Journal articles: 'Himalaya watershed'

1

Kamboj, Nitin, A. K. Chopra, D. S. Malik, and G. P. Juyal. "Watershed characteristics of Shiwalik torrents at Sabhawala in Doon Valley." Environment Conservation Journal 11, no. 1&2 (June 18, 2010): 115–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.36953/ecj.2010.1223.

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In the foothills of Shiwalik Himalaya, torrents are the prominent seasonal land features and characterized by high sediment ladder flash flow during monsoon period. These torrents have low banks and thus the flow frequently over tops the banks and causes floods in foot hill region to agricultural plain area. In present study, morphological, water and soil characteristics were studied with special references to torrential behavior and flow mechanics of torrent at Sabhawala watershed in Doon Valley of Garhwal Himalaya. The torrent gradient had varied from 1-75 to 2-62 % with flow velocity was 0.30 - 0.95 ms-1, occurred in Sabhawala watershed. Different forms of soil texture of torrent were observed and pH slightly alkaline consisting organic matter (%) as 0.24-0.95 in different zones of torrent The present study will provide resource based data for remedial measurement of torrent in other watersheds of Himalayan region.

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Gurung, Sher Bahadur. "Soil Erosion Status of Nepal." NUTA Journal 8, no. 1-2 (December 31, 2021): 112–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/nutaj.v8i1-2.44109.

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Soil erosion is one of the problems in Nepal because about 73 percent of the land surface is mountainous and still tectonically active where 60.43 percent people involved in agricultural activities. The paper assesses the soil erosion status based on ecological region and watershed boundary with population density. The ecological region determined based on elevation and the watershed boundary of Nepal was generated using the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer–ASTER, 30m resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS) on May 14, 2010. The DEM data was processed using remote sensing technique then hydrological analysis conducted using remote sensing and geographic information system to delineate the watershed boundary. The study generates 19 watersheds based on available soil erosion data. The soil erosion rate of ecological zone and watershed are assessed with population data of Nepal from central bureau of statistic, 2011. There is below 50 people per square kilometer watersheds have average soil erosion rate (about 20 t ha-1/ y-1) and 100 to 500 people per square kilometer watersheds have high soil erosion rate ranges from 27 to 102 t ha-1/ y-1 . These scenarios partial follow the theory of Himalayan degradation. So that there is still environmental degradation is observed and it is needed in detail field based study of Himalaya degradation

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Rai, Suresh Chand, Eklabya Sharma, and Rakesh Chandra Sundriyal. "Conservation in the Sikkim Himalaya: Traditional Knowledge and Land-use of the Mamlay Watershed." Environmental Conservation 21, no. 1 (1994): 30–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0376892900024048.

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The ecological problems, including degradation of fragile ecosystems, of the Himalaya are quite conspicuous. A rapid depletion of forest resources is the main cause of environmental degradation and economic deterioration. Watersheds are considered as a unit for natural resource management and development in hilly areas; therefore a case-study of Mamlay watershed of Sikkim is presented in this paper.The Mamley watershed presents a viable system having a gradient of altitude where almost all types of land-uses that are common in the eastern Himalaya are found. All the ethno-cultural groups of Sikkim are present in this watershed, although the agricultural sector provides the main land-use, followed by forestry. Most of the forested areas in the Himalaya have been purportedly destroyed for the expansion of agricultural land. A similar situation was experienced in the Mamlay watershed, where an increase of 12.79% of the land-area used for agriculture has been recorded in the past 40 years. The watershed being fragile, 62% of the area is under intensive agricultural practice. Land-use and spatial relationships in the perspective of conservation are presented in this paper.Great genetic diversity of agricultural crops and trees has been recorded in this small watershed. Conservation ethics of optimum utilization/production of the resources, following traditional practices without much degrading of the system which is believed to be sustainable, was practised earlier in the watershed. But recently, due to population pressure and fragmentation of farm-owning families, the balance of land-use, natural resource utilization, and conservation, has become perturbed. Examples of traditional adaptation, indigenous knowledge, and perception of conservation amongst farm-owning families, are also presented in the paper.

