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1
Fenyo, Mario D., and Eric Roman. "Hungary and the Victor Powers 1945-1950." American Historical Review 103, no. 4 (October 1998): 1279. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2651284.
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Kovrig, Bennett, and Stanley M. Max. "The United States, Great Britain, and the Sovietization of Hungary, 1945-1948." American Historical Review 91, no. 3 (June 1986): 701. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1869238.
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Godawa, Grzegorz, and Erzsébet Rákó. "Social Pedagogy Training in Poland and Hungary." Person and the Challenges. The Journal of Theology, Education, Canon Law and Social Studies Inspired by Pope John Paul II 12, no. 2 (September 15, 2022): 163–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.15633/pch.12209.
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In the present study we compare the formation and development of Polish and Hungarian social pedagogy. The main aspects of the comparison are the principal stages in the history of social pedagogy, the development of training, and the current situation in Hungary and Poland.The history of social pedagogy can be divided into three stages, following key events in the history of Central and Eastern Europe, as these historical events had an impact on the appearance and development of social pedagogy. The first stage is the early period, in the era before 1945, the second is the period after 1945, when the number of orphaned children increased significantly after the second World War and communism determined the socio-economic development of both Poland and Hungary. The third period started after 1989 when, after the collapse of communism, the development of both countries was placed on new socio-economic foundations, and new social problems appeared in the subsystems of society, which were partly addressed by social pedagogical solutions. In what follows, we give a brief overview of the 20th century history of Polish and Hungarian social pedagogy, the initial period of its formation.
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Thun, Romedio Graf. "Last Panzer Battles in Hungary. Spring 1945." Journal of Slavic Military Studies 35, no. 3-4 (October 2, 2022): 397–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13518046.2022.2156082.
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Farkas, Johanna, János Sallai, and Ernő Krauzer. "The History of Law Enforcement Culture in Hungary." Belügyi Szemle 68, no. 2 (September 15, 2020): 35–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.38146/bsz.spec.2020.2.3.
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In Hungary, Ágoston Karvasy was an early pioneer writing about the history of law enforcement. In his first study he defined the concept of law enforcement as a science. The idea of establishing a national police organisation was first mentioned after the reform era but it has not been realized that time but only in the year of 1872. However, the first professional journal of law enforcement was published in 1869 and the word police officer as the ʻguard of the order’ appeared in the Hungarian language in 1870. The scope of authority and jurisdiction of the Police was declared in a law passed in 1881. In 1873 the Metropolitan Police Department was established and in 1905 the Border Police and the Police Department of Fiume were established. In the period between 1945-47, the police continuously emerged. Although the State Security Office was destroyed by the revolution of October 1956 and it was not restored afterwards, it has not effected the Police itself. The organizational culture of the Police is mostly influenced by its educational and training systems. The training of the probationary police officers was approved first by the prime minister in 1884. In 1920 the training of police officers was unified on new bases by the leaders of the Ministry for Internal Affairs and the Police Department. Then the Police Academy was set up in 1948 and the Police College was established in 1971. In 2012 the University of Public Service and its Faculty of Law Enforcement were established and took over the functionalities of the Police Academy as well.
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Albert, Zoltán Máté. "Short History of the so-called Kossuth Coat of Arms after 1945." Ephemeris Hungarologica 2, no. 2 (2022): 5–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.53644/eh.2022.2.5.
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One of the historical forms of the Hungarian coat of arms called the ‘Kossuth coat of arms’ raises a number of questions. Perhaps the most important is the complex problem of the relationship between this symbol and the republican form of government. This coat of arms was named after Lajos Kossuth, who was the Governor-President of Hungary after the dethronement of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine (14 April 1849). Despite of the use of crownless coats of arms by the Hungarian leadership after April 1849, the change of form of government was not proclaimed. After the Second World War, the ‘republican’ interpretation of the crownless coat of arms became widespread. Hungary officially became a republic on 1 February 1946, but there was no coat of arms regulation. Zoltán Tildy, who was President of the Republic of Hungary, started to use the so-called Kossuth coat of arms. Over time, this practice became customary. After the total establishment of communist power, a new constitution was adopted, which included a new coat of arms. This symbol, however, marked a break with the Hungarian traditions.
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Mark, James. "Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 1944–1945*." Past & Present 188, no. 1 (August 1, 2005): 133–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gti020.
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Udvarvölgyi, Zsolt András, and Zoltán Bolek. "Episodes in the life of the Bosnian Muslim Community in Hungary (1920-1945)." Historijski pogledi 5, no. 8 (November 15, 2022): 112–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.52259/historijskipogledi.2022.5.8.112.
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In this study we present an important and interesting period in the history of Islam in Hungary in the 20th century, the past of the Islamic community in Budapest between the two world wars, which was mainly composed of Bosniaks. Special emphasis will be placed on the life of the community's imam, Husein Hilmi Durić , ‘Grand Mufti’ of Buda and former Military Imam, his domestic and international activities on behalf of the community, and the Hungarian supporters, friends and helpers of the Bosniaks. There is also a brief description of a few other members of the community. The Hungarian Islamic Community , founded in 1988 and still functioning as an established church in Hungary, claims as its legal predecessor the Independent Hungarian Autonomous Islamic Religious Community of Buda, named after Gül Baba, which operated de facto between 1931 and 1945. In our study, we describe in detail how Bosnian soldiers who fought valiantly in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy's army in the First World War found their way to Hungary after the war, how they found a new home, mostly in Budapest, how they started their lives again, choosing mostly Hungarian wives and quickly learning Hungarian language and customs. But soon the practice of Islam became indispensable for them, and that is why the first Islamic community in Hungary was founded in 1931. The adventurous life of the community's leader, Husein Hilmi Durić, is described in detail, along with his extensive activities in Hungary and his domestic and international contacts. Similarly, we describe the activities of influential Hungarian supporters of the community (e.g. Andor Medriczky, Gyula Germanus, István Bárczy) who selflessly helped Bosnian Muslims to practice their faith in Hungary. We look at the two major trips of the community leaders to the Middle East and India to strengthen Islam in Hungary and to raise funds for the planned mosque in Buda, which never materialised. Durić's special relationship with the Albanian King Zogu, his travels to Tirana and his programmes are also discussed in more detail. Nor can we ignore the unfortunate fact that in the 1930s and 1940s, during the Christian Nationalist Horthy era, many people did not look kindly on the activities of Bosnian Muslims living in Hungary. We then turn to the life and activities of another community leader, Mehmed Resulović, as a fencing master. We will also outline how an average Bosniak lived, what he did, how he spent his everyday life, how he dressed and how he entertained himself in Hungary in the 1930s and 1940s, far from his homeland. We also discuss, of course, how some of them became involved in Hungarian politics, as members of far-right organisations and movements, possibly because they were invited to join these circles by their former Hungarian officers and comrades in arms of First World War. Finally, we outline the life of an average Bosnian Muslim, Hasan Jamaković, who had a typical career in Hungary.
