Journal articles on the topic 'Himalayan toad'

The Himalayas are one of earth’s hotspots of biodiversity. Among its many cryptic and undiscovered organisms, including vertebrates, this complex high-mountain ecosystem is expected to harbour many species with adaptations to life in high altitudes. However, modern evolutionary genomic studies in Himalayan vertebrates are still at the beginning. Moreover, in organisms, like most amphibians with relatively high DNA content, whole genome sequencing remains bioinformatically challenging and no complete nuclear genomes are available for Himalayan amphibians. Here, we present the first well-annotated multi-tissue transcriptome of a Greater Himalayan species, the lazy toad Scutiger cf. sikimmensis (Anura: Megophryidae). Applying Illumina NextSeq 500 RNAseq to six tissues, we obtained 41.32 Gb of sequences, assembled to ~111,000 unigenes, translating into 54362 known genes as annotated in seven functional databases. We tested 19 genes, known to play roles in anuran and reptile adaptation to high elevations, and potentially detected diversifying selection for two (TGS1, SENP5) in Scutiger. Of a list of 37 genes, we also identify 27 candidate genes for sex determination or sexual development, all of which providing the first such data for this non-model megophryid species. These transcriptomes will serve as a valuable resource for further studies on amphibian evolution in the Greater Himalaya as a biodiversity hotspot.

Background: The objective of the study is to investigate antigenic property of soluble antigens of Nematodes Cosmocercoides dukae isolated from infected Bufo himalayanus (Class Amphibia, order: Anura) and to investigate the nature of protective immune response in laboratory rats. Bufo himalayanus is a species found in the districts of Darjeeling, Sikkim and adjoining hills of the sub-Himalayan belt, at an altitude of 6000 ft. above the sea level and known to be heavily infested by natural gut dwelling nematode infections. The present study is a small step towards protection and conservation of this amphibian species. Results: study of morphology of the nematode parasite confirmed it to be Cosmocercoides dukae. A crude whole body homogenate (antigenic protein) of the parasite was injected in healthy non-infected rats, spleen histo-architecture of treated rats differed from control rats. Humoral immune response assay by Gel Diffusion Precipitin (GDP) Test revealed that the parasite antigen invoked very little to no response. Study of the crude nematode antigenic protein extract concentration was 6.09 mg/ml and protein profile assay by SDS-PAGE showed seven major and several minor bands. Discussion: Though humoral immune response assay of parasite in experimental rats evoked very little or no immune response, this would not mean absence of antibodies, rather the antibody titers were presumably very low. It is to be noted that spleen of treated rats showed a distinctive histological feature. GDP test with infected toad serum also showed negative result. But protein profile assay of antigenic protein by SDS-PAGE showed many bands of proteins, which could be isolated and tested for further characterization. Conclusion: In order to maintain the Himalayan biodiversity, this amphibian species needs protection from such natural infective nematode parasites. If we are able to focus any light to this area, this knowledge might help the future research workers to plan for the protection of this species.

Two new species of the naked-toed geckos of the genus Gonydactylus are described from Eastern Nepal. A comparison of the described species with another “himalayan” Gonydactylus (G. khasiensis and occurring in the west of Nepal G. himalayanus) is given.

We describe a new species of the gekkonid genus Cyrtodactylus based on a series of six specimens from the Chamba Valley in the Western Himalayas, Himachal Pradesh state, India. Cyrtodactylus chamba sp. nov. is a member of the subgenus Siwaligekko and can be diagnosed from congeners in the Western Himalayas by a combination of its small size (snout to vent length up to 63 mm), a continuous series of five precloacal pores on males, 13–15 rows of dorsal tubercles, 33–43 scales across the belly, no regular series of enlarged subcaudals, and a dorsal colour pattern of 5–7 irregular, broad, dark bands with much narrower, light interspaces. The new species is 14% divergent in ND2 sequence from the most similar sampled congener, Cyrtodactylus (Siwaligekko) himalayanus from Jammu and Kashmir, and is 0.5–1.1% divergent in nuclear sequence data from sampled Siwaligekko species. Many more undiscovered Cyrtodactylus species probably exist across the Himalayas at elevations below ~2000 m; basic field surveys for reptiles and other poorly known groups and examination of existing material should be a priority if we are to appreciate the true diversity of this spectacular mountainous landscape.

