Academic literature on the topic 'Hydrology'

Engineering hydrology and hydrologic calculation is a core professional course of agricultural hydrologic engineering, in order to realize the implementation of quality education in higher school teaching purposes, with the teaching practice of engineering hydrology and hydrologic calculation, puts forward the progressive teaching mode of engineering hydrology and hydrologic calculation, and applied in teaching activities. The conception of progressive teaching mode and practice was summarized from four aspects of progressive teaching objective, teaching content, gradual progressive teaching method, and progressive ability.

Abstract. Protection from hydrological extremes and the sustainable supply of hydrological services in the presence of climate change and increasing population pressure are the defining societal challenges for hydrology in the 21st century. A review of the existing literature shows that these challenges and their educational consequences for hydrology were foreseeable and were predicted by some. Surveys of the current educational basis, however, also clearly demonstrate that hydrology education is not yet prepared to deal with this challenge. We present our own vision of the necessary future evolution of hydrology education, which we implemented in the Modular Curriculum for Hydrologic Advancement (MOCHA). The MOCHA project is directly aimed at developing a community-driven basis for hydrology education. In this paper we combine literature review, surveys, discussion and assessment to provide a holistic baseline for future hydrology education.

Abstract. Protection from hydrological extremes and the sustainable supply of hydrological services in the presence of changing climate and lifestyles as well as rocketing population pressure in many parts of the world are the defining societal challenges for hydrology in the 21st century. A review of the existing literature shows that these challenges and their educational consequences for hydrology were foreseeable and were even predicted by some. However, surveys of the current educational basis for hydrology also clearly demonstrate that hydrology education is not yet ready to prepare students to deal with these challenges. We present our own vision of the necessary evolution of hydrology education, which we implemented in the Modular Curriculum for Hydrologic Advancement (MOCHA). The MOCHA project is directly aimed at developing a community-driven basis for hydrology education. In this paper we combine literature review, community survey, discussion and assessment to provide a holistic baseline for the future of hydrology education. The ultimate objective of our educational initiative is to enable educators to train a new generation of "renaissance hydrologists," who can master the holistic nature of our field and of the problems we encounter.

Hydrogeophysics is a crossdisciplinary field integrating hydrogeology with geophysics for more efficient, cost-effective, and minimally invasive characterization and monitoring. Hydrogeophysics aims to provide basic insight to guide understanding of hydrologic processes and applied insight to support the assessment and (or) management of water resources and ecosystem services across multiple scales, as reviewed by Binley et al. (2015) . As in geophysical investigations for mineral and fossil energy resources, geophysical applications to hydrologic problems seek to characterize subsurface structure and (or) monitor time-varying conditions (i.e., saturation or concentration); this information provides constraints or calibration data for both conceptual and simulation models of flow and transport. Recent interests and technological advances have expanded the use of geophysics dramatically in many areas of hydrology, including groundwater remediation monitoring (e.g., Kessouri et al., 2022 ), groundwater/surface-water exchange (e.g., McLachlan et al., 2017 ), cold regions hydrology (e.g., Briggs et al., 2017 ), coastal hydrology (e.g., Goebel et al., 2017 ), and many others.

Globally, cities in developing countries are urbanising at alarming rates, and a major concern to hydrologists and planners are the options that affect the hydrologic functioning of watersheds. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) has been recognised as a key sustainable development tool for mitigating the adverse impacts of planned developments, however, research has shown that planned developments can affect people and the environment significantly due to urban flooding that arises from increased paved surfaces. Flooding is a major sustainable development issue, which often result from increased paved surfaces and decreased interception losses due to urbanisation and deforestation respectively. To date, several environmental assessment studies have advanced the concept of alternatives, yet, only a small number of hydrologic studies have discussed how the location of paved surface could influence catchment runoff. Specifically, research exploring the effects of location alternative in EIAs on urban hydrology is very rare. The Greater Port-Harcourt City (GPH) development established to meet the growth needs in Port-Harcourt city (in the Niger Delta) is a compelling example. The aim of this research is to examine the relative effect of EIA alternatives in three different locations on urban hydrology. The Hydrologic Engineering Centre’s hydrologic modelling system (HEC-HMS) hydrodynamic model was used to generate data for comparing runoff in three different basins. HEC-HMS software combine models that estimate: Loss, transformation, base flow and channel routing. Results reveal that developments with the same spatial extent had different effects on the hydrology of the basins and sub-basins in the area. Findings in this study suggest that basin size rather than location of the paved surface was the main factor influencing the hydrology of the watershed.

