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Journal articles on the topic 'History, 1851'

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Published: 27 July 2024

Last updated: 31 July 2024

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1

Geary, Frank. "Regional industrial structure and labour force decline in Ireland between 1841 and 1851." Irish Historical Studies 30, no. 118 (November 1996): 167–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021121400012839.

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The censuses of 1841 and 1851 provide the earliest detailed and consistent data on the occupations pursued by the people of Ireland in the first half of the nineteenth century. This paper presents a series, constructed from this data, on occupations classified by industry for the years 1841 and 1851. Its purpose is to establish the industrial distribution of the labour force for each of the four provinces, to describe the changes in industrial employment by province during the famine decade, and to make a contribution to debate on the origins of employment decline.IIn its return of occupations, the census of 1841 differed from the censuses of 1821 and 1831 in three ways: in method of estimation, in compilation, and in system of classification. As regards estimation, the 1841 commissioners issued a ‘Form of family return’ to be completed by the head of the family, rather than, as in 1821 and 1831, having the details entered by the enumerator from viva voce inquiry. This has its limitations in that it depends on the accuracy of the householders’ returns, but it is preferable to relying on the accuracy of enumerators’ returns. As regards compilation, the 1841 census returned the occupations of all persons active in the labour force by age and gender; the 1821 census returned all persons active; the 1831 census returned males upwards of twenty years of age in agriculture, industry and services (except servants), all male servants and female servants (age unspecified). As regards the system of classification, the 1821 occupation returns were made under three, and the 1831 under eleven general headings with no return of the numbers engaged in the component occupations of these headings (but see note 1); the 1841 census provided a return of the numbers of males and females engaged in each of 471 occupations classified as belonging to one of nine classes: ministering to food; clothing; lodging; furniture; machinery, etc.; health; charity; justice; education; religion; unclassified.

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2

BROOK, FRED J., and JONATHAN D. ABLETT. "Type material of land snails (Mollusca: Gastropoda) described from New Zealand by taxonomists in Europe and North America between 1830 and 1934, and the history of research on the New Zealand land snail fauna from 1824 to 1917." Zootaxa 4697, no. 1 (November 14, 2019): 1–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4697.1.1.

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Details are provided on 124 land snail species and varieties from New Zealand, and a further 14 species putatively from New Zealand, all of which were described by European and North American taxonomists between 1830 and 1934, based on specimens collected between 1824 and 1924. Primary type material of 95 of these taxa was located in Northern Hemisphere museums during the present study. Lectotypes are designated for: Helix chimmoi Pfeiffer, 1857, Helix glabriuscula Reeve, 1852, Helix (Paryphanta) gilliesi Smith, 1880, Nanina ? celinde Gray, 1850, Zonites chiron Gray, 1850 and Zonites coma Gray, 1843. Neotypes are designated for Helix conella Pfeiffer, 1861 and Helix tau Pfeiffer, 1861. Primary type material of the following taxa is figured herein for the first time: Bulimus? (Laoma) leimonias Gray, 1850, Cyclophorus cytora Gray, 1850, Cyclostoma (Cyclophorus?) lignarium Pfeiffer, 1857, Helix chimmoi Pfeiffer, 1857, Helix egesta Gray, 1850, Helix fatua Pfeiffer, 1857, Helix greenwoodi Gray, 1850, Helix guttula Pfeiffer, 1853, Helix kermandeci Pfeiffer, 1857, Helix portia Gray, 1850, Helix sciadium Pfeiffer, 1857, Helix venulata Pfeiffer, 1857, Helix (Paryphanta) gilliesi Smith, 1880, Hydrocena (Omphalotropis) vestita Pfeiffer, 1855, Nanina ? celinde Gray, 1850, Nanina erigone Gray, 1850, Nanina mariae Gray, 1843, Patula modicella var. vicinalis Mousson, 1873, Realia egea Gray, 1850, Vitrina kermadecensis Smith, 1873 and Zonites chiron Gray, 1850. New taxonomic combinations introduced herein include: Allodiscus nematophora (Reeve, 1854), Cavellia biconcava (Reeve, 1852), Charopa chimmoi (Pfeiffer, 1857), Coneuplecta regularis (Reeve, 1854), Delos jeffreysiana (Reeve, 1852), Fectola tau (Pfeiffer, 1861), Fectola varicosa (Reeve, 1852), Flammulina crebriflammea (Reeve, 1852), Lyrotropis vestita (Pfeiffer, 1855), ?Neophenacohelix ziczac (Gould, 1846), Parabalea peregrina (Gould, 1847), Phacussa hypopolea (Reeve, 1852), Phenacharopa novoseelandica (Küster, 1852), Phrixgnathus glabriusculus (Reeve, 1852), Phrixgnathus poecilostictus (Reeve, 1852), Thalassohelix obnubila (Reeve, 1852), Tornatellinops novoseelandica (Küster, 1852) and Wainuia urnula (Reeve, 1854). Helix collyrula Reeve, 1852 and Nanina tullia Gray, 1850 are treated as junior synonyms of Phenacohelix (Neophenacohelix) giveni Cumber 1961 nomen protectum and Helix (Huttonella) pseudoleioda Suter, 1890 nomen protectum, respectively. A brief account is given of the history of research on the New Zealand land snail fauna from 1824 to 1917.

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3

Gámiz Gordo, Antonio. "La Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba. Fuentes gráficas hasta 1850." Al-Qanṭara 40, no. 1 (December 20, 2019): 135. http://dx.doi.org/10.3989/alqantara.2019.005.

