as well as, a lower expression of IL-1β, IL-6, TLR6, -7 and -8, and an increase of TNFα and IgA. Additionally, the use of antibiotics before the development of colitis induced a decrease in diversity and a restructuring of the microbiota, together with a decrease in TLRs and cytokines expression, and a lower production of luminal IgA. In summary, these findings provide new insights on the role of MC and IL-10 in the host-microorganism interaction. They show how the IL-10 deficiency can affect the microbiota composition and the expression of factors associated with the immune response. And they suggest that early modification of the microbiota through the use of antibiotics in genetically susceptible individuals could alter the colitis progression.

It is currently believed that the etiology of inflammatory bowel disease involves an aberrant immune response towards the gastrointestinal microbial flora. In addition, an increase in intestinal paracellular permeability may also be a contributing factor of disease, as it precedes disease in several animal models. However, it remains unclear whether increased intestinal permeability is an epiphenomenon of disease or if it can lead to it. The goal of this thesis is to elucidate this cause-effect relationship. The IL-10-/- mouse is a model of IBD that spontaneously develops colitis after 12 weeks of age. We measured intestinal permeability in this mouse from 4-17 weeks of age and observed that there was a significant increase in small intestinal permeability early in life and before the onset of colitis. When small intestinal permeability was selectively decreased with AT-1001 (a ZOT antagonist peptide) colitis was significantly ameliorated. In contrast, when it was increased with AT-1002 (a ZOT agonist peptide) colitis worsened, indicating that modifications in the paracellular traffic of the small intestine had a significant effect on the severity of colonic disease. In order to study the possible mechanisms by which small intestinal permeability modulated disease in the colon, we measured the effect of increasing small intestinal permeability on the colonic microbial flora of IL-10-/- mice. After AT-1002 treatment from 4-12 weeks of age, there was an evident shift in colonic adherent flora. This effect was not a consequence of inflammation as there was a similar effect in wild type mice. We also studied the effect of increasing small intestinal permeability in the development of oral tolerance to dietary antigens. When wild-type mice were fed OVA under conditions of increased small intestinal permeability there was a significant increase in the proliferation of B cells in the spleen and an increase in OVA-specific humoral response, compared to animals fed OVA alone. Moreover, the production of IL-10 in response to oral OVA was prevented when OVA was given with AT-1002, both in the small intestine and the colon. The studies presented in the doctoral thesis suggest that small intestinal permeability has a critical role in the development of colitis in IL-10-/-mice, and that increasing paracellular traffic in the small intestine may lead to changes in colonic bacterial flora and the abrogation of tolerance to oral antigens, two features of inflammatory bowel disease in humans.
Experimental Medicine

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory disorder that occurs as a consequence of a genetic mutation that results in an overly aggressive immune response to normal bacteria. Metabolomics is a new born cousin to genomics and proteomics and involves a high throughput identification, characterization and quantification of small molecule metabolites generated by the organism. This study will show that metabolomics can be an effective tool in studying the differences between wild type and IL 10 KO mice as they age in axenic and conventional environments, and the onset of disease in a conventional environment. I show specific changes upon colonizing axenic mice with fecal bacteria that are similar to changes occurring over 16 weeks of conventional growth. Several bacterial metabolites have been identified that may play a role in the pathogenesis or provide clues to the interactions of the gut microbiota with the intestinal immune system.
Experimental Medicine

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a behaviorally defined syndrome with frequent co-morbidities. Evidence indicate a role of innate immunity in ASD pathogenesis. This study addressed whether innate immune abnormalities are associated with ASD co-morbid conditions and/or other clinical co-variables when assessed as changes in monocyte cytokine profiles. This study included 109 ASD (median 11.5 year) and 26 non-ASD subjects (median 11.4 year). Monocyte cytokine profiles were evaluated in association with age/ethnicity, ASD severity, medications, and co-morbidities present in >15% of ASD subjects [gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, epilepsy, allergic rhinitis, specific antibody deficiency (SAD), and fluctuating behavioral symptoms resembling pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome (PANS)]. ASD severity did not affect frequency of co-morbid conditions. GI symptoms, epilepsy, SAD, and PANS like symptoms revealed associations with changes in production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)/soluble TNF-receptor II (sTNFRII), interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß)/IL-6/IL-10, and IL-6, respectively, mostly independent of other co-variables. ASD severity was associated with changes in multiple cytokines but frequently affected by other clinical co-variables. Our findings revealed associations between specific monocyte cytokine profiles and certain co-morbid conditions in ASD subjects, independent of other clinical co-variables. Our findings will aid in assessing treatment options for ASD co-morbidities and their effects on ASD behavioral symptoms.