Mitigation of the hazards posed by debris flows requires an understanding of the mechanisms leading to their initiation. The objectives of this study were to evaluate and document the hydrologic response of a potential debris-flow source area to major rainstorms and to evaluate whether traditional models of hillslope hydrology can account for the observed response. A field site in an area of previous debris-flow activity was instrumented and monitored for two winter seasons. Hydrologic responses for a wide variety of antecedent conditions were recorded, including two storm events that produced well-defined positive pore-pressure pulses at the site and initiated numerous debris flows in the immediate vicinity of the site. The observed hydrologic response was highly dependent on antecedent moisture conditions which can be characterized by soil matric suction measurements. The pressure-head pulses observed had a magnitude of approximately 50 cm of water, were transient, traveled downslope, and exhibited some spatial variability. Traditional models of hillslope hydrology do not fully account for the positive pore-pressure pulses observed high on the hillslope. Key words: debris flow, hillslope hydrology, pore pressure, antecedent moisture, tensiometer, piezometer, field investigation.

Abstract. In this synthesis paper addressing hydrologic scaling and similarity, we posit that roadblocks in the search for universal laws of hydrology are hindered by our focus on computational simulation (the third paradigm) and assert that it is time for hydrology to embrace a fourth paradigm of data-intensive science. Advances in information-based hydrologic science, coupled with an explosion of hydrologic data and advances in parameter estimation and modeling, have laid the foundation for a data-driven framework for scrutinizing hydrological scaling and similarity hypotheses. We summarize important scaling and similarity concepts (hypotheses) that require testing; describe a mutual information framework for testing these hypotheses; describe boundary condition, state, flux, and parameter data requirements across scales to support testing these hypotheses; and discuss some challenges to overcome while pursuing the fourth hydrological paradigm. We call upon the hydrologic sciences community to develop a focused effort towards adopting the fourth paradigm and apply this to outstanding challenges in scaling and similarity.

Even though dams are designed to bypass floods of significant magnitudes, floods less severe than the design flood may pose a threat to dams. Ongoing research into climate change also shows an increasing trend towards severe floods, that is an increased probability of floods exceeding the present design floods. Therefore, acquiring understanding of floods and risk reduction measures to mitigate any of their undesired effects is of great importance. Dam safety management in Norway has moved towards active use of risk analyses. At the same time, emergency planning and exercises are emphasized as necessary tools for handling abnormal situations such as severer floods. Few dam safety experts or dam owners have experienced large floods, which makes it difficult to assess the complexity of floods. Floods may also be difficult to assess fully by means of traditional risk analyses, as these normally focus on single dams. Floods have a certain geographical extent and must be expected to occur simultaneously in a system of dams and reservoirs.

This thesis hopes to extend knowledge of floods and dam safety. The main conclusion of a literature review of risk analysis and emergency planning is that human factors must be a focus. This is further supported by findings from the case studies of hazard floods. Emergency planning and exercises are believed to be of major importance to successful flood handling, but a survey of status for these issues in Norway shows that there is still work to be done. Many dam owners have not managed to start developing emergency action plans nor carry out emergency exercises. Not surprisingly, most of these are municipalities and private citizens, typical owners of smaller dams. Further revision of the emergency planning guidelines should take these findings into consideration. The authorities should bear in mind the need for alternative approaches to encourage these dam owners to develop emergency action plans. Possible problems related to development trends in our society also deserve attention, such as increased focus on cost-effective organizations at the expense of safety and the need for robust organizations and technical systems to handle future emergencies.

In many parts of the world snow melt runoff influence discharge from combined sewer overflows (CSO) and flooding in urban drainage systems. Despite this, urban snow hydrology is a field that has received little attention from the urban drainage community. The objectives of this research were to better understand urban snow hydrology and through field work and hydrological modelling quantify effects of anthropogenic activities (AA) on snow distribution, and melt in an urban environment. This means in principle how the presence (design geometry) and operation of roads and buildings influence the snow distribution and melt in urban areas. The Risvollan urban catchment (20 ha) located in Trondheim, Norway, was used as a study area. A literature review of urban snow hydrology was also carried out.