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La Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba cuenta con un rico legado de imágenes hasta la llegada de la fotografía a mediados del XIX que constituyen una destacada fuente documental para la investigación. Tras una amplia labor de rastreo y localización de dichas imágenes, se aportan referencias sobre sus autores, contexto y técnicas, valorando su fiabilidad o precisión gráfica. Las primeras conocidas corresponden a tiempos cristianos, destacando dos panorámicas urbanas de la segunda mitad del XVI, una de ellas objeto de plagios con una notable difusión en Europa. Los primeros planos a escala del monumento conservados son del XVIII y las primeras vistas interiores de finales de ese siglo. En la primera mitad del XIX se produjeron abundantes imágenes de viajeros y artistas, algunas muy bellas y publicadas con gran éxito editorial. Los documentos gráficos reseñados se presentan agrupados según su autoría y orden cronológico: primeras imágenes simbólicas (desde 1360), Wyngaerde (1567), Civitatis (h. 1585-1617), copias del Civitatis (s. XVII-XVIII), Baldi (1668), óleo anónimo (1741), imágenes esquemáticas (s. XVIII), dibujo colección Vázquez Venegas (1752), planos Académicos (1767-1804), Swinburne (1775-1779), Karwinsky y Rillo (1811), Laborde (h. 1800-1812), Murphy (1802-1813), Bacler d’Able (h. 1820), Taylor (h. 1826-1832), Ford (1831), Lewis (1832-1836), Prangey (1832-1837), Gail (h. 1832-37), Roberts (1833-1839), Dauzats (h. 1836-1838), Chapuy (h. 1838-1842), Villaamil (h. 1838-1844), Bossuet (h. 1841-1855), Gerhardt (h. 1849-1851), Guesdon (1853), Parcerisa (1855) y Los Monumentos Arquitectónicos (h. 1852-1881).

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4

Snahoshchenko, V. V. "A.V. Dukhnovych and His Cultural and Educational Activities." Rusin, no. 65 (2021): 37–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.17223/18572685/65/3.

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The author analyzes the multifaceted research, theoretical, and practical activities of A.V. Dukhnovych (1803–1865) – a talented poet, prose writer, publicist, historian, ethnographer, playwright, teacher, publisher, a well-known “Buditel’” (i.e. awakener) of the Carpathian people. The author studies and describes Dukhnovych’s creative heritage to define the main directions of his cultural and educational activities in the fields of philosophy, history, geography, pedagogy, socio-culture, linguistics, theology, ethnography, agriculture, phytotherapy, etc. Dukhnovich was a convinced traditional educator, who sincerely believed that education can significantly alleviate the plight of the masses. He founded educational societies, organized more than 70 elementary schools, published textbooks, almanacs, calendars. He supported several gymnasiums in Subcarpathian Rus, where teaching was conducted in Russian. Dukhnovich established a scholarship fund for poor pupils and students, organized free cafeterias, etc. The analysis of his epistolary, autobiographical materials, and works of fiction provide an insight into the socio-political and cultural life of the Rusins in the middle of the 19th century. Dukhnovich’s creative heritage includes the first “Primer” for public schools (“Reading Book for Beginners” (1847)); the first textbooks on geography (“A Short Landpiece for Young Rusins” (1851)); history (“General History for Young Rusins” (1851), “The True History of the Carpathossians, or Hungarian Rusins” (1853)); the ethnographic work “On the Peoples of the Extreme or Ugric Carpathians, living near the Beskid in the Zemplínska, Uzhhorod and Sharisha capitals” (1848); “Abridged Grammar of the Written Russian language” (1853); “Folk Pedagogy for the Benefit of Rural Teachers” (1857), which was the first textbook on pedagogy in Western Ukraine published in Lvov; “Menology” (1850, 1851, 1854, 1857), other teaching manuals, articles, poetic works, dumas, and plays. His poem “Vruchanie” became the national anthem of Ugrian Rus. As a democratic educator, he convinced many that the active national and cultural life of the Rusins fully depends on the dissimination of education among the people to bring up the younger generation in the vein of virtue and national dignity. By his personal example, Dukhnovich lead people to spiritual dimensions and influences the worldview and patriotism of the intelligentsia in Subcarpathian Rus. He made a significant contribution to the education of the people, laid the foundations for many cultural and educational societies in Subcarpathian Rus in the 19th century and later – not only in his native land, but also far beyond its borders.

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5

Sаpоzhnykov, Igor, and Olexandr Kuzmishchev. "Невідомі карти та плани Ольвії та її околиць XIX ст." Eminak, no. 4(40) (December 31, 2022): 50–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.33782/eminak2022.4(40).602.