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Kapitány, Gábor, and Ágnes Kapitány. "Changing World-Views in Hungary, 1945-1980." Journal of Popular Culture 29, no. 2 (September 1995): 33–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3840.1995.2902_33.x.
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SCRANTON, PHILIP. "Managing Communist Enterprises: Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, 1945–1970." Enterprise & Society 19, no. 3 (September 2018): 492–537. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/eso.2018.13.
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Business history for three generations has focused almost exclusively on capitalist firms, their managers, and their relations with markets, states, and rivals. However, enterprises on all scales also operated within communist nations “building socialism” in the wake of World War II. This article represents a first-phase exploration of business practices in three Central European states as Stalinism gave way to cycles of reform and retrenchment in the 1960s. Focusing chiefly on industrial initiatives, the study asks: How did socialist enterprises work and change across the first postwar generation, given their distinctive principles and political/economic contexts, and implicitly, what contrasts with capitalist activities are worth considering.
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Keller, Márkus. "Professionalization in Socialism : Architects and Architecture after 1945 in Hungary." socio.hu 10, Special Issue (2020): 95–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.18030/socio.hu.2020en.95.
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In my study, I investigate architects’ search for their place in the new society and the history of their profession after 1945 in Hungary with the help of professionalization theories. Through statistics, memoirs, interviews, archival documents, laws and decrees, I seek to discover what kind of role architecture and architects played in the dictatorship of the 1950s and how that role changed in the Kádár system. In addition to external analysis, I place particular emphasis on how this change of role is reflected in the lifestory interviews and in the identity of the architects of the era.
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Swanson, John C. "Counter-Revolutionary Hungary, 1920-1925: István Bethlen and the Politics of Consolidation; Hungary in the Age of the Two World Wars, 1914-1945." Canadian-American Slavic Studies 44, no. 3 (2010): 370–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/221023910x533090.
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Pálffy, Géza. "Eleven Travels Abroad of the Holy Crown of Hungary (1205–1978)." Slavic World in the Third Millennium 14, no. 1-2 (2019): 23–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.31168/2412-6446.2019.14.1-2.2.
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The study aims to pay off one of the major debts of Hungarian historiography, the absences on foreign soil and the returns of the Holy Crown of Hungary. Between its first removal from Hungary to Austria (1205) and its latest return there from USA (1978), the chief symbol of Hungarian statehood had spent some 135 years abroad, that is, roughly a sixth part of the whole period. The longest foreign stays took place in the sixteenth, twentieth and fifteenth centuries (1551–1608: 57 years in Vienna and Prague, 1945–78: 33 years in Austria, Germany and USA, 1440–63: 23 years in Austria). The longest journey was made after 1953, when it was transported from Germany to Fort Knox, Kentucky. Ten out of the eleven foreign stays concerned Austria and seven the city of Vienna, a clear indication of the extent to which the history of Hungary had been interlocked with that of Central Europe. On five occasions, the crown was taken abroad because of an acute danger of war (1241: Mongol Invasion, 1663 and 1683: Ottoman Conquest, 1703: War of Independence of Francis Rákóczi II, 1945: World War II). In some half of the return journeys exerted a decisive influence of the course of Hungarian history, especially in 1463, 1608, 1790, 1853, and 1978.
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Dimić, Ljubodrag. "Genocide over the Serbian people in the Independent State of Croatia (1941-1945)." Napredak 3, no. 2 (2022): 41–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/napredak3-39499.
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From its very establishment in 1918, the Yugoslav state strived to be the state of "reconciliation". That is why the crimes over Serbs perpetrated by Austria-Hungary were not largely emphasized in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes / Yugoslavia, particularly not the crimes by Croats in occupation units, but conscientious researchers have still left their testimonies about them (see Reiss, 2019). For the sake of "reconciliation", nothing was said about the genocide over the Serbian people in WW2 in the territory of the ISC. Because of the strategy of "keeping silent about the genocide", crucially and for years, in the name of brotherhood and unity of Yugoslav nations, the topic did not have its place in the primary and secondary school curricula; the genocide crime perpetrated over the Serbian people was not discussed in history textbooks; for decades, it was not the topic in literature, while historians did not research the genocide crime or wrote substantially about it. However, if several generations of the representatives of the historian profession have an "alibi" for such behaviour, the generation of those writing in Serbian culture today must also take an attitude towards that sensitive topic. "To speak up" about the genocide over the Serbian people in the 20th century primarily means to write critically about the past times, with no passion, rationally and based on historical sources, "the way it really occurred".
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Deli, Peter. "Esprit and the Soviet Invasions of Hungary and Czechoslovakia." Contemporary European History 9, no. 1 (March 2000): 39–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960777300001028.
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There has been extensive debate on changing attitudes within the French left-wing intelligentsia in the decades following the Second World War and more specifically on why so many intellectuals became fellow travellers and were attracted to Stalinism in the period between 1945 and 1953. Esprit's reactions to de-Stalinisation from the time of the Russian invasion of Hungary in 1956 to the Soviet suppression of the Czech attempt to reform communism from within in 1968 are of interest, since Esprit was the most prominent Catholic left-wing but non-Marxist journal in France. In view of Esprit's very strong reaction to the Hungarian Revolution, its relative silence in 1968 on the drama that was being played out in Czechoslovakia requires explanation. Finally, because Esprit broke with communism in late 1956, intellectuals writing for that journal experienced little difficulty in adjusting to the new French intellectual climate of the mid-1970s.