A gridded urban hydrology model (GUHM) was developed as part of the study. The principal idea of the GUHM is to subdivide an urban catchment into orthogonal equal area grid cells. The snow routine in the GUHM is based on an energy balance approach, which together with a soil-runoff routine is used to calculate a time series of rain, snow water equivalent (SWE), snow melt, and runoff, for each grid cell. In GUHM, processes such as snow clearing of roads, locally low albedos, heat/shadowing from buildings, and effects of slope and aspect are included in the model structure.

A technique for observing time series of snow covered area (SCA) for an urban catchment is presented. The method is based on image processing and neural network technology to calculate SCA from a time series of images taken from a tall building in the Risvollan catchment. It was shown that SCA on roads and roofs in general becomes more rapidly snow free during melt periods compared to the park areas of the Risvollan catchment. This can be explained by snow clearing of roads, snowdrift from roofs and high snow melt rates on roofs and roads. The high melt rates was attributed to locally low albedos in vicinity to roads, rooftop snow packs exposure to wind and solar radiation, in addition to anthropogenic heat release from the roofs themselves.

Field observations of SWE were carried out in the Risvollan catchment and it was shown that areal mean SWE located on/or nearby roads and buildings were significantly lower during mid and end of the winter, than in park areas. This can be attributed to higher melt rates caused by AA. A time series of SCA and SWE was obtained through field work for the period from 2000 to 2003 in the Risvollan catchment.

The GUHM was applied and calibrated for the Risvollan catchment for a three year period. Two seasons were used as validation period. Comparison between the simulated and observed SWE, SCA and runoff data showed that the GUHM was able to simulate snow accumulation and melt for whole seasons with short time resolution (1 hour) satisfactory.

The GUHM was used to quantify effects of AA on snow distribution and melt for six different land use scenarios in the Risvollan catchment for the period June 1998 to June 2003. The modelling results showed that when the area coverage of buildings and roads increased, the SCA and SWE more rapidly decreased during melt periods. Because of this more runoff will be produced in the early winter season (Jan-March) compared to if the catchment had been covered with only sparsely vegetated areas.

The simulation results showed that when the impervious surface covers of a catchment increase, the peak and volume runoff will also increase, as expected.

Both the field observations and the hydrological model study carried out in this work showed that AA lowers SCA and SWE more rapidly in an urban environment compared to more untouched terrain. The reasons for this are redistribution of snow, and strong snow melt rates on roads, roofs, and in snow deposit areas. Low albedos and anthropogenic heat release are the main reasons for the enhanced snow melt rates.

The hydrological conditions on the southern slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, are complex and not similar to very many other places. High annual precipitation with complex distribution patterns occurs on these slopes. Extensive water consumption and concentrated groundwater sources of unknown origin are found on the plains. The distribution and utilisation of the scarce water resources can easily be influenced by change in these and in other factors. A hydrological model is developed for the area and used for studying these processes and their influence on potential change in land use and climate.

This study is a part of a cooperative project between the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim, Norway, focusing on how changes in land use influence the hydrologic -al responses of a catchment.

Extensive fieldwork has been performed in the course of several stays in the area. Three gauging stations were established on the slopes south of Mt Kilimanjaro for gauging the runoff from areas with and without influence from human activities. Precipitation and temperature measurements from the lower boundary of the forest reserve and up to 4000 metres above sea level (masl) were performed. Extensive field surveys were performed for identifying and understanding the hydrological processes taking place in the catchment. In addition, hydrological data were collected from the regular observation network.

The stream gauging and the precipitation measurements were analysed. The results were used in a water balance assessment of the southern slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro for determination of the extent of infiltration in the higher areas. Based on the results from the three sub-studies, a hydrological model was developed which describes the vertical water balance above and in the soil zone. The model can be used for investigation of the hydrological impact of changes in land use or climate. The model takes meteorological data as an input in addition to parameters describing the land cover and water demand in the catchment. This was applied for analysing the impact of prospective land use and climate changes.

The analysis of the discharge data and field inspections indicated that no surface runoff comes from the area above 2800 masl. The study of the precipitation data resulted in a function describing the relative distribution of precipitation according to elevation for the southern slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro. The analysis indicates that the maximum precipitation intensity occurs about 400-500 meters higher than previously assumed. The water balance assessment gave indications on the extent of the deep groundwater infiltration on the southern slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro.