A new species of bent-toed geckos of the genus Cyrtodactylus is described from western Arunachal Pradesh. The new species is a member of the Indo-Burma clade and is embedded within the “peguensis” group, a relationship deduced contingent on a partial fragment of mitochondrial NADH subunit 2 gene. Cyrtodactylus kamengensissp. nov. is morphologically similar to C. himalayicus from which it differs in bearing a distinct ventrolateral fold and 6–8 basal lamellae on digit IV of pes. Genetically, the new species is sister to the Indian lineage of the “peguensis” group containing C. bhupathyi and C. gubernatoris. The Indian lineage of the “peguensis” group diverged from its Burmese relatives during the mid-Oligocene likely followed by the beginning of the Himalayan uplift, highlighting the role of the Himalayas in the diversification of biota.

Multiple disciplines can help to discover cryptic species and resolve taxonomic confusions. The Asian horned toad genus Megophryssensu lato as a diverse group was proposed to contain dozens of cryptic species. Based on molecular phylogenetics, morphology, osteology, and bioacoustics data, the species profiles of Megophrys toads in the eastern corner of Himalayas in Medog County, Tibet Autonomous Region, China was investigated. The results indicated that this small area harbored at least four Megophrys species, i.e., M. medogensis, M. pachyproctus, Megophrys zhouisp. nov., and Megophrys yeaesp. nov., the latter two being described in this study. Additionally, the mitochondrial DNA trees nested the low-middle-elevation and high-elevation groups of M. medogensis into a monophyletic group, being in discordance with the paraphyletic relationship between them revealed in the nuclear DNA trees. The findings highlighted the underestimated biodiversity in Himalayas, and further indicated that the Megophrys toads here have been probably experienced complicated evolutionary history, for example, introgression between clades or incomplete lineage sorting and niche divergences in microhabitats. Anyway, it is urgent for us to explore the problems because these toads are suffering from increasing threats from human activities and climatic changes.

In April and May 2019, we examined seven tadpole samples of two bufonid species Duttaphrynus stomaticus (one site) and Duttaphrynus himalayanus (six sites) taken in the Yamuna River and its tributaries, and the Bhagirathi River at altitudes from 687 m up to 2448 m above sea level; the western part of the Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. Seven categories of larval deformities were recorded: scoliosis, kyphosis, shortened tail, rounded tip of the tail, bifurcated tip of the tail, opercular chamber defect, and edema. The occurrence of malformed tadpoles calculated from a sample size ranged from 3.3 to 13.6%. Water mineralization levels were fluctuated in the limits 37 – 330 mg/dm3, exceeding 100 mg/dm3 in three cases. There was no significant correlation between share of abnormal animals or abnormalities frequency and mineralization as well as with altitude. Mass occurrence of malformed tadpoles was revealed in two places: the Aglad Nadi (= Algar River, 10%, site 1, 687 m) and the town Purola (9.9 – 11.8%, sites 2 and 3, 1339 – 1349 m). Both places were associated with human activity: cattle grazing and residential agrolandscape, respectively. Enlarged rate of anomalies on the town territory may be explained by a synergy between complex of drivers (mineralization, fertilizers and pesticides) that can lead to amplification of general impact on larval morphogenesis. Thus, we reported the first record of mass larval abnormalities in amphibians for the Garhwal in particular and for the Himalaya in general. Formerly published data evidenced that another malformation hotspot of amphibians was situated at the Western Ghats, peninsular India.