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Мета статті полягає у введенні до наукового обігу та аналізу досі невідомих картографічних джерел, які зберігаються у різних музейних та архівних установах. Наукова новизна пов’язана з тим, що розглянуті чотири плани і карти 1821, 1851, 1863 рр., що стосуються Ольвії та її околиць, що досі ніколи не попадали до наукового вжитку дослідників. Наведено невідомі факти існування села Ольвія (Широке); два фрагменти аркуша «військової зйомки» Херсонської губернії 1851 р. (масштаб 1 : 42 000) з урочищем Сто Могил і ділянкою на північ від с. Парутине. Вперше розглянуто аркуш карти 1851 р. та план А.П. Чиркова 1863 р., на яких зображені Велике та Мале Аджигольські містечка (нині поселення Дніпровське ІІ), вперше описані академіком Е.Е. Келлером. Висновки. У рамках порівняльного аналізу планів було встановлено локалізацію кургану, в якому була знайдена золота маска (1842 р.). Також була локалізована на планах курганна група біля балки Широкої, які булі розкопані у 1844 і 1853 рр. Наводиться інформація про кам’яні склепи, відомі у трьох з них. У ході проведеного дослідження вдалося не тільки порівняти плани між собою, але й локалізувати раніше невідоме місцезнаходження «археологічного будинку», співвіднести місцезнаходження курганів, розкопаних у 1842, 1844 і 1853 рр. а також розібратися у заплутаній бібліографії стосовно місцезнаходження Аджигольського містечка.

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6

Drapeau, Thierry. "‘Look at our Colonial Struggles’: Ernest Jones and the Anti-Colonialist Challenge to Marx’s Conception of History." Critical Sociology 45, no. 7-8 (November 17, 2017): 1195–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0896920517739094.

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This article seeks to restore the influential role of the Chartist activist, writer and poet, Ernest Jones (1819–1869), on Marx’s shift toward a multilinear conception of history in the early 1850s. Living in exile in London, Marx developed a close and long-lasting friendship and intellectual partnership with Jones, and actively contributed to his Chartist weeklies, Notes to the People (1851–1852) and the People’s Paper (1852–1858), during which he was directly exposed to, and thus influenced by, Jones’ anti-colonialist outlook. Based on circumstantial and cross-textual evidence, this article shows that starting in 1853 Marx appears to have drawn insights from Jones’ writings as he was changing his views on the progressiveness of Western colonialism, particularly the British kind in India. Seemingly imbued with the radical intellectual environment in which he gravitated in London, Marx followed his Chartist comrade and converged increasingly toward a similar anti-colonialist position, thus breaking with the Eurocentric, unilinear framework of historical development that characterized The Communist Manifesto (1848). Recovering the impact that Jones had on Marx’s intellectual trajectory in the 1850s brings to the fore the contribution of English radical politics in the early development of Marxism, especially as regard to the nexus between anti-colonialism and world revolution.

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7

Martin, Benjamin F. "John Merriman.Police Stories: Building the French State, 1815–1851.:Police Stories: Building the French State, 1815–1851." American Historical Review 111, no. 4 (October 2006): 1255–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr.111.4.1255a.

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8

North, Sue. "Privileged knowledge, privileged access: early universities in Australia." History of Education Review 45, no. 1 (June 6, 2016): 88–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/her-04-2014-0028.

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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to show that Australia’s first two universities were connected to class status. It challenges the idea that these universities extended the “educational franchise” at their outset, by interrogating the characteristics of the student population in comparison with the characteristics of the population in the colonies. It looks at the curricula within the university system to show it is always “interested”, never neutral – it may be unique to the social, cultural, political and economic location of each university, but ultimately it benefits those who hold power in these locations. Design/methodology/approach – This research involves empirical analysis of characteristics of university students in Australia in the 1850s, including country of birth, religion, age, previous education and fathers’ occupation, as well as population demographics from the censuses that took place in the colonies of NSW and Victoria at that time. It also involves an analysis of the sociology of knowledge in nineteenth century Australian universities in light of this empirical data. Findings – Socio-political influences on the establishment of the first universities in Australia highlight the power of conferring legitimacy to particular areas of knowledge and to whom this knowledge was made available. Research limitations/implications – The research is limited to using the student data for the first three years of enrolment because in order to make comparisons between the student population and the population of the colonies, the student data needed to be from a time as close to the population census as possible. The Sydney census was in 1851, so student data from the University of Sydney was 1852-1854. The Melbourne census was in 1854, so student data from the University of Melbourne was 1855-1857. Originality/value – Australian historiography suggests that early universities in Australia were open to all, regardless of background. This paper challenges this orthodoxy through empirical findings and theoretical analysis.

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9

Kop, P. C. "De Brieven Van a.C. Holtius Aan F.C. Von Savigny." Tijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschiedenis / Revue d'Histoire du Droit / The Legal History Review 60, no. 1-2 (1992): 127–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157181992x00089.

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AbstractAdrianus Catharinus Holtius (1786-1861) war Professor zu Deventer (1816-1821), Groningen (1821-1822), Löwen (1822-1831 ) und Utrecht ( 1831-1861). Sein Lehrauftrag zu Utrecht enthielt römisches Recht, Handelsrecht und Seerecht. Er verkehrte brieflich mit Savigny vom 6. Juni 1832 bis zum 27. Oktober 1851. Nur die Holtiusbriefe sind in der Universitätsbibliothek Marburg greifbar. Ein Schreiben Savignys vom 13. Oktober 1836 ist erhalten und wird in diesem Aufsatz in ungekürzter Form abgedruckt. Die Korrespondenz umfaßt eine Vielzahl von Themen: so z.B. die Überlieferung, nach der die Pisaner die Littera Pisana 1135 in Amalfi erbeutet hätten, den Gegensatz Quiritium und Latinorum, die Begriffsbestimmung von furtum, mutuum, nexus, fructuum perceptio, civilis und naturalis possessio und die Anwesenheit Cujazischer Schriften in Frankfurt. Holtius gibt auch seinen Kommentar zu den Veröffentlichungen Savignys, wie Das Recht des Besitzes und Geschichte des römischen Rechts im Mittelalter. Weiterhin diskutiert man über Handschriften und Kollegen, über den jämmerlichen Zustand der Gesetzgebung, der Rechtspflege und der Rechtswissenschaft, über die eigene Gesundheit usw. Holtius erweist sich als ein Rechtswissenschaftler mit internationalen Kontakten und breitem Interesse, der die Zivilrechtswissenschaft seiner Zeit noch immer für eine europäische und romanistische Wissenschaft hält.