These findings were incorporated into the hydrological model, which was calibrated for three catchments on the southern slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro. The calibration for a small 21 km² uphill catchment, a mid-hill 52 km² catchment and a large 1783 km² catchment reaching from the plains to the peak of Mt Kilimanjaro showed good accordance between the simulated and the observed discharge for the three catchments.

The calibrated model was successfully used for simulating the period from 1958 to 2000 for the large catchment and showed good accordance for the simulation period. Simulations with changes in forest cover, water demand and climate were performed. The climate changes simulated were based on the findings from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and land use and forest cover and were evaluated on the basis of potential management schemes. The simulations indicate that the water demand in the area is not being met, and that changes in water demand are not fully reflected in the river discharge. The results also show that the changes have greater influence in years where the water deficit is already substantial, so called “dry years”, than in years with a smaller deficit.

The tools developed and illustrated can be developed further for use in operational water management predicting the hydrological response due to changes in land use and water demand based on various management schemes. It is advised that the infrastructure developed during this work for collecting further measurements concerning the hydrological elements in the area continues to be operated.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2003.
Title from first page of PDF file. Document formatted into pages; contains xvi, 378 p.; also includes graphics (some col.). Includes bibliographical references (p. 229-252). Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center

River-floodplain connectivity is defined as the water mediated transfer of materials and energy between a river or stream and its adjacent floodplain. It is generally accepted that restoring and/or enhancing river-floodplain connectivity can reduce the downstream flux of reactive solutes such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) and thus improve downstream water quality. However, there is little scientific literature to guide ecological engineering efforts which optimize river-floodplain connectivity for solute retention. Therefore, the aim of my dissertation research was to examine feedbacks between inundation hydrology and floodplain biogeochemistry, with an emphasis on analyzing variation experienced along the river continuum and the cumulative effects of river-floodplain connectivity at the basin scale. This was completed through four independent investigations. Field sites ranged from the Atchafalaya River Basin, the largest river-floodplain system in the continental US, to the floodplain of a recently restored headwater stream in Appalachia. We also developed a method to examine river-floodplain connectivity across large- river networks and applied that methodology to US stream network. Largely, our results highlight the role floodwater residence time distributions play in floodplain biogeochemistry. In headwater streams, residence times restrict redox dependent processes (e.g. denitrification) and downstream flushing of reactive solutes is the dominant process. However, in large-river floodplains, redox dependent processes can become solute limited because of prolonged residence times and hydrologic isolation. In these floodplains, the dominant process is often autochthonous solute accumulation. Further, results from our modeling study suggest large-river floodplains have a greater impact on downstream water quality than floodplains associated with smaller streams, even when considering cumulative effects across the entire river network.
Ph. D.

Satellite-based remotely sensed data were used to estimate regional-scale surface energy fluxes and a water deficit index of a semi-arid heterogeneous region in southeast Arizona. Spectral reflectance and radiometric temperature of the surface, derived from the digital counts of TM bands of LANDSAT-5 satellite, were used for this purpose. These reflectance and temperature, along with conventional meteorological information of the region, were used as inputs to numerical models which estimate surface energy fluxes. Point-based meteorological data of the region were spatially extrapolated over a grid of 120 m X 120 m so that it could be used with the spatially continuous remotely sensed data. The water deficit index (WDI) was estimated using surface temperature and a spectral vegetation index, "soil adjusted vegetation index" (SAVI). The surface fluxes were net radiation flux, sensible heat flux, soil heat flux and latent heat flux. Measured values obtained from the meteorological flux measurement (METFLUX) stations in the study area were compared with the modeled fluxes. Latent heat flux (LE) was the most important one to estimate in the scope of this study. The method of spatially extrapolating the point-based meteorological information and combining with the remotely sensed data produced good estimation of LE for the region, with a mean absolute difference (MAD) of 65 W/m² over a range of 67 to 196 W/m² . Also it was found that the numerical models that were previously used to estimate daily LE values from a region using mid-day remotely sensed data (mostly from NOAAAVHRR) can also be used with the mid-morning remotely sensed data (from LANDSAT). Out of the two models tested for this purpose (`Seguin-Itier' and 'Jackson' models), one was found to need some modification so that it could use mid-morning remotely sensed data as inputs. The other was found to be useable as it is, without any modification. Outputs from both models compared well with the measured fluxes from the METFLUX stations. In an effort of estimating the water deficit of the different biomes of the region, WDI of the biomes were estimated. The main goal of this effort was to be able to monitor the surface hydrologic conditions of the region using remotely sensed vegetation and surface information, and minimum ground data. Good estimation of the water deficit condition of the area were obtained by this method. This method was found to be sensitive to a few of the ground information such as wind speed and leaf area index (LAI). It was also found that if the required ground data were correctly estimated, this method could be used as an operational procedure for monitoring the vegetation water stress of the biomes and hence for better management of the region.

