Journal articles on the topic 'Holocaust, Jewish (1939-1945), and art'
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Grimsted, Patricia Kennedy. "Nazi-Looted Art from East and West in East Prussia: Initial Findings on the Erich Koch Collection." International Journal of Cultural Property 22, no. 1 (February 2015): 7–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739115000065.
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Abstract:The article contrasts long-suppressed details of German art seizures during the Second World War from Ukrainian state museums and Western Jewish dealers, ordered to Königsberg by Erich Koch, Gauleiter of East Prussia and Reich Commissar of Ukraine. While most of the art from Kyiv was destroyed by retreating Germans when the Red Army arrived (February 1945), here we investigate “survivors.” Initial provenance findings about the collection Koch evacuated to Weimar in February 1945 reveal some paintings from Kyiv. More, however, were seized from Dutch and French Holocaust victims by Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring and his cohorts, including Jewish dealers Jacques Goudstikker (Amsterdam) and Georges Wildenstein (Paris). Many paintings deposited in Weimar disappeared west; others seized by Soviet authorities were transported to the Hermitage. These initial findings draw attention to hitherto overlooked contrasting examples of patterns of Nazi art looting and destruction in the East and West, and the pan-European dispersal of important works of art.
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Butkiewicz, Tomasz. "Synagogues on fire. The end of Polish synagogue architecturein 1939–1941 in the iconography of German soldiers." Res Politicae 14 (2022): 115–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.16926/rp.2022.14.07.
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The outbreak of World War II marked the beginning of a tragic period in history that determined the fate of Polish Jews. From its first days, the German terror was not only remembered as a prelude to the Holocaust, but also as the beginning of the end of synagogue architecture in Poland. The iconography presented in the article draws attention to the burning synagogues and, at the same time, the end of a world that was indisputably part of the culture, art and identity of Poland before 1939.In the landscape of Poland it constituted a kind of individuality, which in the vocabulary of the Third Reich was perceived as: “Jewish culture and architecture” (Judische Kultur und Architektur), “Jewishtypes” (Judische Typen), “subhumans” (Untermenschen). This is the vocabulary of the German soldier who has occupied Poland since September 1939. And although some of them had already become familiar with this world during the First World War, it was mostly the young recruit born between1920 and 1922 who perceived it in an alien way, unprecedented for him. Convinced of their mission to expand their living space (Lebensraum), and thus their right to rule over Poland and Eastern Europe, the young Germans simultaneously made a visual perception of Polish Jews. The main part the article consists of iconographic documents visualising the silent historical source and studies of the subject created after 1945. They cover the period from 1939 to 1941 and depict the process of destroying Polish synagogue architecture. These are significant years because it was during this period that the largest number of synagogues built in Poland before 1939 were destroyed.
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Tarnowska, Magdalena. "Zagłada i odrodzenie w twórczości ocalonej – łódzkiej malarki Sary Gliksman-Fajtlowicz (1909–2005)." Studia Judaica, no. 2 (48) (2021): 437–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/24500100stj.21.018.15073.
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The Holocaust and Rebirth in the Works of Sara Gliksman-Fajtlowicz, a Painter From Łódź, 1909–2005 Sara Gliksman-Fajtlowicz, a painter, came from a well-off family of Majerowiczs, the owners of opticians’ shops in Łódź. She studied at private painting and drawing schools in Łódźand Warsaw. Before the outbreak of World War II, she was active in the Polish art milieu. In 1933, she became a member of the Trade Union of Polish Artists (Związek Zawodowy Polskich Artystów Plastyków, ZZPAP) and participated in its exhibitions in Łódź, Warsaw, Kraków,and Lviv. She painted mainly landscapes, still lifes, and—less frequently—portraits. She published her works in the union magazine Forma. In 1940, she was displaced to the Łódźghetto where she worked as a graphic artist at the Statistics Department. Thanks to this she could obtain art materials. Her clandestine activity was documenting life in the ghetto in paintings and drawings. She survived the liquidation of the ghetto and then was forced to work on cleaning that area. Liberated on 19 January 1945, she returned to her house where some of her prewar works had survived. After 1945 she continued her artistic career and exhibited with the ZZPAP, as well as with the Jewish Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts. In 1957, she emigrated to Israel. Gliksman died in Tel Aviv in 2005. The aim of this article is to verify and describe Sara Gliksman’s biography, to present her activities in the Polish-Jewish artistic community of postwar Poland, as well as to place her works in the context of issues concerning survivors’ memory and artistic attitudes toward the Holocaust, and art as a manifestation of hope for the rebirth of Jewish life and culture in postwar Poland in the second half of the 1940s and the beginning of the 1950s.
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Tanzer, Frances. "European Fantasies: Modernism and Jewish Absence at the Venice Biennale of Art, 1948–1956." Contemporary European History 31, no. 2 (December 14, 2021): 243–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960777321000138.
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This article examines how states with a fascist past – Germany, Austria and Italy – used modernism in the visual arts to rebrand national and European culture at the Venice Biennale of Art after 1945. I argue that post-war exhibitions of modern art, including those at the Biennale, reveal a vast confrontation with Jewish absence after the Holocaust. Christian Democrats and proponents of European integration attempted to reimagine modernism without the Jewish minority that had shaped it in crucial ways. Meanwhile, living Jewish artists resisted their exclusion from the post-war interpretations of modernism, as well as absorbtion of modernism as part of national heritage. Their criticisms lay bare a seeming paradox at the heart of post-war Europe: a desire to claim the veneer of pre-Nazi cosmopolitanism without returning its enabling demographic and cultural diversity. This article points to the significance of philosemitism for establishing post-war national and continental identities.
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Morawiec, Arkadiusz. "Józef Hen i Józef Bau." Załącznik Kulturoznawczy, no. 9 (2022): 137–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/zk.2022.9.07.