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Tóth, Ágnes. "Research Questions and Methodological Approaches in the Literature on the History of the German Minority in Hungary between 1945 and 1955." Rocznik Polsko-Niemiecki, no. 28 (December 17, 2020): 35–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.35757/rpn.2020.28.13.
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In my study, I summarise the content issues, methodological approaches and the most important results of the historical literature dealing with the history of the German minority in Hungary during the decade after the Second World War. It can be said that the historical research on the expulsion of Germans from Hungary up to 1990, the change of regime, was characterised by a positivist, descriptive, event-centric approach. The questions of this research were basically organised by the outcome of Potsdam and how this related to Hungary. In connection with both the content and methodological issues, I will touch on – in my opinion – the missing aspects, the possibility of more complex research approaches.
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Oláh, András Pál. "Az amerikai légierő Budapest elleni légitámadásai a II. világháború idején." Belvedere Meridionale 31, no. 3 (2019): 99–146. http://dx.doi.org/10.14232/belv.2019.3.7.
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Primarily thanks to recently discovered American archives documents, the comprehensive history of the American air raids against Hungary during the Second World War is now ready for review. On the 75th anniversary of the events I briefly summarise and analyse the in-depth data of the American air raids against Budapest, and I investigate whether, in comparison to rural cities and considering its significance, Budapest was an overrepresented target during the 1944–1945 air war. Based on my conclusions and in view of the whole picture, there is no doubt about Budapest having been more targeted and overrepresented than the rural cities. One obvious reason for that was the centralised industrial transporting lines and railway. It is certain that Budapest was the most heavily bombed location in Hungary by the U.S. Air Force during World War 2, at least the statistics support this fact. However, if upon investigating individual air raids we examine the target groups and further break them down to targets, we find that one by one these had to withstand almost the same strain as a rural city.
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Apor, Péter. "Collective violence, anti-Semitism and the politics of the body in post-1945 Hungary." European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire 26, no. 6 (May 21, 2019): 947–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13507486.2019.1611743.
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Bolvári-Takács, Gábor. "The History of the State Regulation of Dance Teacher Training in Hungary." Tánc és Nevelés 3, no. 2 (2022): 65–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.46819/tn.3.2.65-91.
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In regard to dance teacher training, the process of state regulation began with a recognition of dance education as an activity worthy of regulation, followed by efforts to gradually bring it under state control. Until the middle of the 20th century, this mainly resulted in the regulation of dance school activities by professional interest protection organizations and regulations related to exit exams. These measures began in 1922 when for the first time the minister of interior affairs established a dance master qualification examination board for the state recognition of certificates issued by professional associations. After 1945, the process diversified in terms of genres (e.g., ballet, the art of movement, folk dance, and ballroom dance) and, in addition to the regulation of training, took shape in the creation of state institutions. In 1974, dance teacher training was raised to the college level, and finally after 2006, as a result of the Bologna process, the master’s degree represented the highest attainment in the training of dance teachers.
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Ryan, Donna F. "Deaf People in Hitler's Europe: Conducting Oral History Interviews With Deaf Holocaust Survivors." Public Historian 27, no. 2 (2005): 43–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/tph.2005.27.2.43.
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Deaf people living in Europe between 1933 and 1945 were mistreated, forcibly sterilized, incarcerated, and murdered by the Nazis. Their stories have been overlooked or underappreciated because of the complexities of communication and the difficulties historians face gaining access to those communities. This article describes the challenges faced by two United States historians when they interviewed deaf Holocaust survivors in Budapest, Hungary and during a conference, "Deaf People in Hitler's Europe," co-sponsored by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Gallaudet University. It also raises general questions of adapting methodologies to facilitate "oral" history interviews for deaf informants.
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Majstorović, Vojin. "Red Army Troops Encounter the Holocaust: Transnistria, Moldavia, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Austria, 1944–1945." Holocaust and Genocide Studies 32, no. 2 (2018): 249–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hgs/dcy031.
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SCRANTON, PHILIP. "Author’s Rejoinder to Comments on Managing Communist Enterprises: Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, 1945–1970." Enterprise & Society 19, no. 3 (September 2018): 570–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/eso.2018.17.
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This text is the author’s reply to reactions to “Managing Communist Enterprises” from three colleagues, Lee Vinsel, Natalya Vinokurova, and Pál Germuska. It includes reflections on his work process in researching capitalist and noncapitalist firms and sectors and the practical and theoretical bases for that work. In the course of replying to particular suggestions and critiques, the rejoinder also offers some considerations about the current and future course of business history as a discipline.
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Villő, Pethő, and Janurik Márta. "A szegedi Városi Zeneiskola története 1935-1945 között." Pedagógiatörténeti Szemle 2, no. 1–2 (July 19, 2017): 85. http://dx.doi.org/10.22309/ptszemle.2016.1.5.