El principal objectiu d'aquesta investigació és estudiar la dinàmica hidrològica d'una conca Mediterrània
afectada per canvis d'ús del sòl, mitjançant el monitoreig d'aquest i de l'aigua superficial. Aquest
objectiu s'ha treballat a partir mesuraments de components del balanç hídric pels diferents tipus de
cobertura i sòl, amb règims d'humitat i temperatura de transició.
Aquest estudi s'ha realitzat a la conca de la Ribera Salada (Prepirineu meridional Català, al NE
d'Espanya), amb una extensió de 222.5 km2, i un interval altitudinal de 420 a 2385 m i predomini de
pendents entre 12 - 25 % i 25 - 50 %. El substrat consisteix en conglomerats calcaris massius, calcilutites
i llims. La precipitació es de 507 i 763 mm. Amb sòls poc profunds, calcaris i pedregosos, essent
majoritàriament Inceptisòls (Typic Calciusteps, Typic Haploustepts) i Entisòls (Typic Ustifluvents, Typic
Udorthortents). A les zones més elevades de la conca, els sòls són més humits, degut a l'augment de la
precipitació, on es produeixen processos de descarbonatació del sòl. L'ús del sòl és majoritàriament
forestal, amb presència d'ecosistemes de ribera, subalpins i vegetació submediterrània. Algunes àrees es
troben amb cultius de patata, cereal i pastures. Una de les característiques més importants d'aquesta
conca són els canvis d'ús del sòl que ha patit en els últims 50 anys degut a l'abandó dels masos i cultius
tradicionals. Es seleccionaren vuit llocs de mostreig considerant les següents cobertes: Quercus ilex, bosc
de ribera, Pinus sylvestris, pastures, cultius (cereal-patata) i Pinus uncinata. A partir de l'any 1997 fins el
2005, s'han anat monitorejant el contingut d'humitat del sòl, l'escolament i els cabals. Des del 2004 s'han
anat anotant dades de drenatge. Les variables meteorològiques es mesuren a l'estació de Lladurs de la
XAC (Xarxa Agrometeorològica de Catalunya).
Els resultats obtenguts durant tres anys mostren una domini del règim d'humitat ústic (SSS, 2006), o xèric
en aquells anys més secs. En la modelització de règims d'humitat i temperatura del sòl, s'utilitzaren els
models de simulació NSM "Newhall simulation model" (Newhall, 1976) i JSM "Jarauta simulation
model" (Jarauta 1989). NSM (Newhall,1976) tendeix a sobre estimar el règim d'humitat del sòl, però
JSM (Jarauta, 1989) simula correctament el règim d'humitat del sòl (SSS, 2006) de la conca, funcionant
millor en condicions intermitges d'humitat del sòl. Ambdós models simulen correctament el règim de
temperatura dels sòls. Predomina un règim de temperatura mèsic-tèrmic, amb tendència a tèrmic els anys
secs. A petita escala la profunditat del sòl, pendent, pedregositat i una alta porositat del sòl són factores
que varien el règim d'humitat del sòl. La informació de sòl i clima, complementada mitjançant SIG, va
permetre l'obtenció de mapes de règim d'humitat del sòl de la conca, a escala 1:50000, els quals
permeten establir mediante simució els règims d'humitat del sòl en diferents escenaris de canvis
meteorològics.
El model TOPLATS ha sigut utilitzat en l'estimació de l'humitat del sòl en diferents usos del sòl. Aquest
model fou calibrat amb les equacions del filtre Kalman estès (EKF), que deriven de la minimització del
quadrat de la diferència entre els valors reals i els estimats (Goegebeur & Pauwels, 2007). Aquesta
metodologia interrelaciona correctament els valors de pluja, humitat del sòl, escolament i infiltració,
essent els valors d'humitat els que més s'aproximen als reals. Els resultats mostren que aquest filtre és
una eina útil per estimar el volum d'aigua del sòl emmagatzemada en conques a escala puntual,
assegurant una aplicació correcta del model hidrològic.
Per la modelització del comportament de l'humitat del sòl i diferents components del balanç hídric
s'utilitzà el modelo TOPLATS (Famiglietti & Wood, 1994). El model de simulació TOPLATS permite
simulà acceptablement el comportament de l'humitat del sòl. Els resultats de infiltració, escolament,
intercepció, evapotranspiració de referència i temperatura del sòl són correctes. Les diferències existents
entre valors simulats i observats són: l'humitat del sòl no sobrepassa el 5%, la infiltració fluctua entre 4%
i 15%, la diferència entre els valors reals i simulats d'evapotranspiració, depèn de l'estació de l'any,
essent 1mm a l'hivern i 2.7 mm a l'estiu. La temperatura varia entre 0.01ºC i 3.5ºC. El model calibrat
prediu amb precisió el comportament de les diferents components del balanç hídric. Respecte als valors
mesurats d'aigua de drenatge correspon al 11-41 % de la pluja total.
Respecte al balanç d'aigua en el sòl (ΔSW), els valors són negatius durant cert període de l'any, arribant a
valors crítics els mesos secs. La recuperació de humitat del sòl durant la resta de mesos succeeix de
manera parcial. A la part mitja de la conca, alguns mesos els valors d'humitat del sòl s'acosten a
condicions de punt de marchites (ecosistema submediterrani). A la part alta de la conca el sòl conserva
humitat (ecosistema subalpí). Els valors de cabal trobats corresponen a aportacions per escolament el
cuals són molt baixos. La majoria de les sortides es deuen a evapotranspiració, intercepció, infiltració i