A new thin-toed gecko, Cyrtopodion baigii is described from the Chilas area in the Chilas Arc Complex of northern Pakistan. The major diagnostic characters of the new species include the presence of two precloacal pores in males, absence of femoral pores, 30–32 rows of ventral scales across midbody and 125–132 scales along ventral midline of body. The species is a montane form, distributed in the rocky areas along the Indus River at elevations of 1100–1200 m. It is the first member of the genus Cyrtopodion to be reported from the Himalayan and Karakoram range systems in Pakistan.

The gekkonid genus Cyrtodactylus is the third largest vertebrate genus on the planet with well over 300 species that range across at least eight biogeographic regions from South Asia to Melanesia. The ecological and morphological plasticity within the genus, has contributed to its ability to disperse across ephemeral seaways, river systems, basins, land bridges, and mountain ranges—followed by in situ diversification within specific geographic areas. Ancestral ranges were reconstructed on a mitochondrial phylogeny with 346 described and undescribed species from which it was inferred that Cyrtodactylus evolved in a proto-Himalaya region during the early Eocene. From there, it dispersed to what is currently Indoburma and Indochina during the mid-Eocene—the latter becoming the first major center of origin for the remainder of the genus that seeded dispersals to the Indian subcontinent, Papua, and Sundaland. Sundaland became a second major center of radiation during the Oligocene and gave rise to a large number of species that radiated further within Sundaland and dispersed to Wallacea, the Philippines, and back to Indochina. One Papuan lineage dispersed west to recolonize and radiate in Sundaland. Currently, Indochina and Sundaland still harbor the vast majority of species of Cyrtodactylus.

The common Asian toad Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider, 1799) complex has a wide distribution ranging from western foothills of the Himalaya to the easternmost range of the Wallacea, with the evidence of human-mediated introductions to some other areas. In the entire distribution range, the complex is formed by several evolutionary clades, distributed mostly in South-East Asia with unresolved taxonomy. In the northwestern edge of its distribution (Pakistan), the name D. melanostictus hazarensis (Khan, 2001) has been assigned to local populations but its biological basis remained, so far, understudied and unvalidated. Therefore, we re-evaluated the available genetic data (mitochondrial and nuclear) to show the relationships between Pakistani populations (including the type locality of D. m. hazarensis) and others from across the range. Our results showed that Pakistani populations are associated with one, deeply diverged, well-supported and widely distributed clade (so-called Duttaphrynus sp. 1 according to 16S, or clade B based on tRNAGly-ND3), that has already been detected in previous studies. This clade is further distributed in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia and is characterized by a low level of genetic variability. This further suggests that both natural, as well as potential human-mediated dispersal, might have played an important role in setting up the current phylogeographic and distribution pattern of this clade. The clade is deeply divergent from other clades of the complex and represents a taxonomically unresolved entity. We here argue that the clade Duttaphrynus sp. 1/B represents a distinct species for which the name Duttaphrynus bengalensis (Daudin, 1802) comb. nov. is applicable, while the description of D. m. hazarensis does not satisfy the rules of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.

Empezaré con la definición de realidad virtual, tomada de la ZDNet Webopedia, que es muy amplia e incluye toda representación virtual en el computador. De acuerdo con el Doctor Chris Dede (NSF): "Sabemos que en el Siglo XXI la gente deberá aprender cosas más sofisticadas. No tenemos buenas herramientas para enseñarlas, pues sabemos que la enseñanza con base en la palabra no es un método efectivo. Si podemos desarrollar modelos y simulaciones que permitan a la gente sentir, de manera real, lo que es participar en algo complicado, esto es aprendizaje mediante la experiencia. Con la realidad virtual podemos lograrlo". Por ejemplo, muchos de los fènomenos cientifìcos que nos afectan son tridimensionales. Frecuentemente, los estudiantes no entienden cosas cuando estan representadas en dos dimensiones: una figura o una pantalla de computador. Cuando ello estàn dentro de una simulaciòn virtual tridimensional, sí las entiendes. De esta manera es fácil que un estudiante de arquitectura camine dentro de un edificio que està diseñando, un estudiante de arqueologìa recora Machu Pichu, un estudiante de geografica visite el Himalaya o la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, un estudiante de física viaje por el interior de un àtomo. Inicialmente las aplicaciones de realidad virtual eran monousuario. Posteriormente, se desarrollaron aplicaciones para varios usuarios, lo cual permite que varios de estos se reùnan para desarrollar un trabajo en colaboraciòn. Entre las aplicaciones de realidad virtual realizadas encontraremos el proyecto DIVE que permite construir ambientes virtuales de colaboraciòn, y NICE que crea un mundo virtual en una isla para ser compartido por niños exploradores.

The Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP) is the highest and largest mountain plateau in the world, which has become a focus area of amphibian biodiversity research and conservation, depending on its large number of endemic and threatened species. Among the 58 families of Anura, only a few species of four families (Megophryidae, Bufonidae, Dicroglossidae, Ranidae) are distributed in QTP. Revealing the genetic diversity of these species is crucial for research on their environmental adaptability and biodiversity conservation. Chromosome rearrangements are a critical source of genetic variation, which is recognized as a driver of speciation, providing the genetic material for differentiation and environmental adaptation of amphibians. Here, we identified the karyotypes of 10 species of the above families from the QTP. The karyotypes of these species were obtained from new sites that were not previously reported. Among them, the karyotypes of D. himalayanus and tetraploid B. zamdaensis were reported for the first time. In particular, the ploidy of B. zamdaensis from Zanda, China, was found to be distinctly different from the ploidy from Spiti River, India. This indicates that they have presented species differentiation and supports the multiple and complicated polyploidization events in the Bufotes toads. Furthermore, the different locations of the secondary constriction between the Weixi and Zhongdian populations of O. xiangchengensis support that there is a karyotypic variation between the two subspecies (O. xiangchengensis xiangchengensis vs. O. xiangchengensis deqinicus). A series of chromosomal variations may have facilitated the rapid evolution of amphibians in the QTP, and our study will provide support for further research on amphibian genetic diversity and biodiversity conservation.

<p class="abstract"><strong>Background:</strong> Hallux vulgus is common deformity of fore foot frequently resulting in pain at first metatarso phalyngeal joint and cosmetic problems. Hallux vulgus is particularly more common in shoe wearing populations. Ours being a sub Himalayan region with harsh and prolonged winters where shoe wearing is a must this condition is very common. Various surgical procedures have been described for its management. These range from soft tissue procedures to arthodesis of first metatarso phalyngeal joint. Distal first metatarsal osteotomy (Mitchell’s osteotomy) is a time tested procedure in its management<span lang="EN-IN">.</span></p><p class="abstract"><strong>Methods:</strong> Forty adult patients (56 feet) with symptomatic hallux vulgus, who did not respond to conservative treatment, were managed with Mitchell’s osteotomy.<strong></strong></p><p class="abstract"><strong>Results:</strong> Results were assessed as per American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society grading. More than ninety percent of our patients were fully satisfied with their pain relief and foot cosmetics while others were satisfied with some reservations. There was no major complication or non-union at osteotomy site<span lang="EN-IN">. </span></p><p class="abstract"><strong>Conclusions:</strong> Management of hallux vulgus is conservative to begin with, measures like life style modifications, broad toed shoes, toe spacers and physical therapy are tried first. Surgical intervention is indicated if conservative measures fail to relieve symptoms. More than 130 surgical procedures have been described for hallux vulgus ranging from soft tissue procedures like MacBride’s to arthodesis of first metatarso phalyngeal joint. Distal metatarsal osteotomy was first described by Hawkins in 1945 but was named after Mitchell who published his work in 1958. From our study we conclude that this is a time tested procedure for symptomatic cases of Hallux Vulgus not responding to conservative measures<span lang="EN-IN">.</span></p>