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Kulcsszavak: városi zenekultúra, zeneoktatás, zeneiskola-történet„Szeged város zenekultúrája nemcsak Szeged város ügye, hanem az országos zenekultúra jelentős tényezője. [. . . ] Ha azonban tekintetbe vesszük, hogy Szeged városát általánosan fejlett kultúrája, egyetemi városi jellege és geográfiai elhelyezése egyenesen predesztinálja a Dél-vidék zenekultúrájának irányítására, úgy megállapíthatjuk, hogy e város zenei életének jelentősége messze túlnő a város határain és a megítélésben Szeged város zenekulturális hivatása éppoly fontos, mint magasabb színvonalon a székesfőváros, vagy az ország egyéb vidéki zeneközpontjainak hivatása. A város zenei életének irányítóiteljes mértékben átérzik e kulturális feladat jelentőségét és tervszerű munkával szolgálják nemcsak a helyi, hanem az országos zenekultúra ügyét.” – írta 1929-ben Pálfy József, a szegedi városi színház intendánsa és a Szegedi Filharmonikus Egyesület elnöke a Muzsika folyóirat 111. számában, melyet a szerkesztők Szeged zenei életének szenteltek (Muzsika, 1929. 7. o.).A Szeged kulturális életében fontos szerepet játszó és a várost kiemelkedő vidéki zeneoktatási színhellyé tévő 1881-ben megalapított zeneiskola történetének egy rövid, ám rendkívül meghatározó időszakának bemutatására vállalkozik tanulmányunk. Eddig még nem publikált hagyatéki anyagok: levelek, írások felhasználásával szeretnénk a figyelmet felhívni a Belle Ferenc nevével fémjelzett 1935-1944 közötti időszak jelentőségére és eredményeire, melyek a város kulturális életének is fontos évei voltak.Keywords: town music culture, applied music, history of music school "The music culture of Szeged is not only the cause of this very town, but it is a significant factor of the entire music culture in Hungary. (...) However, if we allow for the fact, that Szeged town’s generally developed culture with its university town character and geographic location makes it predestined for leading the South’s music culture, then we can establish that the importance of this town’s music life overgrows by far the borders of this city; hence, the music cultural role of Szeged is as important as that of the capital and other provincial music centres. The governing body of the city’s music life is well aware of the importance of this cultural task and is working methodically on serving the cause of music culture not only on a local but on a national level" - wrote József Pálfy, intendant of the Theatre of Szeged and president of the Philharmonic Society of Szeged in the 111th edition of Muzsika Journal in 1929, an issue dedicated to the music life of Szeged by its editors (Muzsika, 1929, 7. p.).Our study intends to introduce a short but notable period of the history of the Music School of Szeged, which was founded in 1881. Unedited materials, letters and other documents of Ferenc Belle, director of the music school between 1935 and 1944 were used to help us to draw attention to the importance of this period, which resulted in some outstanding years in the cultural life of this town.
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Töreki, Milan. "Anteroom to the Forint: Monetary Law Aspects of the Temporary Period of Issuing Money in Hungary under the Supervision of the Temporary National Government (1944–1945)." PRÁVNĚHISTORICKÉ STUDIE 52, no. 3 (January 27, 2023): 165–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.14712/2464689x.2022.44.
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This study presents the destruction of the Hungarian currency caused by the Second World War. The devastation caused by Nazi collaboration and the Soviet Red Army had an impact on the Hungarian “pengő”. The occupying Soviets tried to take advantage of all this and interfered with the circulation of money to increase their own political influence. They printed their own banknotes, which were later used to pay by the Hungarian National Bank. The Provisional Government tried to stop inflation after the war and then tried to resist Soviet pressure and to restore cash flow in Hungary, as well.
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Gombar, Zsofia. "A COMPARISON: TRANSLATED HOMOSEXUAL-THEMED NOVELS IN ESTADO NOVO PORTUGAL AND STATE-SOCIALIST HUNGARY." Via Atlântica, no. 33 (September 11, 2018): 187–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.11606/va.v0i33.141273.
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The present article aims to contribute to homosexual history by mapping queer literary translations in Estado Novo Portugal and Socialist Hungary. In view of the legal and censorial dissimilarities in the two countries with regard to same-sex activity, homosexual-themed literature translated from English has been examined in order to detect any possible divergence or convergence in this respect. The analysis also relied on book censorship files stored at the National Archives of the Torre do Tombo as well as the new findings of the Hungarian project English-Language Literature and Censorship, 1945—1989.
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Spira, Thomas. "Worlds Apart: The Swabian Expulsion from Hungary after World War II." Nationalities Papers 13, no. 2 (1985): 188–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00905998508408021.
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The German expulsion is a sad chapter of post-World War II Hungrian history. After 1945, hundreds of thousands of Hungary's German-speaking citizens (popularly known as Swabians) were expelled as traitors. They were accused of having joined the Nazi-oriented Volksbund, or of having “volunteered” in the Third Reich's SS forces. The legality, morality, and rationality of the Hungarian government's action will be disputed for many years to come. More useful, however, might be an exploration of this apparently arbitrary and cruel expulsion of German-speaking Hungarian citizens. This essay surveys the troubled relationship that bound the Swabians and Hungarians together in ceaseless controversy from 1918 until the end of World War II. Their misunderstandings were basic and defied solution through dialogue, mutual concessions, or compromise.Prior to World War I, Hungary's German citizens considered themselves relatively secure in their adopted Magyar-dominated homeland. As Hungarian citizens, they owed allegiance to Franz Josef I in his dual capacity as king of Hungary and as emperor of the supra-national Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Despite some assimilationist efforts by the Magyars after the Ausgleich of 1868, the Swabians felt protected by the presence of a German king-emperor, and by the fact that the empire was largely Germandominated.
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DÉVAVÁRI, ZOLTÁN. "HUNGARIAN DIPLOMACY AND THE DISINTEGRATION OF YUGOSLAVIA 1990–1991." ISTRAŽIVANJA, Јournal of Historical Researches, no. 33 (December 22, 2022): 174–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.19090/i.2022.33.174-190.
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This study aims to explore Hungarian–Yugoslav diplomatic relations in the first phase of the disintegration of the second Yugoslav state through relevant documents from the Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and accounts from the contemporary Hungarian press. The study mainly focuses on relations between the Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Except for Serbia, diplomatic relations between Hungary and the other Yugoslav republics were not taken into consideration due to length constraints. The study also examines Budapest’s diplomatic activities with the great powers regarding the Yugoslav question. The documents used this study can be found in XIX-J-1-j records at the Department of Political Government and Party Authorities of the Hungarian National Archives after 1945 (Magyar Nemzeti Levéltár Országos Levéltára 1945 utáni Politikai Kormányszervek és Pártiratok Főosztálya, MNL OL).
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Beáta, Márkus. "„Munkatábor, tehát nem büntetőtábor”– Törvényen kívüli állapot a mohácsi láger példáján (1945)." PONTES 5 (June 23, 2022): 179–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.15170/pontes.2022.05.01.08.
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„Labor camp, so no prison camp“ – Extraordinary conditions in Mohács in 1945
In 1945, in the city of Mohács in southwest Hungary, existed a labor and internment camp for a few months, which has been completely excluded from research of the history of the region until now. At the End of the Second World War, the camp served as a manpower reservoir, but also to punish former political enemies and the ethnic German minority for alleged and actual war crimes.