drenatge (en ordre de importància).
El principal objetivo de esta investigación es estudiar la dinámica hidrológica de una cuenca Mediterránea
afectada por los cambios de uso del suelo, mediante el monitoreo del suelo y el agua superficial. Dicho objetivo
se ha abordado a partir de la medición de componentes del balance hídrico para diferentes tipos de cobertura y
suelo, considerando regimenes de humedad y temperatura de transición.
Este estudio se ha realizado en la cuenca de la Ribera Salada (Prepirineo meridional Catalán, NE España) de
222.5 km2, con un intervalo altitudinal de 420 a 2385 m y predominio de pendientes entre 12 - 25 % y 25 - 50
%. El sustrato consiste en conglomerados calcáreos masivos, calcilutitas y limos. La precipitación anual es de
507 y 763 mm. Los suelos són poco profundos, calcáreos y pedregosos, siendo en su mayoría Inceptisols
(Typic Calciusteps, Typic Haploustepts) y Entisols (Typic Ustifluvents, Typic Udorthortents). En las partes
altas de la cuenca los suelos son más húmedos, debido al aumento de la precipitación, allí ocurren procesos de
descarbonatación del suelo. Predomina el uso forestal, con ecosistemas de ribera, subalpinos y vegetación
submediterránea. Algunas áreas se dedican al cultivo de patatas, cereal y pastos. Una de las características más
importantes de esta cuenca es los importantes cambios de uso del suelo sufridos en los últimos 50 años, debido
al abandono de las masías y cultivos tradicionales.
Se seleccionaron ocho sitios de muestreo, considerando las siguientes coberturas: Quercus ilex, bosque de
ribera, Pinus sylvestris, pastos, cultivo (cereal-patata) y Pinus uncinata. A partir del año 1997 hasta 2005, se
han venido monitoreando el contenido de humedad del suelo, escorrentía y caudales. Desde 2004 se vienen
tomando datos drenaje. Las variables meteorológicas se miden la estación Lladurs perteneciente a la XAC
(Xarxa Agrometeorológica de Cataluña).
Los resultados obtenidos par un period de tres años muestran una predominancia del regimen de humedad
ústico (SSS, 2006), o xérico en los años más secos. Se utilizaron los modelos de simulación NSM "Newhall
simulation model" (Newhall, 1976) y JSM "Jarauta simulation model" (Jarauta 1989) en la modelización de
regimenes de humedad y temperatura del suelo. NSM (Newhall,1976) tiende a sobre estimar el régimen de
humedad del suelo. Por contra, JSM (Jarauta, 1989) simula de forma correcta el régimen de humedad del suelo
(SSS, 2006) presente en la cuenca, funcionando mejor bajo condiciones medias de humedad del suelo. Ambos
modelos simulan de forma correcta el régimen de temperatura de los suelos. Predomina un régimen de
temperatura mésico-térmico, con tendencia a térmico para los años secos. A pequeña escala la profundidad del
suelo, pendiente, pedregosidad y alta porosidad del suelo son factores que hacen variar el régimen de humedad
del suelo. La información de suelo y clima, complementada mediante SIG, permitió obtener mapas de régimen
de humedad del suelo para la cuenca, a una escala 1:50000, los cuales permiten establecer mediante simulación
los regimenes de humedad en el suelo bajo diferentes escenarios de cambios meteorológicos.
El modelo TOPLATS ha sido utilizado en la estimación de la humedad en el suelo para diferentes usos del
suelo. Este modelo fue calibrado con las ecuaciones del filtro Kalman extendido (EKF), que se derivan de la
minimización del cuadrado de la diferencia entre los valores reales y los estimados (Goegebeur & Pauwels,
2007). Esta metodología interrelaciona correctamente los valores de lluvia, humedad en el suelo, escorrentía y
infiltración, siendo los valores de humedad los mas ajustados a los valores reales. Los resultados muestran que
este filtro es una herramienta para estimar el volumen de agua en el suelo almacenada en las cuencas a escala
puntual, asegurando una aplicación correcta del modelo hidrológico.
Para la modelización del comportamiento de la humedad del suelo y los diferentes componentes del balance
hídrico se utilizó el modelo TOPLATS (Famiglietti & Wood, 1994). El modelo de simulación TOPLATS
permite simular aceptablemente el comportamiento de la humedad del suelo. Los resultados para infiltración,
escorrentía, intercepción, evapotranspiración de referencia y temperatura del suelo son correctos. Las
diferencias existentes entre valores simulados y observados son: la humedad del suelo no sobrepasa el 5%, la
infiltración fluctúa entre 4% y 15%, la diferencia entre los valores reales y simulados de evapotranspiración,
depende de la estación del año, siendo 1mm en invierno y 2.7 mm en verano, la temperatura varia entre 0.01 ºC
y 3.5ºC. El modelo calibrado predice con precisión el comportamiento de las diferentes componentes del
balance hídrico. Respecto a los valores medidos para agua de drenaje corresponde al 11-41 % de la lluvia total.
Respecto al balance de agua en el suelo (ΔSW), los valores son negativos para un corto periodo del año,
alcanzando valores críticos en meses secos. La recuperación de humedad del suelo para el resto de los meses