Wind energy is one of the most affordable energy sources worldwide and represents one of the most climate and environmentally friendly options for energy production. However, wind power plants (WPP) can have negative impacts on biodiversity, especially on flying animals (birds and bats), through direct mortality due to collisions and indirectly due to habitat degradation and loss of food resources. Wind Power Plants also create barrier effects for migratory birds. One study showed that the representatives of Accipitriformes (57% of species in this order) were the most vulnerable to death in WPP and had the highest predicted collision rate of all taxonomic orders (0.001–0.288, averaging 0.073±0.064 collisions per turbine per year (Thaxter et al., 2017). Kazakhstan is still quite densely populated by birds of prey of the Accipitriformes, including eagles. Such large species as Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) nest here, and for the last two species Kazakhstan is the country where more than 50% of the world population is concentrated. More than 50% of the world population of the Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), which breeds in Siberia, also migrates through Kazakhstan. All of these species are extremely vulnerable to collisions with WPP blades, and excess mortality of even a few percent can cause serious damage to their populations, especially the Steppe Eagle, which has been declining rapidly in recent decades for a variety of reasons. So far, Kazakhstan does not have an acute problem of eagle deaths at WPP, as wind energy occupies only 2% of the country's energy balance (2.28 TWhr vs. 112.78 TWhr), but things can change quite quickly. In the last 8 years alone, wind energy production in Kazakhstan has rapidly increased by more than 200 times – from 0.01 TWhr in 2014 to 2.28 TWhr in 2022. And the country has the capacity to continue to increase wind power generation on the same scale for the next 10 years without any difficulty. And that could spell disaster for the eagle population. That is why the most interesting areas for wind power generation, the most profitable in terms of return on investment and profit, coincide with the densest eagle breeding grounds and/or migration corridors. The legislation of Kazakhstan does not restrict economic activities in the habitats of rare species, there are no regulations on buffer zones around the nests of species listed in the Red Data Book of Kazakhstan, in which the construction of facilities dangerous for birds is prohibited, there is no prohibition on the construction of wind power plants in migration corridors, there are no requirements for bird protection measures at wind power plants. Thus, with the intensive development of wind energy in Kazakhstan, eagles and many other species of birds of Already now, the Zhanatas WPP has been built on the Karatau Ridge, through which about one million birds of prey and 32.3 to 40.6 thousand eagles of three species (Steppe Eagle, Imperial Eagle, Greater Spotted Eagle) fly on their autumn migration. In the same migration corridor in the Chu-Ili Mountains near Mirny settlement of Zhambyl Region, it is planned to construct a new WPP with a capacity of 1GW. An agreement of principles for the implementation of this project was signed by the head of the Ministry of Energy of Kazakhstan, the chairmen of Samruk-Kazyna and KazMunaiGas, the vice president for business development in Asia of Total Еren S.A. and the CEO of TotalEnergies on June 9, 2022. There are plans to construct a WPP between the Chokpak Pass and the Aschibulak Reservoir. These three WPPs could already cause serious damage to eagles migrating in the Western Circum-Himalayan Migration Corridor (WCHMC). In addition, the development of WPP is planned in Ustyurt, which may cause serious damage to the populations of eagles breeding in the Aral-Caspian region, as well as migrating from the steppes of Western Kazakhstan and the Volga-Ural region – which is more than half of the world population of the Steppe Eagle and a third of the world population of the Imperial Eagle. While WPPs in Kazakhstan have been actively constructed and commissioned since 2015, there are no studies that preceded the construction of WPPs and there are no studies on the impact of already constructed WPPs on flying animals. Most of the operating WPPs are built without taking into account information on rare species both breeding in the project plots and migrating through them. In fact, an imitation EIA has been written for them. A survey of the Zhanatas WPP in 2022 showed that during construction and after commissioning, breeding territories of Golden Eagle, Short-Toed Eagle (Circaetus gallicus), Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) and Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) were destroyed, and several territories of these species are threatened as the birds regularly move through the WPP in search of prey during the breeding season. Also, as a result of the construction of the Zhanatas WPP, the area has completely lost its importance for migrating Great Bustards (Otis tarda) as a permanent stopover location, and the operation of the WPP poses a threat of death to migrating great bustards as a result of collision with the blades. During the analysis of migration data of Siberian eagles flying through Karatau, it was found out that the Zhanatasskaya WPP was built outside the eagle stopping zone, however 8.7% of eagles passed through the WPP. When extrapolating the data to the entire population of migrating eagles, we get an average of 5 thousand WPP near Zhangiztobe, also constructed in the WCHMC, through which Eastern Kazakhstani and Siberian eagles migrate, showed a complete loss of the Steppe Eagle from the list of the breeding species in the 7 km zone around the plant. Although before the construction of the WPP, the area provided habitat for at least 6 pairs of steppe eagles. The impact of WPP on birds varies significantly by region, season and species. Therefore, it is unclear to what extent bird mortality assessments and mitigation proposals developed in other countries can be applied to the conditions of Kazakhstan. It is urgent to develop Kazakhstan's practice of assessing the impact of WPP on biodiversity and to use the best practices developed by the world community for mitigation. It is urgently necessary to amend the legislation of Kazakhstan in terms of limiting the construction of WPP in migration corridors, as it is done in the EU. We need for clear regulations to ensure bird safety at WPPs and the development of turbine shutdown schedules for WPPs built in migration corridors. To understand the specifics and modelling of the migration of birds of prey through the territories of East Kazakhstan Region, promising for wind energy development, within the framework of the project “Endangered Raptors Conservation on the Indo-Palearctic Migration Flyway”, implemented with the support of The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), work has begun to create a map of raptor migration, highlighting areas at risk from energy infrastructure.