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The main subject of this article is Józef Hen’s 1955 short story Samotność (Loneliness). The prototype of its protagonist is Józef Bau, and the prototype of its main theme, the volume of poetry containing the poems “born from the nightmare of the death camp”, is his 1949 volume Cień przechodnia (The passer-by’s shadow), a work interesting both in terms of literature and art (graphics). Samotność is probably the only (and at the same time peculiar) expression of the reception of the volume Cień przechodnia. Hen and Bau met in 1945. The familiarity between the two writers, with Jewish roots, seems to result from a shared experience, the Jewish fate. In the case of Bau, who passed through the ghetto and concentration camps, this fate turned out to be traumatizing, as both his parents and his brother were murdered by the Germans. Nonetheless, the experiences of Hen, who fled to the East (the Soviet Union) in September 1939 and thus avoided similar torments, were painful too. Bau was the first person to report to Hen in detail what a concentration camp was. It seems that Samotność is, above all, a self-referential work, exploring the issue that has been and is still preoccupied with Hen as a writer and as a man who lost a number of his relatives during the war. By writing Samotność, as well as other works dealing the Holocaust and the loneliness of the survivors, Hen frees himself from his own trauma, and also calls for the memory of the “Jewish tragedies” (which were displaced during the period of Stalinism and the domination of socialist realism).
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Peskova, Anna Yu. "Modern Slovak drama about The Second World War." Vestnik slavianskikh kul’tur [Bulletin of Slavic Cultures] 63 (2022): 268–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.37816/2073-9567-2022-63-268-277.
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The paper addresses the Slovak drama of the 21st century dedicated to the Second World War, the Holocaust, and the Slovak National Uprising. After the “velvet revolution” of 1989, interest in the military and insurgent theme in Slovak art as a whole declined sharply, but as early as in the 21st century playwrights and theaters of Slovakia are increasingly beginning to return to these topics. Many of these plays created in the last twenty years were written in order to actualize public discussions about the period of the Slovak Republic (1939–1945), around the mass deportation of Jews from its territory, around the arization, etc. The main task of these plays` authors is to put serious moral questions before the viewer. For this purpose, the paper focuses on social and historical context in which National Socialism spread in Slovakia. Such are, for example, the works of R. Ballek “Tiso”, P. Rankov “It Happened on the First of September (or Some Other Time)”, A. Gruskova “The Woman Rabbi”, V. Klimachek “The Holocaust”, Y. Yuraneva “The Silent Whip”. One of the most important questions that Slovak writers and society have been asking in recent decades is the question of how and why Slovaks actually joined Nazi Germany during the Second World War, what prompted them to do this.
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White, Nick. "Gitta Sereny and Albert Speer's ‘Battle with Truth’ on the London Stage." New Theatre Quarterly 17, no. 2 (May 2001): 170–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266464x00014573.
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Prompted by the investigative journalist Gitta Sereny's biography Albert Speer: His Battle with Truth, two recent productions, Esther Vilar's Speer and David Edgar's Albert Speer, have set out to explore the reputation of Hitler's architect and later Minister of Armaments and War Production, Albert Speer, the only leading Nazi to acknowledge his guilt at the Nuremberg Trials. The plays, like the biography, are concerned with the extent of Speer's knowledge of the ‘Final Solution’ during his career in the Nazi hierarchy, and consequently with the integrity of the stance he adopted at Nuremberg and thereafter – that is, of his claim of guilt by association and omission rather than by active participation. In her biography, Sereny claims that as a result of her association with Speer he eventually acknowledged his guilt to her, and was repentant. But Nick White believes that the evidence – much of it unearthed by Sereny herself – suggests otherwise, and that Sereny had failed to acknowledge that between 1978 and his death in 1981 Speer consistently deceived her about crucial aspects of this evidence. How successful are Vilar and Edgar in their quite different dramatic sifting, not only of the public persona of Speer, but also of the interpretation granted their subject by the biographer upon whom their plays, to a lesser and greater degree, depend? Nick White has taught at City University, London, and his PhD dissertation, ‘In the Absence of Memory? Jewish Fate and Dramatic Representation: the Production and Critical Reception of Holocaust Drama on the London Stage, 1945–1989’ (1998) has been followed by a companion volume of criticism, articles, and letters, The Critical Reception of Holocaust Drama on the British Stage, 1939–2000.
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Chechi, Alessandro. "THE GURLITT HOARD: AN APPRAISAL OF THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW WITH RESPECT TO NAZI-LOOTED ART." Italian Yearbook of International Law Online 23, no. 1 (November 17, 2014): 199–217. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22116133-90230044.
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Two years ago, German authorities conducting a routine tax investigation stumbled on the largest trove of missing artworks since the end of the Second World War. The collection of paintings and drawings was discovered in a Munich apartment owned by Cornelius Gurlitt, the late son of Hildebrand Gurlitt, one of the art dealers approved by the Nazis. It is likely that most of these artworks were plundered from German museums and Jewish collections in the period 1933-1945. The discovery triggered heated debates about the obligations of the German State and the property rights over this art collection. This article looks at the ongoing Gurlitt case from an international law perspective and discusses two different but interrelated issues. First, it traces the genealogy and extrapolates the influence of the international legal instruments that have been adopted to deal with the looting of works of art committed by the Nazis. Second, it examines the available means of dispute settlement that can lead to the “just and fair” solution of Holocaust-related cases in general and the Gurlitt case in particular. The objective of this analysis is to demonstrate that international law plays a key role in addressing and reversing the effects of the Nazi looting.
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Stone, Daniel. "Coverage of the Holocaust in Winnipeg’s Jewish and Polish Press 1939–1945." Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry 19, no. 1 (January 2007): 183–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/polin.2007.19.183.
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Hamrin-Dahl, Tina. "This-worldly and other-worldly: a holocaust pilgrimage." Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis 22 (January 1, 2010): 122–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.30674/scripta.67365.
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This story is about a kind of pilgrimage, which is connected to the course of events which occurred in Częstochowa on 22 September 1942. In the morning, the German Captain Degenhardt lined up around 8,000 Jews and commanded them to step either to the left or to the right. This efficient judge from the police force in Leipzig was rapid in his decisions and he thus settled the destinies of thousands of people. After the Polish Defensive War of 1939, the town (renamed Tschenstochau) had been occupied by Nazi Germany, and incorporated into the General Government. The Nazis marched into Częstochowa on Sunday, 3 September 1939, two days after they invaded Poland. The next day, which became known as Bloody Monday, approximately 150 Jews were shot deadby the Germans. On 9 April 1941, a ghetto for Jews was created. During World War II about 45,000 of the Częstochowa Jews were killed by the Germans; almost the entire Jewish community living there.The late Swedish Professor of Oncology, Jerzy Einhorn (1925–2000), lived in the borderhouse Aleja 14, and heard of the terrible horrors; a ghastliness that was elucidated and concretized by all the stories told around him. Jerzy Einhorn survived the ghetto, but was detained at the Hasag-Palcery concentration camp between June 1943 and January 1945. In June 2009, his son Stefan made a bus tour between former camps, together with Jewish men and women, who were on this pilgrimage for a variety of reasons. The trip took place on 22–28 June 2009 and was named ‘A journey in the tracks of the Holocaust’. Those on the Holocaust tour represented different ‘pilgrim-modes’. The focus in this article is on two distinct differences when it comes to creed, or conceptions of the world: ‘this-worldliness’ and ‘other- worldliness’. And for the pilgrims maybe such distinctions are over-schematic, though, since ‘sacral fulfilment’ can be seen ‘at work in all modern constructions of travel, including anthropology and tourism’.