ocurre de manera parcial. En la parte media de la cuenca, para algunos meses los valores de humedad del suelo
son cercanos a condiciones de punto de marchites permanente (ecosistema submediterráneo). En la parte alta
de la cuenca el suelo conserva condiciones intermedias de humedad (ecosistema subalpino). Los valores de
caudal encontrados corresponden a los aportes por escorrentía, los cuales son muy bajos. La mayor parte de las
salidas ocurren por evapotranspiración, intercepción, infiltración y drenaje (en orden de importancia).
The main aim of this research is to study the hydrological dynamics of a Mediterranean mountain basin
affected by land use changes, by means of the monitoring of soil and surface water. This aim has been
reached by measuring and simulating hydric balance components of different soils and under different
vegetational types, considering water and temperature transition regimes.
This research was done in Ribera Salada basin (Catalan Pre Pyrenees, NE Spain), with an area of 222.5
km2, altitudes between 420 and 2385 m, with predominance slopes between 12 - 25 % and 25 - 50 %. The
substrate consists of massive calcareous conglomerates, calcilutites and limestones. Main annual
precipitation are 507 to 763 mm. Soils are shallow, calcareous and stony, being most of them Inceptisols
(Typic Calciusteps, Typic Haploustepts) and Entisols (Typic Ustifluvents, Typic Udorthortents). In the
upper and moister part of the basin soil decarbonatation takes place. Forest use is predominant, going
from brook forest environments to subalpine and submediterranean vegetation. Agricultural uses include
mainly the growing of cereals, potatoes and pastures. One of the most important characteristics in this
basin are the significant soil use changes in the last 50 years, due to the abandonment of farms and
traditional crops.
Eight sites were studied, corresponding to soils under Quercus ilex, brook forest, Pinus sylvestris, pasture,
crops (cereal-potatoes) and Pinus uncinata. From 1997 until 2005, soil moisture, run-off, water flow and
interception were monitored. From 2004 on, drainage data has been recorded. Meteorological variables
were measured by means of a complete Lladurs meteorological station, belonging to XAC (Catalan
Agrometeorological Network).
The obtained results to three years show the predominance of ustic moisture regime (SSS, 2006), or xeric
during the driest years. The simulation models NSM "Newhall simulation model" (Newhall, 1976) and
JSM "Jarauta simulation model" (Jarauta 1989) were used to represent soil moisture and temperature
regimes. NSM estimates a higher level of soil moisture regimes than observed. On the contrary, JSM
simulates correctly soil moisture regimes, working better under intermediate soil moisture conditions.
Both models simulate correctly the soil temperature regimes, being mesic-thermic to thermic during the
driest years. At detailed scale (plot observation), soil depth, slope, stone amount and high soil porosity are
factors that affect the soil moisture regimes. Soil and climate information, implemented through a GIS,
allowed us to obtain soil moisture regime maps of the basin at a 1:50000 scale, which are very useful to
simulate soil moisture regimes in different scenarios of meteorological changes.
The TOPLATS model, when used to estimate soil moisture under different cover types, was calibrated
with Extend Kalman filter (EKF) equations derived through a minimization of the square difference
between the true and estimated model state (Goegebeur & Pauwels, 2007). This methodology interrelates
correctly rainfall, soil moisture, runoff and infiltration. Among them, the obtained soil moisture values
corresponded the best to observed data. The results show that it is a useful tool to estimate soil water
volume stored in basins at a point scale, ensuring a correct application of this hydrological model.
To model soil moisture behaviour and the different hydric balance components, the TOPLATS model
(Famiglietti & Wood, 1994) was used. TOPLATS model simulates correctly the soil moisture behaviour.
The differences between observed and simulated values are the following: soil moisture does not surpass
5%; the infiltration fluctuates between 4% to 15%; in evapotraspiration depends on the season being
between 1 mm in winter to 2.7 mm in summer, soil temperature values difference fluctuates between
0.01ºC and 3.5ºC.The calibrated model predicts precisely the behaviour of different hydric balance
components. The measured water drainage amount is 11-41 % of total rain.
The observed and simulated soil water storage in the basin (ΔSW), has negative values during the driest
months. Soil moisture recovery during the rest of the months is only partial. In the medium part of the
basin, occupied by submediterranean ecosystems, soil moisture values are closer to drought conditions
during some months of the year. In the highest part of the basin (subalpine ecosystems) there are
intermediate soil moisture conditions in dry periods. Most part of water outputs are due to
evapotranspiration, interception, infiltration and drainage, in decreasing order of importance. Run-off
values are very low.