Introdução: A candidíase mucocutânea crônica (CMC) é uma imunodeficiência primária caracterizada por infecções da pele, unhas e mucosa por espécies de Candida, um organismo comensal, sobretudo da Candida albicans. É comumente aceito que macrófagos, linfócitos citotóxicos, linfócitos T auxiliares, tais como Th1, Th2, Th17, células natural killers e diversas citocinas participam ativamente dos mecanismos de defesa contra a CMC, de modo que alterações da imunidade inata possuem um papel essencial na fisiopatologia dessa doença. Objetivo: Identificar as principais alterações da imunidade inata e a interferência na fisiopatologia da candidíase mucocutânea crônica. Material e métodos: Realizou-se uma revisão bibliográfica de artigos publicados nos últimos 10 anos, nas bases de dados BVS e Uptodate, utilizando “IMUNOLOGIA”, “IMUNIDADE INATA” e “CANDIDÍASE MUCOCUTÂNEA CRÔNICA” como descritores em DeCS/MeSH nos idiomas português e inglês. Dos 14 artigos encontrados, 3 foram utilizados por abordar as alterações imunológicas que ocorrem no paciente com candidíase mucocutânea crônica. Resultados: Com base nos achados, evidencia-se que diversas mutações genéticas relacionadas à CMC resultam, principalmente, na deficiência das células Th17, que medeiam a resposta imunológica, em especial da mucosa, contra fungos e bactérias extracelulares. As células Th17 são responsáveis por produzir IL-22 e diferentes IL-17, que estimulam a produção de citocinas inflamatórias e, consequentemente, recrutam neutrófilos para o local da infecção a fim de combater o fungo extracelular. No entanto, por essa linhagem de células T estar deficiente, não há a devida produção de interleucinas-17, aumentando a suscetibilidade do paciente a desenvolver CMC e doenças bacterianas. Ademais, em associação, há uma ativação das células Th2 pelo Candida, aumentando a suscetibilidade à infecção, visto que essas células estão voltadas para mecanismos contra infecções parasitárias e para produção de IgE, além de suprimir a atividade macrofágica. O resultado dessas alterações imunológicas é uma resposta inata deficiente, dificuldade em eliminar o agente fúngico e, como consequência, uma infecção persistente. Conclusão: Evidencia-se que um paciente com CMC possui alterações imunológicas, tanto por alterações no Th17, como na resposta imune ativando a citocina TH2 que está relacionada a menor atividade fagocitária de modo que potencializa a candidíase em sua forma crônica.