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Ruta, Magdalena. "Portrety podwójne, 1939–1956. Wspomnienia polskich Żydówek z sowieckiej Rosji." Studia Judaica, no. 2 (48) (2021): 491–533. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/24500100stj.21.020.15075.
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Double Portraits, 1939–1956: Memoirs of Polish Jewish Women From Soviet Russia During the first months following Germany’s attack on Poland, some members of the Jewish community managed to sneak away to the eastern frontiers of the country which had been invaded and annexed by the Red Army in the second half of September 1939. The tragic experiences of these refugees, heretofore somehow neglected by Holocaust scholars, have recently become the subject of profound academic reflection. One of the sources of knowledge about the fate of Jewish refugees from Poland are their memoirs. In this article the author reflects on three autobiographical texts written by Polish Jewish women, female refugees who survived the Holocaust thanks to their stay in Soviet Russia, namely Ola Watowa, Ruth Turkow Kaminska, and Sheyne-Miriam Broderzon. Each of them experienced not only the atrocities of war, but also, most of all, the cruelty of the Communist regime. All three of them suffered persecution by the oppressive Soviet authorities in different ways and at different times. While Ola Watowa experienced (in person, as well as through the fate of her family and friends) the bitter taste of persecution and deportation during WWII, Sheyne-Miriam Broderzon lived a relatively peaceful life in that period (1939–1945), and Ruth Turkow Kaminska even enjoyed the luxurious lifestyle reserved for the privileged members of the establishment, and it was not until the years immediately after the war that the latter two women would face the true image of Communism as its victims. The Wats managed to leave the USSR shortly after the war, whereas for the Broderzons and the Turkows the war would not end until the death of Stalin and their subsequent return to Poland in 1956. According to Mary G. Mason, the immanent feature of women’s autobiographical writings is the self-discovery of one’s own identity through the simultaneous identification of some ‘other.’ It is thanks to the rootedness of one’s own identity through the connection with a certain chosen ‘other’ that women authors can openly write about themselves. The aim of the article is to attempt to determine to what extent this statement remains true for the memoirs of the three Polish Jewish women who, besides sharing the aforementioned historical circumstances, are also linked by the fact that all of them stayed in romantic relationships with outstanding men (i.e. writers Aleksander Wat and Moyshe Broderzon, and jazzman Adi Rosner), which had an enormous impact not only on their lives in general, but also specifically on the creation and style of their autobiographical narratives, giving them the character of a sui generis double portrait.
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Wolfgram, Mark A., and Dan Michman. "Remembering the Holocaust in Germany, 1945-2000: German Strategies and Jewish Responses." German Studies Review 26, no. 3 (October 2003): 687. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1432810.
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Leff, L. "YOSEF GORNY. The Jewish Press and the Holocaust, 1939-1945: Palestine, Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union." American Historical Review 117, no. 5 (December 1, 2012): 1655–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ahr/117.5.1655a.
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Leszczawski-Schwerk, Angelique. "Między filarami opieki społecznej, pracy na polu kultury, upolitycznienia i feminizmu. Syjonistyczne „Koło Kobiet Żydowskich” we Lwowie (1908–1939)." Studia Judaica, no. 2 (48) (2021): 377–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/24500100stj.21.016.15071.
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Between the Pillars of Welfare, Cultural Work, Politicization, and Feminism: The Zionist “Circle of Jewish Women” in Lviv, 1908–1939 The Circle of Jewish Women (“Koło Kobiet Żydowskich”), founded in Lemberg/Lviv in 1908 and active until 1939, played a vital role in the organization of Zionist women in the city and other places in Eastern Galicia. It was founded, among others, by Róża Pomeranc Melcer, one of the pioneers of Zionist women’s associations in Galicia and the first and only Jewish woman parliamentarian in the Second Polish Republic. Nevertheless, the history of the Circle, as well as the work of its many active members—many of whom perished in the Holocaust—has been almost forgotten and is rarely explored. The author of the article argues that this organization not only represents social welfare, but it also embodies elements of social support, cultural work, politicization, and feminism. Therefore, the author emphasizes the role the Circle played in the process of organizing Zionist women in Lviv and Galicia before World War I and especially during the interwar period in the Second Polish Republic, and how it contributed to women’s emancipation. Thus, the history of one of the most important Zionist women’s organizations is reconstructed and its versatile work facets explored in more detail. * Niniejszy artyku łstanowi poprawionąi skróconą wersję dwóch rozdziałów na temat organizacji syjonistycznej, które zostaną opublikowane w antologii Women Zionists Worldwide, 1897–1945 Miry Yungman (w przygotowaniu). Częściowo powstał także na podstawie prezentacji przedstawionej na konferencji Kobieta żydowska – nowe badania i perspektywy badawcze (Kraków, 26–28 kwietnia 2021).
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Wichert, Wojciech. "„Exerzierplatz des Nationalsozialismus“ — der Reichsgau Wartheland in den Jahren 1939–1945." Studia nad Autorytaryzmem i Totalitaryzmem 40, no. 2 (August 16, 2018): 79–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.19195/2300-7249.40.2.4.