Stodmarsh National Nature Reserve includes the largest reedbed in Southern England and is an important habitat for breeding waders and several rare bird species, including Bitterns. A succession of drought years in the 1990s brought the issue of the hydrology and water requirements of the wetland to the attention of managers and there is concern about future water supplies to the reserve. This study aims to calculate the amount of water required by the site in order to maintain optimum habitat conditions. The greatest area of uncertainty in the water balance is the evapotranspiration rate of the reedbeds and therefore a secondary aim is to increase understanding of this flux. Detailed hydrological measurements were carried out over two years to establish the water balance of the site. Evapotranspiration was measured using the Bowen ratio technique, accompanied by additional physiological and meteorological measurements. Results showed that evapotranspiration from reeds was generally less than reference evapotranspiration and that stornatal resistance was the most important factor controlling evapotranspiration rates. The hydrology of the site was modelled using a thirty year historical data series to quantify the return periods of flood and drought conditions of different severity. These were used to predict water resource requirements and availability and confidence limits were attached to the results. In 70% of years, summer deficits in the rainfall-evapotranspiration balance require the addition of water from the Lampen Stream. In 10% of these years, the entire surmner discharge of the Lampen Stream would be insufficient to meet site water requirements and an additional source of water is required. Competition with other water users and limits on abstraction will increase the number of years an additional water source is required. In addition future climate change is likely to increase summer water requirements whilst decreasing resource availability.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil Engineering, 1986.
MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND ENGINEERING
Includes bibliographies.
by William Kensett Nuttle.
Ph.D.