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10

Rodríguez O., Jaime E. "Mexico in the Age of Proposals, 1821-1851." Hispanic American Historical Review 80, no. 3 (August 1, 2000): 611–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00182168-80-3-611.

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Макаров, Н. А., А. М. Красникова, and С. А. Ерохин. "FIRST RESULTS OF NEW STUDIES OF THE GNEZDILOVO CEMETERY NEAR SUZDAL." Краткие сообщения Института археологии (КСИА), no. 264 (December 3, 2021): 7–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.25681/iaras.0130-2620.264.7-29.

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Поиски средневековых могильников, исследованных в 1851-1852 гг. А. С. Уваровым и утративших выраженные на поверхности надмогильные памятники - курганные насыпи - после раскопок и многолетней распашки земельных участков, на которых находились курганы, ведутся Суздальской экспедицией ИА РАН и ГИМ в Суздальском Ополье уже двадцать лет. Методы и приемы этих поисков существенно изменились в последние годы с использованием ГИС для определения местоположения объектов, обозначенных на картах и планах, сопровождающих полевую документацию 1851-1852 гг., анализом данных дистанционного зондирования местности и использованием геофизической съемки для выявления площадок, на которых располагались курганы, и участков с грунтовыми погребениями. Материалы новых исследований могильника Гнездилово демонстрируют высокую ценность памятников, считавшихся утраченными. Search for medieval burial sites which had been under excavations in 18511852 in the framework of A. S. Uvarov’s field campaign and later became invisible in the landscape with the destruction of the barrows which marked the location of the burials on the intensively cultivated lands are going on for twenty years. Surveys are conducted by Suzdal expedition of the Institute of Archaeology RAS and State Historical Museum. Methods and techniques of these surveys became more effective in the recent years with the progress of GIS, georeferencing of maps of the 1851 excavations and introduction of remote sensing and geophysical prospections for the detection of barrow platforms and areas with the flat in-ground inhumation graves. Recent field investigations at Gnezdilovo burial site demonstrate high scientific value of the sites which were previously regarded as completely destroyed

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STURMA, MICHAEL. "Police and Drunkards in Sydney, 1841-1851." Australian Journal of Politics & History 27, no. 1 (April 7, 2008): 48–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8497.1981.tb00462.x.

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13

Riches, Peter F. "A recently discovered hand-coloured geological map of Norfolk and Suffolk attributed to Richard Cowling Taylor (1789–1851)." Archives of Natural History 47, no. 2 (October 2020): 254–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2020.0652.

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A recently discovered hand-coloured geological map of Norfolk and Suffolk is probably the work of Richard Cowling Taylor (1789–1851). It was originally published by Laurie & Whittle in 1811 and later hand coloured to show the geological strata of the two English counties. The colouration was based on William Smith's 1815 geological map A Delineation of the Strata of England and Wales, with Part of Scotland, but with significant modifications. It appears to have been hand-coloured between 1816 and 1819 and is a very early example of the adoption of Smith's methodology of using colour to represent the different layers of strata on a geological map.

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White, William A. "A Cautious Elite: Toronto's Reluctant Entrance into the Railway Mania of the 1850s." Urban History Review 10, no. 1 (October 30, 2013): 31–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1019154ar.

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This paper examines the entrepreneurial strategies of Torontonians. It focuses upon public referenda held in 1850 and 1851 to decide whether to invest municipal funds in railways to Lake Huron and Guelph. Historians who have tried to explain why the citizens rejected the investment in the line to Lake Huron and approved the line to Guelph have limited their analyses to the backers of each project. Toronto's merchants opposed the first subscription but approved the second one. The independently wealthy Tories led the promotion in the spring of 1850 but were in the background in the fall of 1851. The meaning seems inescapable: Torontonians responded positively to the appeal of the merchants who appeared to understand, as the Tories did not, the new options open to a community's development which railways created. By concentrating only upon individuals, this analysis ignores the persistence of the developmental attitudes of the 1830s and 1840s. The paper is not concerned with how transportation projects were financed, or the numbers of people, wheat, and hogs which passed over them, but with the style and speculation which attended their discussion. It explains the decisions of 1850-1851 by way of a tradition and briefly examines the responses of Chicagoans to the railway frenzy as a sharpening contrast. Faced with many of the same challenges and possibilities as were the people of Chicago, Torontonians responded with far less confidence and unity. Their own beliefs and values, not those of a Hamilton or a Montreal, were hurdles for the citizens of Toronto. Exuberance over railway schemes only gradually displaced prudent attitudes of the 1830s and 1840s.

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Cooper, Michael P. "Lost & Found: 217. Bryce McMurdo Wright Snr (c.1814-1874) and Jnr (1850-1895)." Geological Curator 5, no. 6 (August 1991): 232–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.55468/gc668.