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The aim of the article is the analysis of German policy in Reichsgau Wartheland, an area of western Poland annexed to Germany in the years 1939–1945. In scientific literature German rule in Warthegau with its capital in Poznań is often defined as ,,experimental training area of National Socialism”, where the regime could test its genocidal and racial practices, which were an emanation of the German occupation of Poland. The Nazi authorities wanted to accomplish its ideological goals in Wartheland in a variety of cruel ways, including the ethnic cleansing, annihilation of Polish intelligentsia, destruction of cultural institutions, forced resettlement and expulsion, segregation Germans from Poles combined with wide-ranging racial discrimination against the Polish population, mass incarceration in prisons and concentration camps, systematic roundups of prisoners, as well as genocide of Poles and Jews within the scope of radical Germanization policy and Holocaust. The aim of Arthur Greiser, the territorial leader of the Wartheland Gauleiter and at the same time one of the most powerful local Nazi administrators in Hitler‘s empire, was to change the demographic structure and colonisation of the area by the hundreds of thousands of ethnic Germans Volksdeutschen from the Baltic and other regions in order to make it a ,,blond province” and a racial laboratory for the breeding of the ,,German master race”. The largest forced labour program, the first and longest standing ghetto in Łódź, which the Nazis renamed later Litzmannstadt and the first experimental mass gassings of Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe carried out from autumn 1941 in gas vans in Chełmno extermination camp were all initiated in Warthegau, even before the implementation of the Final Solution. Furthermore, some of the first major deportations of the Jewish population took place here. Therefore in the genesis of the of the Nazi extermination policy of European Jewry Wartheland plays a pivotal role, as well as an important part of ruthless German occupation of Polish territories.
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Malinowski, Jerzy. "Polish Research on the Vilnius Artistic Community 1919–1939." Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis, no. 98 (December 23, 2019): 362–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.37522/aaav.98.2020.34.
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This review of publications and exhibitions is devoted to the artis- tic community of Interwar Vilnius and the Faculty of Fine Arts at Stephen Báthory University. It includes a look at how the National Museum in Warsaw has operated since the 1960s (under the direction of Prof. Stanisław Lorentz), as well as the Institute of Art of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw, the Nicolaus Copernicus University and the District Museum in Toruń. The subject of discussion is monographic exhibitions of artists (including Ferdynand Ruszczyc, Ludomir Sleńdziński, Henryk Kuna, Tymon Niesiołowski), problematic exhibitions such as “The Vilnius Artistic Community 1919–1945” (BWA Olsztyn 1989), “Fine Arts Education in Vilnius and its Traditions” (Toruń 1996), publications by, inter alia, Prof. Józef Poklewski, Dr. Irena Jakimowicz, Jan Kotłowski and the author of the present paper. Attention is also directed toward the Jewish artistic community – in particular, the “Yung Wilne” group.
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Jankevičiūtė, Giedrė, and Osvaldas Daugelis. "Collecting Art in the Turmoil of War: Lithuania in 1939–1944." Art History & Criticism 16, no. 1 (December 1, 2020): 35–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/mik-2020-0003.
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SummaryThe article deals with the growth of the art collections of the Lithuanian national and municipal museums during WWII, a period traditionally seen as particularly unfavourable for cultural activities. During this period, the dynamics of Lithuanian museum art collections were maintained by two main sources. The first was caused by nationalist politics, or, more precisely, one of its priorities to support Lithuanian art by acquiring artworks from contemporaries. The exception to this strategy is the attention given to the multicultural art scene of Vilnius, partly Jewish, but especially Polish art, which led to the purchase of Polish artists’ works for the Vilnius Municipal Museum and the Vytautas the Great Museum of Culture in Kaunas, which had the status of a national art collection. The second important source was the nationalisation of private property during the Soviet occupation of 1940–1941. This process enabled the Lithuanian museums to enrich their collections with valuable objets d’art first of all, but also with paintings, sculptures and graphic prints. Due to the nationalisation of manor property, the collections of provincial museums, primarily Šiauliai Aušra and Samogitian Museum Alka in Telšiai, significantly increased. The wave of emigration of Lithuanian citizens to the West at the end of the Second World War was also a favourable factor in expanding museum collections, as both artists and owners of their works left a number of valuables to museums as depositors. On the other hand, some museum valuables were transported from Vilnius to Poland in 1945–1948 by the wave of the so-called repatriation of former Vilnius residents who had Polish citizenship in 1930s. The article systematises previously published data and provides new information in order to reconstruct the dynamics of the growth of Lithuanian museum art collections caused by radical political changes, which took place in the mid 20th century.
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Raphael, Marc Lee. "Yehudah Bauer. American Jewry and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939–1945. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1980. 522 pp." AJS Review 10, no. 2 (1985): 250–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0364009400001410.
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Conway, John S., and David S. Wyman. "The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945." German Studies Review 8, no. 2 (May 1985): 356. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1428685.
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SEREBRENNIKOVA, ANNA. "CRIMINAL PROSECUTION OF HOLOCAUST DENIAL IN GERMANY." Sociopolitical sciences 10, no. 3 (June 30, 2020): 115–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.33693/2223-0092-2020-10-3-115-120.
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Currently, they are attracting public attention and causing public resonance problems associated with the reassessment of the feat of the Soviet people in World War II. Various kinds of insinuations arise related to the denial of the persecution and mass extermination of Jews living in Germany, in the territory of its allies and in the territories occupied by them during the Second World War; the systematic persecution and extermination of European Jews by Nazi Germany and collaborators during 1933-1945. Practice shows that those guilty of Holocaust denial try to avoid criminal liability and influence judicial practice, referring to freedom of speech enshrined in Art. 5 Abs. 1 of the Basic Law of Germany. The purpose of the article. Investigate the institution of criminal responsibility for Holocaust denial in Germany. Based on an analysis of the norms of criminal law and judicial practice in Germany in specific criminal cases, investigate the difficulty of delimiting criminal liability for denying the Holocaust freedom of expression. Methodology and methods. For the purposes of this article, the author uses the methods of analysis, synthesis, induction, diduction, as well as comparative legal, historical legal and historical comparative methods. Conclusions. After conducting a study, the author concludes that in Germany the issue of criminal liability for Holocaust denial is complex. The article points out the fact of heterogeneity of court decisions, analysis of judicial practice shows that this issue is resolved extremely ambiguously. Despite this, the author points out the high role of the legislator and the practice of law enforcement in shaping the right attitude to historical events, the high role of peoples in certain significant facts that are part of the foundation of historical and cultural heritage. Scope of the results. This work may be of interest to students of higher educational institutions, as well as graduate students interested in criminal law of foreign countries. The article can be used by teachers of law schools as an addition to the educational material.