Abstract Exploring the mechanisms that affect mating pattern with respect to body size has implications for understanding the evolution of sexual selection. Theory predicts that the absence of a relationship between female body size and fecundity, unbiased operational sex ratio, and a short breeding season will lead to random mating by body size in anuran amphibians. We tested these predictions in the Himalayan toad Duttaphrynus himalayanus inhabiting southeastern Tibet. Our study did not detect any correlation between female body size and number of eggs laid, nor was there a significant difference in the sex ratio of toads captured from the breeding site. In addition, the toads were reproductive for only a short period, from late April to early May (typical of an explosively breeding species). As expected, we detected a weak but not significant relationship between body size of amplexing males and females. Our results revealed no apparent size-assortative pairing in the study population of the Himalayan toad and may contribute to an increasing body of literature on mating patterns in relation to body size in animals with indeterminate growth.

Este libro relata la historia de un afamado abogado llamado Julián Mantle, que en su afán de tener más prestigio y alcanzar un nivel económico alto, se olvidó de vivir; de darle el justo valor a su familia y amigos pues los fue perdiendo poco a poco sin darse cuenta. Al final de esta historia comprendió que lo importante de vivir era formar parte de vida los suyos, porque no tení­a sentido ser el exitoso abogado si no contaba con quien compartir sus logros. Todo comienza cuando Julián sufre un infarto por la vida tan agitada que llevaba. Este suceso cambió el rumbo de su vida. Decide vender todas sus propiedades, incluido el Ferrari rojo que tanto amaba, emprende un viaje hacia la India, dejando a cargo del buffet a su amigo John. Tres años pasaron sin noticias de Julián, hasta que un dí­a a las afueras del buffet se encontraba un hombre lleno de juventud y vitalidad. John salió y no podí­a creerlo, era Julián, comenzó a contarle su aventura por la India. Mencionó que vivió con unos monjes, en un lugar llamado Sivana, cerca del Himalaya; ahí­ le enseñaron, por medio de una fábula toda la sabidurí­a que él requerí­a.