This paper presents the circumstances of the formation of the camp and the debates about it between the members of the Mohács National Committee in January 1945. It also analyzes the activity, organization and difficulties that characterized the months of the camp's existence. Another focus of the study is the investigation of the chaotic circumstances and the (lack of) legal framework and regulations that should provide an explanation for why a camp could be established at this early point in time after the war in Mohács. Local archive documents from Mohács and the neighboring villages are used as sources, which offer a deep insight into local history and the chaotic conditions at the immediate end of the war.
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Magocsi, Paul Robert. "The Hungarians in Transcarpathia (Subcarpathian Rus')." Nationalities Papers 24, no. 3 (September 1996): 525–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00905999608408464.
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As in other countries of the Danubian Basin, the Hungarians of historic Subcarpathian Rus' (Hungarian—Kárpátalja), present-day Transcarpathia, did not become a national minority until 1919. Before then they were simply Hungarians—and part of the dominant state nationality—living in the northeastern corner of the Hungarian Kingdom. With the border changes that occurred in 1919-1920, the Hungarians of Transcarpathia/Subcarpathian Rus' found themselves within the borders of the new state of Czechoslovakia. Since then borders and countries have changed several times, so that Transcarpathia's Hungarians have found themselves in Czechoslovakia (1919-1938), again in Hungary (1938-1944), in the Soviet Union (1945-1991), and in an independent Ukraine (1991-present). Regardless of what state may have ruled Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia, it has remained a distinct administrative entity—at times, with a degree of autonomy—throughout most of the twentieth century.
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Birtalan, Iván. "A Magyar Orvosi Kamara, mint első polgári mozgalom újraalakításának szubjektív története. Az újkori orvostörténelem egyik nagy eseménye." Kaleidoscope history 10, no. 21 (2020): 37–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.17107/kh.2020.21.37-46.
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“General of Hungarian Medical Chamber (MOK), recalled my memory, about the history, purpose and goals of the MOK.” Re-founded in 1988, the MOK has previously been prohibited for decades since it ceased to exist after the World War 2, because 1945 it was deemed a fascist corporation. In its newly founded structure between 1988 and 1989, the MOK became soon the body for representing ethical, professional, social and health policy interests of medical doctors. Efforts of the MOK re-foundation turned out as a historical victory of the medical doctors’ community during the political changes of the socio-economic system in Hungary.
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Венгер, А., and M. Головань. "HISTORY OF ONE CRIME: ANDRIY SPSAY AND THE CRACKS OF THE XX CENTURY." Problems of Political History of Ukraine, no. 15 (February 5, 2020): 161–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.33287/11936.
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The article deals with the biography of the peasant Andrii Sapsai, whose life came at a time of the great turmoil in the first half of the twentieth century.On the eve of the 1917 revolution his family successfully farmed in the village Pryyut of Katerynoslav province. In the post-revolutionary years they continued to farm: they kept cattle, cultivated land. The turning point for the family was the dislocation and eviction from the village.The whole family was deported to live in the Urals at the Lisna Vovchanka station. There Andrii was sentenced under a political article. On the eve of the German-Soviet war he returned to Ukraine and settled not far from the village Pryyut.With the arrival of German troops he volunteered with the police, moved to the village Pryyut where he settled down in his house. He was responsible for sending local youth to Germany, searching the villages of those in hiding, and sending them to the collection point in the village Friesendorf, and from there escorted to the train station. Aboveall, Andrii Sapsai participated in the execution of the Jews of the village Kamyana in the Berestianabalka.In May 1942, police officers from the area were summoned to the Friesendorf meeting, for a total of 50 men arrived. The police chief Keller ordered everyone to get into two trucks and to go to the village Zlatoustovka.The policemen were brought to the Berestiana balka, which was located near the village, where a hole up to 20 m long, 2 m wide and 2 m deep had already been dug.They were informed that the Jews were going to be brought now and they would have to be shot. Those who would refuse to participate in the shooting would face severe punishment. Following the police the chief of the Friesendorf Gendarmerie, who had organized the whole process, arrived. In 1934 he left the territory of Ukraine together with some German troops, reaching Romania and leaving them there. In the summer of 1944 local authorities gathered those who had retreated with the Germans at the camp and they worked to rebuild the airfield and then they were transferred to the Soviet command. Then Andrii was called to the ranks of the Red Army by the field enlistment office. To the 4th platoon of the 1st military company, 375 special assault battalion 41 rifle regiment of the 2nd Ukrainian Front.He participated in the battles for the liberation of Hungary, in January 1944 became a German prisoner, and in May 1945 in the territory of Austria he was liberated by Soviet troops and again drafted into the army, where he served until 1946.
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Sabău, Nicolae. "American and Jewish Art Historians in Correspondence With Prof. C. Petranu (1893-1945)." Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Historia Artium 66, no. 1 (December 30, 2021): 69–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.24193/subbhistart.2021.04.
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"American and Jewish Art Historians in Correspondence with Prof. C. Petranu (1893-1945). This article is part of the correspondence Prof. C. Petranu, founder of the education and scientific research in the field of art history in Transylvania and at King Ferdinand University of Cluj, conducted with prestigious American fellow specialists, professors, researchers, museographers, directors of publishing houses and magazines in this field. Among Prof. Petranu’s most frequent correspondents we can mention fellow specialists and researchers residing in the United States of America, as well as in many other European countries such as Finland, Sweden, Norway, Estonia, Latvia, Poland, Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Austria, Germany , Switzerland, France, Italy, Spain and England, and even Africa (Egypt). The collection of letters seems to depict a genuine story of the evolution and stage of development of art history in the interwar period. Keywords: American correspondence, American and Jewish fellows, John Shapley, A.Ph. MacMahon, Helen Mason, Alfred Salamony, Trygve Barth. "
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Pastor, Peter. "Mária Ormos. Magyarország a két világhdboru korában (1914–1945) (Hungary in the age of two world wars [1914–1945]). Debrecen: Csokonai Kiadó, 1998. Pp. 324, maps, photographs." Austrian History Yearbook 30 (January 1999): 313–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0067237800016246.