Brucella Mutagenesis (TAMU) The working hypothesis for this study was that survival of Brucella vaccines was directly related to their persistence in the host. This premise is based on previously published work detailing the survival of the currently employed vaccine strains S19 and Rev 1. The approach employed signature-tagged mutagenesis to construct mutants interrupted in individual genes, and the mouse model to identify mutants with attenuated virulence/survival. Intracellular survival in macrophages is the key to both reproductive disease in ruminants and reticuloendothelial disease observed in most other species. Therefore, the mouse model permitted selection of mutants of reduced intracellular survival that would limit their ability to cause reproductive disease in ruminants. Several classes of mutants were expected. Colonization/invasion requires gene products that enhance host-agent interaction or increase resistance to antibacterial activity in macrophages. The establishment of chronic infection requires gene products necessary for intracellular bacterial growth. Maintenance of chronic infection requires gene products that sustain a low-level metabolism during periods characterized little or no growth (1, 2). Of these mutants, the latter group was of greatest interest with regard to our originally stated premise. However, the results obtained do not necessarily support a simplistic model of vaccine efficacy, i.e., long-survival of vaccine strains provides better immunity. Our conclusion can only be that optimal vaccines will only be developed with a thorough understanding of host agent interaction, and will be preferable to the use of fortuitous isolates of unknown genetic background. Each mutant could be distinguished from among a group of mutants by PCR amplification of the signature tag (5). This approach permitted infection of mice with pools of different mutants (including the parental wild-type as a control) and identified 40 mutants with apparently defective survival characteristics that were tentatively assigned to three distinct classes or groups. Group I (n=13) contained organisms that exhibited reduced survival at two weeks post-infection. Organisms in this group were recovered at normal levels by eight weeks and were not studied further, since they may persist in the host. Group II (n=11) contained organisms that were reduced by 2 weeks post infection and remained at reduced levels at eight weeks post-infection. Group III (n=16) contained mutants that were normal at two weeks, but recovered at reduced levels at eight weeks. A subset of these mutants (n= 15) was confirmed to be attenuated in mixed infections (1:1) with the parental wild-type. One of these mutants was eliminated from consideration due to a reduced growth rate in vitro that may account for its apparent growth defect in the mouse model. Although the original plan involved construction of the mutant bank in B. melitensis Rev 1 the low transformability of this strain, prevented accumulation of the necessary number of mutants. In addition, the probability that Rev 1 already carries one genetic defect increases the likelihood that a second defect will severely compromise the survival of this organism. Once key genes have been identified, it is relatively easy to prepare the appropriate genetic constructs (knockouts) lacking these genes in B. melitensis Rev 1 or any other genetic background. The construction of "designer" vaccines is expected to improve immune protection resulting from minor sequence variation corresponding to geographically distinct isolates or to design vaccines for use in specific hosts. A.2 Mouse Model of Brucella Infection (UWISC) Interferon regulatory factor-1-deficient (IRF-1-/- mice have diverse immunodeficient phenotypes that are necessary for conferring proper immune protection to intracellular bacterial infection, such as a 90% reduction of CD8+ T cells, functionally impaired NK cells, as well as a deficiency in iNOS and IL-12p40 induction. Interestingly, IRF-1-/- mice infected with diverse Brucella abortus strains reacted differently in a death and survival manner depending on the dose of injection and the level of virulence. Notably, 50% of IRF-1-/- mice intraperitoneally infected with a sublethal dose in C57BL/6 mice, i.e., 5 x 105 CFU of virulent S2308 or the attenuated vaccine S19, died at 10 and 20 days post-infection, respectively. Interestingly, the same dose of RB51, an attenuated new vaccine strain, did not induce the death of IRF-1-/- mice for the 4 weeks of infection. IRF-1-/- mice infected with four more other genetically manipulated S2308 mutants at 5 x 105 CFU also reacted in a death or survival manner depending on the level of virulence. Splenic CFU from C57BL/6 mice infected with 5 x 105 CFU of S2308, S19, or RB51, as well as four different S2308 mutants supports the finding that reduced virulence correlates with survival Of IRF-1-/- mice. Therefore, these results suggest that IRF-1 regulation of multi-gene transcription plays a crucial role in controlling B. abortus infection, and IRF-1 mice could be used as an animal model to determine the degree of B. abortus virulence by examining death or survival. A3 Diagnostic Tests for Detection of B. melitensis Rev 1 (Kimron) In this project we developed an effective PCR tool that can distinguish between Rev1 field isolates and B. melitensis virulent field strains. This has allowed, for the first time, to monitor epidemiological outbreaks of Rev1 infection in vaccinated flocks and to clearly demonstrate horizontal transfer of the strain from vaccinated ewes to unvaccinated ones. Moreover, two human isolates were characterized as Rev1 isolates implying the risk of use of improperly controlled lots of the vaccine in the national campaign. Since atypical B. melitensis biotype 1 strains have been characterized in Israel, the PCR technique has unequivocally demonstrated that strain Rev1 has not diverted into a virulent mutant. In addition, we could demonstrate that very likely a new prototype biotype 1 strain has evolved in the Middle East compared to the classical strain 16M. All the Israeli field strains have been shown to differ from strain 16M in the PstI digestion profile of the omp2a gene sequence suggesting that the local strains were possibly developed as a separate branch of B. melitensis. Should this be confirmed these data suggest that the Rev1 vaccine may not be an optimal vaccine strain for the Israeli flocks as it shares the same omp2 PstI digestion profile as strain 16M.