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Michael P. Cooper (41 Albany Road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham NG7 7LX) writes: 'I am researching the Victorian natural history dealers Bryce McMurdo Wright, father and son (senior, c. 1814-1874; junior, 1850-1895). Both dealt in a wide range of material, including minerals, fossils, shells, corals and ethnological items. The elder Wright is well known for his discovery of the then-new mineral matlockite in 1851 (Greg 1851). Several new species of Recent and fossil mollusc (including Caryocaris wrightii Salter in Harkness, 1863, and Spondylus wrightianus Crosse, 1873) were also named from specimens supplied by him. My recent research has added a great deal of detail to the previously published biographies (e.g. Cleevely), which scanty information often confused...

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Davydov, Ruslan. "The last Russian hunters on Spitsbergen in 1851—1852: the tragedy of the crew of the ship “Grigorij Bogoslov”." OOO "Zhurnal "Voprosy Istorii" 2020, no. 10-2 (October 1, 2020): 185–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.31166/voprosyistorii202010statyi35.

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This publication is dedicated to the tragedy of the crew of the ship “Grigorij Bogoslov” during a Pomor hunting expedition to Spitsbergen in 1851. It is prepared mainly on the basis of documents from the State Archive of the Arkhangelsk Region and the Russian State Historical Archive, most of which publish for the first time.

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Saslow, Wayne M. "A History of Thermodynamics: The Missing Manual." Entropy 22, no. 1 (January 7, 2020): 77. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/e22010077.

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We present a history of thermodynamics. Part 1 discusses definitions, a pre-history of heat and temperature, and steam engine efficiency, which motivated thermodynamics. Part 2 considers in detail three heat conservation-based foundational papers by Carnot, Clapeyron, and Thomson. For a reversible Carnot cycle operating between thermal reservoirs with Celsius temperatures t and t + d t , heat Q from the hot reservoir, and net work W, Clapeyron derived W / Q = d t / C ( t ) , with C ( t ) material-independent. Thomson used μ = 1 / C ( t ) to define an absolute temperature but, unaware that an additional criterion was needed, he first proposed a logarithmic function of the ideal gas temperature T g . Part 3, following a discussion of conservation of energy, considers in detail a number of energy conservation-based papers by Clausius and Thomson. As noted by Gibbs, in 1850, Clausius established the first modern form of thermodynamics, followed by Thomson’s 1851 rephrasing of what he called the Second Law. In 1854, Clausius theoretically established for a simple Carnot cycle the condition Q 1 / T 1 + Q 2 / T 2 = 0 . He generalized it to ∑ i Q i / T g , i = 0 , and then ∮ d Q / T g = 0 . This both implied a new thermodynamic state function and, with appropriate integration factor 1 / T , the thermodynamic temperature. In 1865, Clausius named this new state function the entropy S.

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Tarnawski, Eduard. "Kto się boi księcia Metternicha?" Kwartalnik Kolegium Ekonomiczno-Społecznego. Studia i Prace, no. 4 (November 29, 2013): 113–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.33119/kkessip.2013.4.5.

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Th e author proposes a test for the propensity of being a reactionary that he calls ”Metternich test”, although Robert Stewart Castlereagh (1769–1822) could also be called as an examiner. Undoubtedly only Russian tsars can be considered reactionary monarchs, starting from Nicholas I (1796–1855). To judge whether president Putin is a reactionary we need authority of Alexandr Solzhenitsyn (1918–2008). Although Henry Kissinger is called Metternich of 20th century, he is not suit for the function of examiner. Author elaborates on the faith Metternich had in love as a force that makes politics possible. A person that can’t understand the life of other people, cannot understand history. Aft er Nicholas I became tsar all Russian doctinaires, such as Sergey Uvarov (1786–1855), Konstantin Leontiev (1831–1891) and Konstantin Pobedonostsev 1827–1907), formulated principles of reaction. The paper ends with Wacław Nałkowski’s (1851–1911) critique of Henryk Sienkiewicz as a reactionary.

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Wiener, Joel H., and Richard D. Altick. "Punch: The Lively Youth of a British Institution, 1841-1851." American Historical Review 104, no. 3 (June 1999): 995. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2651130.

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Ruse, M. "The correspondence of Charles Darwin vol. 5 1851–1855." Endeavour 14, no. 3 (January 1990): 150–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-9327(90)90030-u.

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21

Goncharova, I. A., J. Todd, and S. V. Nikolaeva. "Taxonomic History and Type Material of <i>Astarte pulchella</i> Baily, 1858 (Mollusca: Bivalvia, Lutetiidae)." Палеонтологический журнал, no. 3 (May 1, 2023): 52–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s0031031x23030078.

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Five out of the original nine syntypes of Astarte pulchella Baily, 1858 (junior synonym of Davidaschilia (Zhgentiana) gentilis (Eichwald, 1851)) are discovered in the Natural History Museum, London. A lectotype is designated, described and illustrated, as well as all paralectotypes, and a detailed synonymy of the species is provided. The importance of the species as characteristic of the Karaganian Regiostage of Eastern Paratethys, Middle Miocene (=Serravalian) is highlighted.

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Babich, Irina L. "“Each Tribe Can Be Conquered Separately…”. The Inclusion of the Karabulacs in the Russian Empire." Vostok. Afro-aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost, no. 2 (2022): 203. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s086919080019144-5.