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Lynn, Katalin Kádár. "Miklós Zeidler. Ideas on Territorial Revision in Hungary: 1920–1945. Boulder, CO: East European Mongraphs, 2007. Pp. 441, illus." Austrian History Yearbook 41 (April 2010): 307–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0067237809990579.
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Ferkai, András. "Modernity in the wilderness? Architects’ role in developing rural Hungary, 1930–1960." Journal of Modern European History 18, no. 4 (July 30, 2020): 428–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1611894420943782.
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The aim of this article is to survey a longer period in Hungarian architecture starting from around 1930 and into the 1960s in order to investigate how subsequent generations of modern architects related to the social and housing problems of the countryside. It is widely held that although social sensitivity was a dominant feature of the modernist agenda, it was limited to an urban context, with little regard for rural areas unfamiliar to the movement’s leading proponents. Since the most radical and best-organized group of Hungarian architects was a section of the international organization Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne, their theoretical work was largely guided by the group’s centre in Zürich. This article traces some of the visions that were set against these ‘imported ideas’ and the extent to which these visions could be realized under the Horthy regime, which was at the time gradually moving towards the far-right. Furthermore, it maps the process that led to the confrontation between modernists and regionalists in the early 1940s. It also shows how the bipolar discourse revolving around social modernization was resolved by the democratic transformations of 1945, which set the stage for temporary cooperation between rivalling factions and led to architects reaching an understanding with reconstruction in mind. However, the hope for a strong and independent farming class and long-term development and planning policies backed by peasant parties was dashed by the communist breakthrough in 1948 As a result, the issue of rural housing would be raised anew only in the 1960s, when the Kádár regime made concessions to the collectivized peasantry. In the final section of this article, I will discuss why both the functionalist modern and regionalist models offered by architects failed. The family house type, which had been spontaneously developed by ‘self-help building’ and was condemned by the architecture profession in a new debate of the 1960s, cannot be explained by mere ideological or cultural discrepancies but through a profound socio-psychological analysis.
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Lantos, Edit. "The Scope and Morphological Tendencies of (Re)building Roman Catholic Churches in post-1945 Hungary." Acta Historiae Artium 60, no. 1 (December 2019): 247–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/170.2019.60.1.9.
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Hrabovec, Emilia. "The Holy See and Czechoslovakia 1945—1948 in the Context of the Nascent Cold War." ISTORIYA 12, no. 8 (106) (2021): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840016710-0.
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The spectre of Communist expansion as a result of the Second World War represented for Pope Pius XII one of the greatest concerns. The unambiguously pro-Soviet orientation of the Czechoslovak government in exile and the crucial influence of Communists in the inner architecture of the restored state convinced the Holy See that Czechoslovakia was already in 1945 fully absorbed into the Soviet sphere of influence. This fact strengthened the Pope’s conviction of the necessity to resume relations with Prague as soon as possible and to send a nuncio there who would provide reliable information and protect the interests of the Church threatened both by open persecution and by propaganda manoeuvres in favour of a “progressive Catholicism”. The importance of the relations with Czechoslovakia stood out also in the international perspective, in which Czechoslovakia, in contrast to Poland or Hungary, seemed to be the last observatory still accessible to the Vatican diplomacy in the whole East-Central Europe. The year 1947 represented a caesura in the relations between the Holy See and Czechoslovakia. In the international context, this year was generally perceived by the Vatican as a definitive reinforcement of the Communist regimes in Eastern Europe. In the Czechoslovak framework, the greatest importance was ascribed to the political crisis in Slovakia in autumn 1947, during which the Communists definitively took over the political power in Slovakia. The lost struggle over the predominantly Catholic Slovakia, that for some time had been considered by the Vatican one of very few hopes for the defence of Christian interests in the Republic, was perceived by the Holy See as a dominant breakthrough on the way to the total Communist transformation of Czechoslovakia. While in the immediate post-war period the Holy See had tried to come to terms with Czechoslovakia also at the price of some compromises, in winter 1947/1948 the last hopes for a diplomatic solution vanished and were replaced by the conviction that in the confrontation with Communism not diplomatic, but spiritual weapons — prayer, testimony, martyrdom — were of crucial importance.
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Molnár, Virág. "Cultural Politics and Modernist Architecture: The Tulip Debate in Postwar Hungary." American Sociological Review 70, no. 1 (February 2005): 111–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000312240507000106.
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The article focuses on the interpretive struggles and contests surrounding the adoption and legitimation of fully or partly “imported” ideas. It examines the reception of modernist architecture in post-1945 Hungary to improve our understanding of how international cultural paradigms are incorporated into a particular national context. It maps the processes through which modernist architecture came to be institutionalized in Hungary as a cultural link to Western Europe during the Cold War. It shows how this meaning was enacted and reinforced in a crucial polemic, the “Tulip Debate,” by imposing a bipolar discourse about social modernization on it-a strategy that often has been deployed to politicize the process of cultural reception in Hungary. The case study suggests that countries with a long history of foreign contact tend to develop societywide interpretive schemes that are instrumental in channeling international discourse into local debates. The interpretive schemes of one period often may resonate with others, constituting a cluster of techniques that have evolved historically and can be recycled in new situations. They provide actors with discursive strategies for arbitrating between international trends and the national context, and for segmenting the intellectual field in professional and political power struggles. The article underscores the need for a closer scrutiny of the origin and use of discursive structures that shape local interpretive processes in cross-national diffusion.
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Lóránd, Zsófia. "International Solidarity as the Cornerstone of the Hungarian Post-War Socialist Women's Rights Agenda in the Magazine Asszonyok." International Review of Social History 67, S30 (March 10, 2022): 103–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020859022000049.
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AbstractThis article analyses five years of the magazine Asszonyok (Women) the main forum for discussing women's rights between 1945 and 1949 in Hungary. The magazine was published by the Magyar Nők Demokratikus Szövetsége (the Hungarian Women's Democratic Federation), an umbrella organization created mostly by women from the communist movement. This analysis is centred around the idea of internationalism and how it became a means for socialist women's emancipation, proof of the political power of the new women's organization, and a platform of political education. It also symbolized the new era of peace after the war, peace becoming one of the slogans of the socialist women's movement globally. The broadening international platform of transfers became a terrain where political languages about race, class, and gender were slowly but steadily taking shape. Solidarity with women across the globe became one of the main tenets of communist women in Hungary. However, solidarity had its limits. As is shown here, identification with the right political agenda was even more important than aspects of race and class. This was one of the most important ways in which socialist women's rights and feminism were diverging from each other, despite the broad spectrum of shared elements on their agenda.