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RIGÓ, MÁTÉ. "Ordinary women and men: superintendents and Jews in the Budapest yellow-star houses in 1944–1945." Urban History 40, no. 1 (December 19, 2012): 71–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0963926812000648.
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ABSTRACT:The present article investigates how everyday people shaped the outcome of discriminatory measures during the Nazi persecution of Budapest Jews, primarily by looking into micro-level social interactions between superintendents and confined Jews during ghettoization in the Hungarian capital (1944). I argue that besides a multiplicity of relevant political, social and military reasons determining the fate of Budapest Jews, the urban specificity of the Holocaust also needs to be taken into account, given that location and access to urban space enabled different personal strategies to contest or aggravate anti-Semitic persecution. Especially older, nineteenth-century apartment buildings fostered the autonomy of superintendents, who could act independently of various authorities, exploiting certain Jews while aiding others. The article demonstrates how many superintendents made use of this power effectively as the successive regimes toughened their anti-Semitic policies. In addition, the investigation of individual motives and the micro levels of segregation and discrimination highlight major differences between and within apartment buildings, despite the supposedly homogeneous discrimination against Jews envisaged by Nazi policy makers.
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Pietrzykowski, Szymon. "Złudne nieuwikłanie. III Rzesza w interpretacji antyfaszystowskiej — casus NRD." Studia nad Autorytaryzmem i Totalitaryzmem 38, no. 3 (July 11, 2017): 75–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.19195/2300-7249.38.3.5.
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ILLUSORY NON-ENTANGLEMENT: THIRD REICH IN ANTIFASCIST NARRATIVE THE CASE OF GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICAntifascism, a historiographical doctrine formulated in the 30s of the twentieth century by G. Dimitrov, as aresult of the Soviet victory over the Third Reich acquired the status of official narrative in countries of the Communist Bloc. It played aparticular role in GDR as a primary source of state’s legitimization, especially in the early postwar years. Relating on selected historical sources and extensive literature on this subject to mention, among others, D. Diner, J. Herf, S. Kattago, A. Wolff-Powęska, K. Wóycicki, J. McLellan, M. Fulbrook Iintend to capture the disingenuousness of East German antifascism. Making use of lies, illusion or denial, applying selectiveness on facts or specific way of their interpretation, the GDR authorities managed to integrate the society around apositive yet erroneous myth of victorious mass resistance of the German working class against fascism. What is more, such antifascism played adefensive supervisory function: „universalizing” the period of 1939–1945 as another stage of long-term rivalry between the proletariat and capitalists it discursively blurred the historical continuity between the GDR and the Third Reich, and sustained the illusion of lack of guilt for the Holocaust which actual i.e. Jewish specificity remained unrecognized.
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Radchenko, Iryna Gennadiivna. "The Philanthropic Organizations' Assistance to Jews of Romania and "Transnistria" during the World War II." Dnipropetrovsk University Bulletin. History & Archaeology series 25, no. 1 (March 7, 2017): 124. http://dx.doi.org/10.15421/261714.
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The article is devoted to assistance, rescue to the Jewish people in Romanian territory, including "Transnistria" in 1939–1945. Using the archival document from different institutions (USHMM, Franklyn D. Roosevelt Library) and newest literature, the author shows the scale of the assistance, its mechanism and kinds. It was determined some of existed charitable organizations and analyzed its mechanism of cooperation between each other. Before the war, the Romanian Jewish Community was the one of largest in Europe (after USSR and Poland) and felt all tragedy of Holocaust. Romania was the one of the Axis states; the anti-Semitic policy has become a feature of Marshal Antonescu policy. It consisted of deportations from some regions of Romania to newly-created region "Transnistria", mass exterminations, death due to some infectious disease, hunger, etc. At the same moment, Romania became an example of cooperation of the international organizations, foreign governments on providing aid. The scale of this assistance was significant: thanks to it, many of Romanian Jews (primarily, children) could survive the Holocaust: some of them were come back to Romanian regions, others decide to emigrate to Palestine. The emphasis is placed on the personalities, who played important (if not decisive) role: W. Filderman, S. Mayer, Ch. Colb, J. Schwarzenberg, R. Mac Clelland and many others. It was found that the main part of assistance to Romanian Jews was began to give from the end of 1943, when the West States, World Jewish community obtained numerous proofs of Nazi crimes against the Jews (and, particularly, Romanian Jews). It is worth noting that the assistance was provided, mostly, for Romanian Jews, deported from Regat; some local (Ukrainian) Jews also had the possibility to receive a lot of needful things. But before the winter 1942, most of Ukrainian Jews was exterminated in ghettos and concentration camps. The main kinds of the assistance were financial (donations, which was given by JDC through the ICRC and Romanian Jewish Community), food parcels, clothes, medicaments, and emigrations from "Transnistria" to Romania, Palestine (after 1943). Considering the status of Romania (as Nazi Germany's ally in World War II), the international financial transactions dealt with some difficulties, which delayed the relief, but it was changed after the Romania's joining to Allies. The further research on the topic raises new problem for scholars. Particularly, it deals with using of memoirs. There is one other important point is inclusion of national (Ukrainian) historiography on the topic, concerning the rescue of Romanian Jews, to European and world history context.
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KOSTRZEWA-ZORBAS, Grzegorz. "GERMAN REPARATIONS TO POLAND FOR WORLD WAR II ON GLOBAL BACKGROUND." National Security Studies 14, no. 2 (December 19, 2018): 183–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.37055/sbn/132131.
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No other country in the world suffered a greater measurable and verifiable loss of human and material resources than Poland during World War II in 1939-1945. According to the first approximation, the value of human and material losses inflicted to Poland by Nazi Germany amounts to 6.495 trillion US dollars of 2018.However, Poland never received war reparations from Germany. The article is a preliminary survey of the complex issue – conducted in an interdisciplinary way combining elements of legal, economic, and political analysis, because the topic belongs to the wide and multidisciplinary field of national and international security. Refuted in the article is an internationally popular myth that communist Poland unilaterally renounced German war reparations in 1953. Then the article discusses the global background of the topic in the 20th and 21st centuries – in particular, the case of Greece whose reparations claims Germany rejects like the Polish claims, and major cases of reparations actually paid: by Germany for World War I, by Germany to Israel and Jewish organizations for the Holocaust, by Japan for World War II – at 966 billion US dollars of 2018, the largest reparations ever – and by and Iraq for the Gulf War. The article concludes with a discussion of necessary further research with advanced methodology of several sciences, and of a possible litigation before the International Court of Justice – or a diplomatic solution to the problem of war reparations.