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This article is study one of the important stages in the history of the North Caucasus - the including of the peoples of this region in the Russian Empire during ХIХ c. This historical period has been well studied by historians, however, there is a gap in this history – there aren’t publications devoted to the stages of the including one of the peoples of the North-Eastern Caucasus in the Russian Empire during the Caucasian War - Karabulaсs. Karabulaсs lived between Chechens and Ingush. Their culture, traditions and language are related with neighboring peoples. And so historians sometimes consider Karabulaks as a part of Chechens, sometimes as a part of Ingush. In this article we consider mechanism of the including Karabulacs in Russia. The work was done on the basis of archival materials from three archives - the Russian Military Historical Archive (Moscow), the Russian State Historical Archive (St. Petersburg) and the Central State Archive of North Ossetia-Alania (Vladikavkaz). The author defines four stages in the process of the inclusion of the Karabulaсs in the Russian Empire: the first - the beginning of the ХIХ century-1829. During this period a small part of Karabulaks included into Russia (so-called «Yandyr Karabulacs». The second period - 1830-1839. This stage included two directions: 1. Russian troops repel the raids of Karabulacs, firstly, against the Cossacks, and, secondly, against the Yandyr Karabulacs; 2. military actions of Russian troops against Karabulacs. As a result of this actions the most of Karabulacs included into the Russian Empire. The third period - 1840-1851. The Karabulacs which included into the Russian Empire during the 1830s, had the influence by Imam Shamil in 1840-1841. They decided to support Imam Shamil. They again, as a rule, together with the rebellious Chechens, began to fight against the Russian empire. The fourth - 1852-1859. The author considers the final date of the of the inclusion of the Karabulacs to Russia to be 1851. 01.21.1850-15.02.1852 - Deputation of Karabulacs went to St. Petersburg for the meeting with the Russian government. On the fourth stage, we can talk only on the some cases resistance of Karabulaсs to the Russian authorities.

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23

Morgan, Kenneth O. "The British Identity, 1851-2008." Britain and the World 1, no. 1 (September 2008): 4–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/brw.2008.0002.

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24

Price, R. "The European Revolutions, 1848-1851." English Historical Review CXXIII, no. 502 (May 30, 2008): 776. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ehr/cen146.

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25

Thuillier, Guy. "Les souffrances des prisonniers de Clamecy (decembre 1851-mars 1852)." Le Mouvement social, no. 161 (October 1992): 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3779255.

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Thuillier, Guy. "Les souffrances des prisonniers de Clamecy (décembre 1851-mars 1852)." Le Mouvement Social 161, no. 4 (December 1, 1992): 25–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.3917/lms.1992.161.0025.

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27

Delpu, Pierre-Marie. "La fabrique médiatique d’un martyr libéral : le cas Carlo Poerio (1851-1859)." Le Temps des médias 33, no. 2 (2019): 38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3917/tdm.033.0038.

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28

Mann, Ralph. "Young Charles Sumner and the Legacy of the American Enlightenment, 1811-1851 (review)." Civil War History 49, no. 1 (2003): 98–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/cwh.2003.0015.

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29

Codd, GA, DA Steffensen, MD Burch, and PD Baker. "Toxic blooms of cyanobacteria in Lake Alexandrina, South Australia — Learning from history." Marine and Freshwater Research 45, no. 5 (1994): 731. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf9940731.

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Early accounts by European explorers and settlers of South Australia contain numerous references to scums or discoloured water that are consistent with cyanobacterial blooms. Documented reports refer back to at least 1853. The first detailed scientific account of toxic cyanobacteria appeared in 1878. In a perceptive and prescient paper in Nature, the Adelaide assayer and chemist George Francis reported on stock deaths at Milang on the shores of Lake Alexandrina in South Australia. Francis attributed the deaths to the ingestion and toxicity of scums of the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena. Reports of cyanobacterial blooms, scums and associated problems in Lake Alexandrina and in the River Murray between about 1851 and 1888 are discussed and comparisons are made with the reactions to blooms a century later.

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30

Cleevely, R. "John W. Salter, Sir William Logan, and Elkanah Billings: A Brief British Involvement in the First Decade of ‘Canadian Organic Remains’ (1859)." Earth Sciences History 12, no. 2 (January 1, 1993): 142–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.17704/eshi.12.2.e513u22148617mt0.

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John W. Salter, paleontologist of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and son-in-law of J. de C. Sowerby, was commissioned by Director William Logan to describe and illustrate Canadian fossils. The fossils were given to Salter in 1851 but publication did not take place until 1859. Decade I of Canadian Organic Remains by Salter was illustrated by steel engravings. This particular technology is virtually forgotten today, but despite difficulties in preparation eventually produced outstanding illustrations. Elkanah Billings, hired by Logan in 1856 as the first Canadian government palaeontologist, journeyed to Great Britain shortly after his appointment and studied with Salter. Billings produced the third Decade, but the first one to be published. Comparison of the Decades to similar publications of the times indicates that they accomplished Logan's goal of making Canadian fossils better known.

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31

Sabourin, Lise. "Théophile Gautier, Critique théâtrale, t. IX, juillet 1850-octobre 1851." Studi Francesi, no. 188 (LXIII | II) (August 1, 2019): 377–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/studifrancesi.20046.

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32

GLOTOV, SERHII V., ALEXANDER V. MARTYNOV, and ALEXEY V. SHAVRIN. "A catalogue of the types of rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) deposited in the collection of Johan Heinrich Hochhuth in the National Museum of Natural History of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine." Zootaxa 5165, no. 3 (July 15, 2022): 301–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5165.3.1.