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Hanebrink, Paul. "European Protestants Between Anti-Communism and Anti-Totalitarianism: The Other Interwar Kulturkampf?" Journal of Contemporary History 53, no. 3 (July 21, 2017): 622–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022009417704894.
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In the late 1930s, Protestants across Europe debated how best to resist the threat of encroaching secularism and radical secular politics. Some insisted that communism remained the greatest threat to Europe’s Christian civilization, while others used new theories of totalitarianism to imagine Nazism and communism as different but equal menaces. This article explores debates about Protestantism, secularism, and communism in three locations – Hungary, Germany, and Great Britain. It concludes that Protestants perceived Europe’s culture war against secularism in very different ways, according to their geopolitical location. The points of conflict between Europe’s Protestants foreshadowed the dramatic shifts in the coordinates of Protestant Europe’s culture wars after 1945.
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Vajda, Zsuzsanna. "Academia and state socialism. Essays on the political history of academic life in post 1945 Hungary and Eastern Europe." Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 37, no. 1 (2001): 91–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6696(200124)37:1<91::aid-jhbs23>3.0.co;2-o.
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Szabó-Székely, Ármin. "A színházcsinálói felelősségvállalásról : Déry Tibor: A tanúk." Theatron 14, no. 3 (2020): 35–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.55502/the.2020.3.35.
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This paper examines Tibor Déry’s 1945 play, The Witnesses, the 1986 premiere of the same, and the topics that were made taboo in the theatrical world of State Socialist Hungary. At the end of the Second World War, Déry responded to the events of current history (the deportation of Budapest Jews, the activities of the illegal Communist movement, the Soviet troops marching in) with a speed and accuracy that’s exceptional in Hungarian theatre history to the present day. The Witnesses shows (urban Budapest) society in its plurality, it is fragmented not only ethnically, but also alongside lines of class and mentality, and yet a whole that only functions through coexistence. Déry doesn’t divide them alongside the antagonism of perpetrators and victims but depicts them in the positions of passive observation or active action. Censorship did not allow the work to be performed in public for four decades, therefore this paper also reconstructs the memory history context of the 1986 premiere.
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Schlosberg, Laura, and Gyorgi Peteri. "Academia and State Socialism: Essays on the Political History of Academic Life in Post-1945 Hungary and Eastern Europe." Slavic and East European Journal 44, no. 3 (2000): 499. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/309610.
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Tseluiko, Oleksandr. "IVAN ZAYATS’ NUMISMATIC INVESTIGATIONS (A FEW NOTES TO THE HISTORY OF UKRAINIAN NUMISMATICS)." Вісник Львівського університету. Серія історична / Visnyk of the Lviv University. Historical Series, no. 54 (November 3, 2022): 297–329. http://dx.doi.org/10.30970/his.2022.54.11615.
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After World War II the development of special (auxiliary) historical disciplines in Lviv was determined by a number of features, including significant changes in the personal composion of their researchers. Some Polish and Ukrainian scientists, who have studied these disciplines, left the city. Instead, some Ukrainians, who had been living in the Ukrainian ethnic territories that have been transmitted to Poland after 1945, were repatriated to Lviv. Among these Ukrainians was a former teacher Ivan Zayats (1887–1968). He has graduated the Faculty of Philosophy of Lviv University (1913), where he had studied history and geography. During the interwar period (1920s – 1930s) he was a teacher in secondary schools in Peremyshl, participated in the cultural and educational life of the local Ukrainian community, was a co-organizer of The Ukrainian regional museum “Stryvigor”. Iv. Zayats has got a job at the Lviv State Republican Historical Museum in August 1946. At this museum he has worked as a researcher and chief custodian of its funds fifteen years. The museum was established by merging several Lviv museums and big local collections in May 1940. After that, this museum has become the owner of the largest collection of coins and medals in the city. Famous Polish museologist Rudolf Menkitskyj was the first who has carried out the work on their arrangement. The next who worked with coins and medals at the museum in 1944–1946 was Marjan Haisig, a former researcher at Lviv University. Iv. Zayats worked with numismatic collection of this museum at 1946–1961. He carried out an inventory, conservation and restoration of old and newly acquired materials, prepared indexes, selected some coins and medals for the museum exhibitions. He also started his scientific work in the field of numismatics at that time. In the 1950s the object of his scientific interests was the Lviv mint of the XIV–XV centuries. As the result of these studies he prepared an article in 1957. The article would have been to be published in the museum`s edition, which called “Reports and notices of the [Lviv State Historical] Museum”. This edition was never published due to a number of objective and subjective factors. Iv. Zayats’ article was not published either, although its content was known to some Lviv historians. We have find the typescript and pre-editions of this work (the text of Iv. Zayats’ article is given in the second part of our publication). The exploring of this article allows us to agree with the positive assessment of this scientific work, which was made by the former head of the Museum of Sphragistics and Numismatics of Lviv University Ivan-Julian Shpytkovskyj. It seems interesting Iv. Zayats’ attempt to consider the issue of issuance and circulation of coins of Lviv minting of the 14th – 15th centuries in the broader context of the changes that affected the Halycian-Volyn lands at this period. Also interesting his attempt to look at the status and relation of the Halychyna state to the Polish and Hungarian kingdoms through the prism of numismatics. Iv. Zayats, in particular, agreed with the opinion of some researchers who have spoken of a personal union between Halychyna and Poland during the reign of King Сasimir (Kazimierz) III and denied the fact of incorporation of Halychyna into Poland. He also wrote about the politically undefined status of Halychyna in relation to Poland and Hungary during the reign of Prince Wladyslaw of Opole and the next transformation this state into an ordinary Hungarian province during the subsequent reign of King Louis (Ludovic) of Hungary. According to Iv. Zayats’ article, the appearance of a Polish eagle on the coins minted in Lviv and the cessation of the issuance of a separate Rus coin in Lviv, was a sign of closer unification of Halychyna and Poland during the reign of King Wladyslaw II Jagiello. At the article listed the types of coins minted at this time in Lviv, presented their images and legends, draws a conclusion about the possible time of cessation of work the mint in the city. At the present time the scientific value of Iv. Zayats’ work reduced after research by Mykola Kotlyar, Stanislava Kubyak and Andriy Kryzhanivskyj. However, now it remains as an interesting monument of Ukrainian historiography of special (auxiliary) historical disciplines of the 1940s and 1950s.