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Strauss, Elizabeth. "“Everything Is Old”: National Socialism and the Weathering of the Jews of Łódź." Genealogy 8, no. 2 (March 26, 2024): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genealogy8020033.
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Using the social scientific theory of “weathering”, the case study presented here reveals the broader explanatory power of the theory. Arline Geronimus developed the concept to describe the impact of racist systems on marginalized populations. Based on more than four decades of empirical research, Geronimus posits that the cumulative impact of navigating the structural racism embedded in US institutions results in accelerated declines in health and premature aging. The historical case study of the Łódź ghetto demonstrates that Nazi persecution of the Jews during the Holocaust resulted in a similar process of weathering among Jews. From 1939 to 1945, German authorities systematically dispossessed and uprooted, purposely starved, and exploited for labor the tens of thousands of Jews held captive in the Łódź ghetto. Despite valiant Jewish efforts to ameliorate the hardships of life in the ghetto, the persistent onslaught of racist policies and degradation ultimately resulted in widespread weathering of the population on an individual and communal level. I propose that the concept of “weathering” developed by social scientists has broad interpretative power for understanding the personal and communal impact of white supremacist societies in a historical context. The case of the Łódź ghetto is instructive beyond what it reveals about the particular persecution of the Jews during the Third Reich. The abrupt imposition of a racist system of government, the steady escalation of antisemitic policies from oppression and exploitation to genocide, and the relatively short duration of the ghetto’s existence lays bare the cumulative effects of widespread individual weathering on the vitality of the community itself. In the Łódź ghetto, prolonged exposure to an environment governed by white supremacy also resulted in communal weathering.
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Nabytovych, Ihor. "PROFESSOR IVAN OHIYENKO AND METROPOLITAN ANDREY SHEPTYTSKYI: DEFINING THE IDEAS OF ANTHROPOLOGY OF CULTURE AND THE TASKS OF NATIONAL ART." IVAN OHIIENKO AND CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE AND EDUCATION, no. 19 (December 29, 2022): 123–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.32626/2309-7086.2022-19.123-131.
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The relations between the two great metropolitans of the Ukrainian Churches – Andrei Sheptyts’kyi and Ivan Ohiienko – were an important factor not only in the socio-political and religious life of the interwar twenty years, but also in Ukrainian culture in general. Hilarion, the future Metropolitan of the Ukrainian Greek Orthodox Church in Canada, would not have been able to pub-lish the magazine («Ridna Mova») «Native Language» in Warsaw in 1933-1939 without the fi nancial support of Metropolitan Andrei.In the article «On the Philosophy of Culture», written at the request of Professor Ivan Ohiienko, Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytskyi described his vision of the anthropology of culture, publicized the doctrine of cultural philosophy, in which the proper place was given not only to science, art, human work, but also to human being, which is of special value human life and human freedom, which resonate with the doctrine of the Ukrainian national liberation movement «Freedom to people, freedom to man». Its addition is article «From the history and problems of the piece» of Andrei Sheptyts’kyi, which formulated the doc-trine of Ukrainian national culture, its mission and tasks.Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytskyi’s large-scale action to save Jews by the black and white clergy of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, which lasted for many months during the German occupation, is an unprecedented non-violent Resistance Movement against the Holocaust, an important contribution to the fi ght against Nazism, the embodiment of the Metropolitan’s cultural doctrine in conditions of mortal danger, in which the fi rst place was the demand to «respect human life, human freedom», and next to that «human work; science, art...»
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Holmila, A. "The Jewish Press and the Holocaust, 1939-1945: Palestine, Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union, Yosef Gorny (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 294 pp., hardcover $90.00, e-book available." Holocaust and Genocide Studies 27, no. 1 (April 1, 2013): 147–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hgs/dct012.
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Wingfield, Nancy W. "In the Shadows of the Holocaust and Communism: Czech and Slovak Jews since 1945. By Alena Heitlinger. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2006. xiii, 238 pp. Notes. Bibliography. Index. Figures. Tables. $39.95, hard bound." Slavic Review 66, no. 4 (2007): 746–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/20060399.
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Landsbergytė Becher, Jūratė. "THE VISIONARIES OF VILNIUS AND THE LITHUANIAN VERSION OF METAMODERNISM." CONTEMPORARY LITERARY STUDIES, no. 20 (December 20, 2023): 95–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.32589/2411-3883.20.2023.293582.
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Contemporary Lithuanian culture uses a unique source of creative spirit, which gives birth to visions of Lithuanian Statehood and sacred architecture. It is Vilnius, and authors related to Vilnius focused on its visual, poetic, and historical meanings. Such creators periodically appeared in the 19th and 20th centuries (M. K. Čiurlionis, A. Mickewicz, O. Miłosz, Cz. Miłosz, M. Kulbak), and when Poland occupied Vilnius, the spiritual connection between the city and Lithuania painfully and vividly intensified. Furthermore, Vilnius’ significance highly increased during the Soviet occupation (1940, 1945–1990). It symbolised the enslaved Statehood of Lithuania at that time and remained an invincible architectural vision of European continuity. Composers (E. Balsys, V. Barkauskas), film directors (A. Grikevičius), and painters (A. Stasiulevičius) created the paradigm of the eternal city, deeply rooted in the self-consciousness of Lithuanian Statehood. In the 21st century, this paradigm flourished incredibly powerfully in literature and music. Composer Onutė Narbutaitė (*1956) seemed to awaken Vilnius’ importance in global Western civilisation. In her oratorio “Centones meae urbi” (1997), she brought several eras of Vilnius history back to the present, raising the concept of the seasons as parts of the oratorio: “Spring” — Baroque, cultural flourishing, “Summer” — 20th century, Holocaust catastrophe, the fate of Vilnius Jews, “Autumn” — 19th century Romanticism, A. Mickiewicz’s poetry, the deep patriotism of Polish-Lithuanian people, “Winter” — the tragic 1991 January events in Vilnius, Lithuania’s walk toward the West and the restoration of independence. This musical-poetic-documentary concept of oratorio, recreating the turning points of Eastern European epochs, brought Narbutaitė’s work, the winner of the National Prize award, into the global spotlight.It is even more important to emphasise the role of literature, returning Vilnius to the civic historical self-awareness of the European present, which is especially relevant after the beginning of the Russian imperial aggression in 2022 against Ukraine. It is the four-volume work Silva rerum (2008–2016) by the writer and doctor of art studies Kristina Sabaliauskaitė (*1974). Because of its artistic and geopolitical incisiveness, it was translated into the languages of neighbouring European nations (Polish, Latvian, Estonian). Here, the depth of Vilnius’ historical memory grows into the restoration of the meaning of Statehood and acquires an exclusive expression of literary value, the sound of multicultural rumble with a unique penetration of antiquity into the present.The coverage of Sabaliauskaitė’s literary style is a powerful showcase of linguistic memory and existential and state life events, which, in her unique narrative, transforms into an endless melody of musical expression, enriched with the brutal reality of images and actions. Through Vilnius’ idea, not in a vague visionary sense but in a concrete historicism revision sense, Sabaliauskaitė brings back the deep state of the 16th–18th-century Republic of Two Nations (Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) into modern Lithuania, unveiling its relevance. Most importantly, the works of both women creators place them in the category of Vilnius visionaries. Here, historicism is integrated into metamodernism — through an endless melody, the transformation of a musicalform, and a literary sentence into the will of the world, the step into the present. Semantics becomes the bearer of the idea of an astute gathering of nations (in Vilnius as well), the inspirer, and the assessor of Europe’s weakened citizenship genesis in the sense of the Statehood of Eastern Europe. A melody emerges as a line of historical memory in the vault of metamodernism, reviving and enriching the myths of emptiness and the end of history spread by postmodernism. It also synchronises in the present time when an experience of a new challenge of the “falling-behind history” caused by war.