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Type specimens of Staphylinidae (Coleoptera) from the collection of J.H. Hochhuth (1810–1872) deposited in National Museum of Natural History of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (Kyiv) are currently being catalogued and illustrated. This catalogue presents information about 103 type specimens (14 holotypes, 80 lecto- and paratypes, and nine syntypes) belonging to 67 nominal species. Several lectotypes are designated: Conurus erythrocephalus Hochhuth, 1849, Aleochara solida Hochhuth, 1849, Trogophloeus kiesenwetterii Hochhuth, 1851, Ocypus pullus Hochhuth, 1849, Philonthus armeniacus Hochhuth, 1851, P. interpunctatus Hochhuth, 1860, and P. subopacus Hochhuth, 1851.

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33

Jervis, Simon Swynfen. "Antiquarian Gleanings in the North of England." Antiquaries Journal 85 (September 2005): 293–338. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003581500074412.

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William Bell Scott (1811-90) was active as painter, poet, designer, teacher and pundit. His littleknown Antiquarian Gleanings (1851), a wide-ranging anthology of Northern antiquities, with thirty-eight colour plates, is here re-published in its entirety, with a new index, as an appendix to a paper which explores its design and content, and the networks of collectors, many of them associated with the Antiquarian Society of Newcastle, whose treasures Scott illustrated. Scott is presented neither as a great scholar, nor as a pioneering archaeologist, but his book is a distinguished artefact in its own right and his choice of subjects has stood the test of time, as well as presenting a vivid reflection of the interests and activities of provincial antiquaries in the period after the coming of the railways and immediately before the Great Exhibition of 1851.

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34

Price, R. "Citoyens-combattants a Paris, 1848-1851." English Historical Review CXXIV, no. 509 (July 16, 2009): 993–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ehr/cep159.

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35

Cohen, William B., and John M. Merriman. "The Margins of City Life: Explorations on the French Urban Frontier, 1815-1851." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 23, no. 2 (1992): 355. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/205304.

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36

Watt, W. S. "Notes on Pliny, Naturalis Historia 33–7." Classical Quarterly 38, no. 1 (January 1988): 206–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009838800031414.

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The following modern editions are referred to: Sillig (1851); Jan (1860); Mayhoff (1897); Bailey (K. C), The Elder Pliny's Chapters on Chemical Subjects (1929–32); Loeb editions (Rackham, Books 33–5 [1952]; Eichholz, Books 36–7 [1962]); Budé editions (Zehnacker, Book 33 [1983]; Le Bonniec, Book 34 [1953]; Croisille, Book 35 [1985]). Abbreviations include: Urlichs1 = K. L. Urlichs, Chrestomathia Pliniana (Berlin, 1857); Urlichs2 = K. L. Urlichs, Vindiciae Plinianae ii (Erlangen, 1866).

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37

Weisser, Henry, and Trevor Lummis. "The Labour Aristocracy, 1851-1914." American Historical Review 101, no. 2 (April 1996): 490. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2170459.

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38

Gölen, Zafer. "1849-1851 Bosna Hersek İsyanı." Belleten 66, no. 247 (December 1, 2002): 905–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.37879/belleten.2002.905.

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Osmanlı Devleti'nde Tanzimat'ın ilânının ardından bir takım yeni düzenlemeler yapılmıştır. Bu durumdan en fazla yerel ayrıcalıklara sahip yöneticiler etkilenmiştir. Bunlar kendi ayrıcalıklarını korumak için merkezle kıyasıya bir mücadele içine girmişlerdir. Hıristiyan tebaaya tanınan haklar ise Hıristiyan güçlere verilen tavizler olarak algılanmıştır. Sonuçta Bosna Hersek, Bulgaristan ve Arnavutluk'ta şiddetli ayaklanmalar ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu kargaşa sadece devletin Balkan toprakları ile sınırlı kalmamıştır. Benzer çatışmalar devletin diğer bölgelerinde de meydana gelmiştir. Bosna Hersek bu düzenlemelerden derinden etkilenen bölgelerin başında yer almıştır. Bosna Hersek, Tanzimât'a kadar devletin nazarında korunması gereken ve çeşitli ayrıcalıklarına göz yumulan bir serhat eyaletiydi. Tanzimât'la birlikte orada da yeni değişikliklerin uygulanması gündeme geldi.

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39

Walsh, D. "Suicide in Ireland in the 19th century." Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine 34, no. 3 (October 11, 2016): 177–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ipm.2016.35.

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IntroductionThis paper is an attempt to determine the extent and characteristics of suicide in 19th-century Ireland and the proportion of these that occurred in asylums.MethodsThe procedures used in this presentation involve analysis of data from the 1841 and 1851 Censuses of Ireland and the Reports of the Registrar-General of Ireland from 1864 to 1899 and the Annual Reports of the Inspectors of Lunacy, 1850 to 1899.ResultsReported suicides had relatively low rates in the 19th century, ranging from 0.9 to 3.3 per 100 000 per year. The proportion of these suicides that occurred in asylums was low at ~4%.ConclusionsThe reporting of suicide as a cause of death was relatively rare in the first-half of the 19th century in Ireland, but increased in frequency progressively throughout the second-half of that century. The reported numbers are likely to have minimised the real rates because of under-reporting.

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40

MCCOY, R. "ALSATIANS INTO FRENCHMEN: THE CONSTRUCTION OF NATIONAL IDENTITIES AT SAINTE-MARIE-AUX-MINES, 1815-1851." French History 12, no. 4 (December 1, 1998): 429–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fh/12.4.429.