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Balogh, Anna. "László Borhi, Hungary in the Cold War, 1945–1956: Between the United States and the Soviet Union." Journal of Cold War Studies 12, no. 1 (January 2010): 189–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jcws.2010.12.1.189.
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Nagy, András. "Shattered Hopes amid Violent Repression: The Hungarian Revolution and the United Nations (Part 1)." Journal of Cold War Studies 19, no. 4 (December 2017): 42–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jcws_a_00764.
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Few historical events since 1945 have had the same impact and reverberations as the 1956 Hungarian revolution both inside and outside the country. This article, based on recently declassified and other archival documents, focuses on an important aspect of the international response to the revolution: the response (or lack thereof) of the United Nations (UN) to the revolution and then to the tragic consequences, including trials, imprisonments, and executions that continued for years afterward. The trust placed by some Hungarians in the UN may have done more harm than good. Many Hungarians came to believe that UN officials were concerned less with responding to the ongoing tragic events in Hungary and more with jeopardizing the organization's future ability to prevent or respond to disputes between the Cold War superpowers.
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Turda, Marius. "Introduction." Focaal 2010, no. 58 (December 1, 2010): 3–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/fcl.2010.580101.
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Although research on the history of physical anthropology in Central and Southeastern Europe has increased significantly since the 1990s the impact race had on the discipline's conceptual maturity has yet to be fully addressed. Once physical anthropology is recognized as having preserved inter-war racial tropes within scientific discourses about national communities, new insights on how nationalism developed during the 1970s and 1980s will emerge, both in countries belonging to the communist East—Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania, and in those belonging to the West—Austria and Greece. By looking at the relationship between race and physical anthropology in these countries after 1945 it becomes clear what enabled the recurrent themes of ethnic primordiality, racial continuity, and de-nationalizing of ethnic minorities not only to flourish during the 1980s but also to re-emerge overtly during political changes characterizing the last two decades.
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Putz, Orsolya. "Metaphor evolution and survival in Hungarian public discourse on the Trianon peace treaty." Metaphor and the Social World 6, no. 2 (October 14, 2016): 276–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/msw.6.2.05put.
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The peace Treaty of Trianon, which was signed by the representatives of Hungary and the Allies in 1920, caused substantial economic, political and social changes in the life of the Hungarian nation. The paper explores how far these changes have been conceptualized by conceptual metaphors in Hungarian public discourse from 1920 to the present day. Specifically, it looks at whether there is a conventionalized metaphoric conceptual system concerning the treaty, which began (or was current) in 1920 and has been developing for almost a hundred years. The paper applies a qualitative approach to a small corpus of written texts. The corpus contains twenty texts, which are taken from four different categories of public discourse (political, academic, informative and media) and four time periods (1920–1945, 1945–1990, 1990–2010, and 2010–2015). The paper concludes that, within the public discourse on the consequences of the Trianon peace treaty, the same metaphors have fundamentally survived over nine decades. This conceptual history of metaphors suggests heavy conventionalization, which can play a crucial role in the survival of a certain mental image of the nation and in maintaining negative emotions about the treaty. It also suggests that the Trianon frame is still an essential part of Hungarian national identity.
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Argentieri, Federigo. "Laszlo Borhi.Hungary in the Cold War: Between the United States and the Soviet Union, 1945–1956.:Hungary in the Cold War: Between the United States and the Soviet Union, 1945–1956." American Historical Review 111, no. 3 (June 2006): 926–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr.111.3.926a.
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Rakonjac, Aleksandar. "IZMEĐU TRANSFERA TEHNOLOGIJA I DOMAĆIH REŠENJA: IZGRADNJA MOTORNE INDUSTRIJE U JUGOSLAVIJI 1945−1952." Istorija 20. veka 40, no. 2/2022 (August 1, 2022): 405–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.29362/ist20veka.2022.2.rak.405-422.
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This article aims to shed light on how the Yugoslav motor industry in the first post-war years sought to overcome the difficulties of mastering the technology of motor vehicle production on a modern industrial basis. During this period, gigantic efforts were made to get the country out of economic backwardness in the shortest possible time. The motor industry had one of the key roles on the path of modernization of the economy, and the state accordingly paid special attention to the construction of factories in this branch of industry. Reliance on pre-war pioneering moves of truck fabrication based on a license purchased in Czechoslovakia was the main capital with which began the process of emancipation of the domestic motor industry. Due to the impossibility to independently solve the issue of construction of all types of motor vehicles, help was sought abroad. Negotiations with the USSR and Hungary were started first, but even before the severance of all relations caused by the conflict between the Yugoslav and Soviet leadership, this attempt to establish cooperation failed. In the following years, after the failure in the East, the state concentrated all its efforts on establishing strong economic ties with the West. Thanks to favorable foreign policy circumstances, the reorientation of state policy had achieved great economic benefits for the further construction of the motor industry. Licenses for the fabrication of the “Ansaldo TCA/60” tractor were purchased, thus resolving the production of all heavy types of vehicles, as well as the production of oil-powered engines. By the early 1950s, cooperation had been established with several renowned companies from Germany, Italy and Switzerland, which provided opportunities for the Yugoslav engine industry to keep pace with the latest technological solutions. However, despite the transfer of technology that played a dominant role in raising the national car and tractor industry, domestic forces played a significant role in the production of the first air-cooled engine, a light wheeled tractor with a gasoline engine and the “Prvenac” truck. The Yugoslav example has shown that reliance on one’s own strength and international cooperation are two inextricably important factors in overcoming all the difficulties that come with the forced industrialization.