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Abramson, Henry. "The Holocaust in the Soviet Union: Studies and Sources on the Destruction of the Jews in the Nazi Occupied Territories of the USSR, 1941-1945. Eds. Lucjan Dobroszycki and Jeffrey S. Gurock. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1993. xii, 260 pp. Index. Tables. $24.95, paper. - Messages of Murder: A Study of the Reports of the Einsatzgruppen of the Security Police and the Security Service, 1941-1943. By Ronald Headland. Cranbury: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1992. 303 pp. Index. Tables. Appendixes. $45.00, hard bound." Slavic Review 54, no. 3 (1995): 785–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2501797.
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Vidaković Petrov, Krinka. "Hinko Gottlieb and the Beginning of Holocaust Literature in Yugoslavia." European Journal of Jewish Studies, March 27, 2023, 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1872471x-bja10060.
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Abstract The article is dedicated to Hinko Gottlieb (1886–1948), who is introduced here as the first Yugoslav Jewish writer who dealt with the theme of the Holocaust in real time. The personal biography of this forgotten author presents his life in the historical context of the pre-Holocaust and Holocaust periods. The inception of Holocaust literature in Yugoslavia is manifested in Gottlieb’s works, imbued with irony and satire, written prior to the occupation of Yugoslavia in 1941. Special attention is paid to his works written during the Holocaust in Yugoslavia (1941–1945), highlighting key issues regarding the presentation of the Holocaust in literature as art, the function of intertextuality and the use of literary genres, such as the science fiction novel, not traditionally associated with Holocaust literature. Attention is also given to the reception of Gottlieb’s works in the post-Holocaust period.
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Leociak, Jacek. "Understanding the Holocaust. A Task for Generations." Zagłada Żydów. Studia i Materiały, December 1, 2008, 11–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.32927/zzsim.58.
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The Holocaust destroyed virtually the entire Jewish community in Poland. Zusman Segałowicz, the pre-war chairman of the Jewish Union of Writers and Journalists of 13 Tłomackie Street, Warsaw, managed to leave Warsaw in 1939 and via Vilna, Kaunas, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Syria reached Palestine, where, under the beating Tel-Aviv sun, he pondered on the burning ruins of the ghetto. His memoirs, published in 1946 in Argentina (the author died in New York in 1949), contain the following passage: I pass conflagration sites. I dig in the ashes. For the time being, these are the ashes of 13 Tłomackie St. All that is left of the entire Jewish world in Poland is a cemetery. Sometimes our pain leads us to divide this great cemetery into individual, smaller cemeteries: the cemetery of the Hassidic world, the cemetery of Jewish workers, merchants, entrepreneurs and industrialists, the cemetery of Jewish children who were to be our future. Finally, our thoughts run toward the cemetery of the Jewish spirit: the theatre, music, art, journalism and literature. We cannot depart from any of these cemeteries, but, at the same time, we should not come too close, for it could drag one into its endless abyss. What are we to do then? Shout? The dead won't hear us, and the world of the living is more dead than the world of the dead.The Holocaust happened on our soil, in full view of Polish society, and it is an integral part – whether one wants it or not – of Polish history. For the Poles, the experience of the Holocaust remains a unique event and carries extraordinary responsibilities. Nevertheless, in terms of social awareness, the Shoah seems to belong to Jewish rather than to Polish history. Even today many Poles feel ill at ease, threatened or outright disappointed by the Jewish perceptions of the Holocaust and oftentimes the Jews are seen as rivals in the martyrology competition. Despite the recent historical research and public debates, culminating with the discussion around the Jedwabne crime, Polish society largely ignores the issues related to the Holocaust. Still too many myths and lies find their way to the public sphere and enter public circulation. This state of affairs is related, to a certain extent, to the sad legacy of decades of censorship and neglect under the communist rule. We believe that this should change. This is why we shall link research with educational activities in order to foster the knowledge of issues related to the Holocaust.
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Kowner, Rotem. "The Mir Yeshiva’s Holocaust Experience: Ultra-Orthodox Perspectives on Japanese Wartime Attitudes towards Jewish Refugees." Holocaust and Genocide Studies, November 5, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hgs/dcac036.
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ABSTRACT The exodus of Jewish refugees from Lithuania to East Asia in late 1940 has become one of the most remarkable stories of rescue during the Holocaust. The largest group among these refugees was the Mir Yeshiva—one of Europe’s most notable Jewish educational institutions at the time, and the only Lithuanian yeshiva to survive the war in its entirety. Recent studies of this story have emphasized the role of the rescuers—particularly the Japanese vice consul Sugihara Chiune, who issued visas to the Jews—while neglecting the perspectives of the rescued. Nevertheless, the Mir Yeshiva has produced numerous accounts of its wartime ordeal over the past seventy years. Overlooked for the most part by the historiography of this period, the Mir testimonies and writings shed new light on the experiences of the Jewish refugees in Lithuania (1939–1940) and East Asia (1941–1945). Considering these accounts within their broader historical and international context, this article highlights their contribution to our understanding of this episode and Japanese wartime attitudes toward Jewish refugees.