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41

Weber, Eugen, and John M. Merriman. "The Margins of City Life: Explorations on the French Urban Frontier, 1815- 1851." American Historical Review 97, no. 5 (December 1992): 1535. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2166013.

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42

Borodulin, Vladimir I., Konstantin K. Vasilyev, Mikhail V. Poddubny, and Aleksey V. Topolyanskiy. "On the history of national medicine: Vasily Parmenovich Obraztsov (1851–1920)." History of Medicine/ru 5, no. 1 (2018): 14–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.17720/2409-5834.v5.1.2018.02b.

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43

Leahy, William P., and Nicholas Varga. "Baltimore's Loyola, Loyola's Baltimore, 1851-1986." History of Education Quarterly 31, no. 1 (1991): 158. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/368818.

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44

McCarthy, Joseph M., and Nicholas Varga. "Baltimore's Loyola, Loyola's Baltimore: 1851-1986." Journal of American History 78, no. 1 (June 1991): 330. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2078163.

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45

Kondratieva, N. V., and A. F. Utkina. "TO THE HISTORY OF STUDYING THE UDMURT SYNTAX." Bulletin of Udmurt University. Series History and Philology 31, no. 5 (October 28, 2021): 925–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.35634/2412-9534-2021-31-5-925-938.

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The article describes and systematizes scientific research devoted to the study of the Udmurt syntax in synchrony and diachrony. Based on the peculiarities of the methodological principles and attitudes’ development, it is proposed to distinguish three stages in the history of studying the syntax of the Udmurt language. The first stage (from the second half of the 18th century to 1851) is characterized by the absence of a systematic approach to the study of the syntactic structure of the language, insufficient delimitation of the spheres of morphology and syntax. The second stage (from 1851 to 1939) is characterized by a closer attention to the syntactic nature of linguistic phenomena, as well as to the development of terminology in the Udmurt language. However, a deep scientific understanding of the Udmurt syntax began only at the third stage (from 1939 to the present), when the structural-semantic principle dominates in the study of syntactic constructions, providing for equal attention to the structure (construction) of a syntactic unit and the meaning (semantics) that it is embodied in it.

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46

Bossak, Brian H., Sarah S. Keihany, Mark R. Welford, and Ethan J. Gibney. "Coastal Georgia Is Not Immune: Hurricane History, 1851–2012." Southeastern Geographer 54, no. 3 (2014): 323–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/sgo.2014.0027.

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47

Ivanišević, Milan. "First look into the eye." European Journal of Ophthalmology 29, no. 6 (October 7, 2018): 685–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1120672118804388.

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Purpose: Until Helmholtz’s discovery of the ophthalmoscope, it was not possible to visualize the posterior pole of the eye in a living subject. The aim of this work is to emphasize the importance of the invention of the ophthalmoscope because the new era in ophthalmology began with it. Methods: Available literature concerning this topic was studied, especially by getting in contact with institutes for history of medicine as well as medico-historians in Germany and other countries. Results: Hermann von Helmholtz, German physician and physicist, presented and published his invention of the ophthalmoscope in 1851. Albrecht von Graefe was the first to use ophthalmoscope routinely. He said: ‘Helmholtz has opened a new world to us’. The first ophthalmoscope was not easy to use. Some ophthalmologists even thought that ophthalmoscopy is harmful for the eye, particularly for a diseased eye. First, it was used in Germany (A von Graefe), Austria (E Jäger), and Netherlands (FC Donders). In England, it was used only at Moorfields till 1855 (W Bowman). At the First International Congress of Ophthalmology in Brussels 1857, the importance of ophthalmoscopy was stressed. FC Donders said that every view with the ophthalmoscope into the living eye was a new discovery. Among retinal diseases, first were discovered pigment retinopathy (FC Donders) and retinal detachment (A Coccius) in 1853. Conclusion: Helmholtz inaugurated modern era in ophthalmology with his magnificant instrument which revolutionized the development of ophthalmology. Von Graefe popularized it. Because of the new findings, ophthalmology was definitely separated from surgery in the middle of 19th century.

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48

Uljasz, Adrian. "Rufin Morozowicz (1851 – 1931). Legenda polskiego teatru." Przegląd Nauk Historycznych 20, no. 1 (August 18, 2021): 159–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/1644-857x.20.01.06.

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Komik Rufin Morozowicz (1851–1931) to aktor i śpiewak – legenda polskiej operetki. Osiągnął dorobek również jako artysta dramatyczny, dyrektor teatru i reżyser. Zdarzało się, że występował z sukcesem w operach komicznych. Z początku grał w warszawskich teatrach ogródkowych i na tzw. prowincji. Pracował w objazdowych zespołach aktorskich. W okresie 1875–1878 był aktorem Teatru Miejskiego w Krakowie. W 1881 r. otrzymał angaż w Warszawskich Teatrach Rządowych. Od tego czasu na stałe związał się zawodowo z Warszawą. Wykonywał zawód aktora do 1927 r. Był najbardziej znanym aktorem z rodziny Morozowiczów. Jego legendarne role to Menalaus w operetce Jacques’a Offenbacha Piękna Helena i John Styx w operetce tego samego kompozytora Orfeusz w piekle.

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49

Shulman, Peter A. "Anthracite Country Reaches for the World, 1851." Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 139, no. 3 (October 2015): 360–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/pmh.2015.a923305.

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50

Ellis, Joyce, and James Walvin. "English Urban Life, 1776-1851." Economic History Review 38, no. 3 (August 1985): 456. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2597008.

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