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Hunter, Richard. "Polish – Jewish Relations: A Historical Perspective and Contemporary View." Journal of Social and Political Sciences 5, no. 3 (September 30, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.31014/aior.1991.05.03.366.
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This article is the expansion of a presentation made by the author at Zarrow Pointe in Tulsa, Oklahoma in July of 2022. It considers the topic of “Polish-Jewish Relations” in four parts: (1) Historical Perspectives on Polish-Jewish relations to World War II, including background on early Jewish migration into Poland, information on the period of Polish Partitions, the establishment of the Pale of the Settlement by Russia, and growing Anti-Semitism fueled by elements of the Polish Catholic Church – all leading to September of 1939; (2) World War II and the “Destruction of Polish Jewry” during the Holocaust, including a discussion of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, information relating to various concentration and extermination camps, and events that negatively impacted on Polish-Jewish relations that took place during this period; (3) The period of the imposition of communism (1945-1989), including the events of the 1967-1968 “Anti-Zionist Campaign” that resulted in many of the remaining Jewish population leaving Poland; and (4) Polish-Jewish relations today. The article concludes with some observations on future of Polish-Jewish relations going forward from the positives, negatives, and contradictions inherent in the discussion.
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"The Jewish press and the Holocaust, 1939-1945: Palestine, Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union." Choice Reviews Online 49, no. 10 (June 1, 2012): 49–5829. http://dx.doi.org/10.5860/choice.49-5829.
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Gallas, Elisabeth. "Locating the Jewish Future: The Restoration of Looted Cultural Property in Early Postwar Europe." Naharaim 9, no. 1-2 (January 1, 2015). http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/naha-2015-0001.
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AbstractAt the end of World War II Allied soldiers found an unexpected amount of looted cultural property on German territory, property that had originally belonged to Jewish institutions and private owners from all over Europe. To take care of this precious booty the American Military Government for Germany organized an unprecedented initiative in cultural restitution. However, since most of the Jewish treasures found were heirless, traditional legislation based on bilateral intergovernmental regulations was insufficient for the task of finding just restitution solutions and meeting Jewish collective interests. In 1949, after complex legal negotiations, the New York based corporation Jewish Cultural Reconstruction (JCR) was officially installed to act as trustee for heirless Jewish cultural property found in the American Zone of Occupation. Not only was it extraordinary that the major Jewish organizations of the time – representing Palestine/Israel as well as the Diaspora – worked together via JCR, this was also the first time that international law recognized a legal representative of the Jewish collective. This paper explores the history of JCR, focusing, in particular, on the manifold and conflicting perceptions of the future of Jewish existence post-1945 that informed its work. On the one hand, the reestablished Jewish communities of Europe, especially the one in Germany, strongly contested JCR’s goal of distributing the rescued material to Jewish centers outside of Europe. Unlike JCR, they believed in a new Jewish beginning on the war-torn continent. On the other hand, Zionist- versus Diaspora-centered views also led to internal conflicts within JCR regarding the rightful ownership and appropriate relocation of European Jewish cultural heritage. JCR’s history reveals significant facets of Jewish agency and future planning in the early postwar years while reflecting the new topography of Jewish existence after the Holocaust.
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Оlexandra Rudnitska. "The influence of historical events on the formation of Roma culture in the context of the socio-cultural space of Ukraine in the XXI century." NATIONAL ACADEMY OF MANAGERIAL STAFF OF CULTURE AND ARTS HERALD, no. 4 (December 15, 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.32461/2226-3209.4.2020.219177.
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The purpose of the article is to determine and explore the relationship and interaction of historical events (Russian Revolution of 1917 and its consequences; World War II (1939-1945); anti-Roma policy of Nazism and the Holocaust; the collapse of the USSR) on the formation of Roma culture in the context of socio-cultural space of Ukraine XXI century. The methodology is based on the use of historical, socio-cultural methods to reveal the historical truth in the formation of Roma culture in different chronological periods. The scientific novelty is that for the first time in chronological order the relationship and interaction of historical events of the ХХ century (the Russian Revolution of 1917 and its consequences; World War II (1939-1945); anti-Roma policy of Nazism and the Holocaust; the collapse of the USSR) and the formation of Roma culture in the context of the socio-cultural space of Ukraine in the XXI century, determines the origin, formation, current state, and influence of Roma art on the development of Ukrainian culture of the XXI century. Conclusions. Historical events, from ancient times to the present, including the Russian Revolution of 1917 and its consequences, World War II (1939-1945), anti-Roma policies of Nazism, the Holocaust, the collapse of the USSR, had a relationship and decisive influence on the formation of Roma culture in the context of the socio-cultural space of Ukraine of the XXI century. The first Holodomor became a motive for strengthening the Ukrainian national consciousness, the settlement of Roma on the territory of Ukraine, and uniting the joint efforts of Ukrainians to resist the Soviet government. During the Second World War, the Roma did not lose their optimism and thirst for creativity, raised the fighting spirit with military songs, dances, and amateur front-line concerts. It was emphasized that a significant number of Roma were killed in the punitive actions of the Nazi occupation regime in Ukraine. In the middle of the twentieth century, no book in the Romani language (neither artistic nor scientific) was published in the USSR, and Romani schools were closed. The development of Roma culture was formal. After the collapse of the USSR, Roma artists were able to tour freely around the world and integrate their culture without any fear of oppression of their creative activities, continuing their development in the socio-cultural space of Ukraine in the XXI century.
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"Dalia Ofer. Escaping the Holocaust: Illegal Immigration to the Land of Israel, 1939–1944. (Studies in Jewish History.) New York: Oxford University Press. 1990. Pp. xiii, 408. $35.00 and Dina PoratThe Blue and the Yellow Stars of David: The Zionist Leadership in Palestine and the Holocaust, 1939–1945. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1990. Pp. x, 334. $27.95." American Historical Review, June 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr/97.3.900.
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