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Thayyen, R. J., and J. T. Gergan. "Role of glaciers in watershed hydrology: ''Himalayan catchment'' perspective." Cryosphere Discussions 3, no. 2 (July 15, 2009): 443–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-3-443-2009.

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Abstract. A large number of Himalayan glacier catchments are under the influence of humid climate with snowfall in winter (November–April) and South-West monsoon in summer (June–September) dominating the regional hydrology. Such catchments are defined as ''Himalayan catchment'', where the glacier melt water contributes to the river flow during the period of annual high flows produced by the monsoon. Other two major glacio-hydrological regimes of the Himalaya are winter snow dominated Alpine catchments of the Kashmir and Karakoram region and cold-arid regions of the Ladakh mountain range. Factors influencing the river flow variations in a ''Himalayan catchment'' were studied in a micro scale glacier catchment in the Garhwal Himalaya, covering an area of 77.8 km2. Discharge data generated from three hydrometric stations established at different altitudes of the Din Gad stream during the summer ablation period of 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003 and 2004. These data has been analysed along with winter/summer precipitation, temperature and mass balance data of the Dokriani glacier to study the role of the glacier and precipitation in determining the runoff variations along the stream continuum from the glacier snout to 2360 m a.s.l. Study shows that the inter-annual runoff variations in a ''Himalayan glacier catchment'' is directly linked with the precipitation rather than mass balance changes of the glacier. Study suggest that warming induced initial increase of glacier degraded runoff and subsequent decline is a glaciers mass balance response and cannot be translated as river flow response in a ''Himalayan catchment'' as suggested by the IPCC, 2007. Study also suggest that the glacier runoff critically influence the headwater river flows during the years of low summer discharge and proposes that the Himalayan catchment could experience higher river flows and positive glacier mass balance regime together in association with strong monsoon. This paper intended to highlight the importance of creating credible knowledge on the Himalayan cryospheric processes to develop a global outlook on river flow response to cryospheric change and locally sustainable water resources management strategies.

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5

Bartarya, S. K. "Watershed management strategies in Central Himalaya." Land Use Policy 8, no. 3 (July 1991): 177–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0264-8377(91)90029-i.

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6

Parihar, DS. "Disaster events and management in the Himalayan Watershed Gori Ganga, Kumaun Himalaya." International Journal of Geography, Geology and Environment 4, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 89–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.22271/27067483.2022.v4.i1b.87.

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Kothyari, U. C., Raaj Ramsankaran, D. Sathish Kumar, S. K. Ghosh, and Nisha Mendiratta. "Geospatial-based automated watershed modeling in Garhwal Himalaya." Journal of Hydroinformatics 12, no. 4 (January 28, 2010): 502–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2010.024.

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An automated GIS tool and its computational outcomes on the spatial distribution of runoff and soil erosion are presented. The developed tool, named Automated Soil Erosion Assessment Tool (ASEAT), simulates runoff and soil erosion rates based on the concept of erosion processes suggested by Morgan–Morgan–Finney (MMF) in 1984. ASEAT is provided with a user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI) to interact with the users. The computational algorithms used are made fully automated and have been developed using the ERDAS Macro Language (EML) and Spatial Macro Language (SML). The developed modelling methodology is applied to the data of an experimental watershed of Pathri Rao in the Indian lower Himalayan region. Generated spatial distribution of runoff potential and soil erosion rates for the studied watershed using ASEAT are depicted by maps. The model-computed surface runoff potential (145.63 mm) available in the watershed seems fair when compared with the runoff depth (176.07 mm) observed at the watershed outlet. The derived estimates of soil erosion are validated, albeit qualitatively, with field observations and seem reliable for making decisions on the adoption of soil erosion conservative measures in the watershed.

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Negi, Raghuveer, Sarswati Prakash Sati, Ashish Rawat, Tripti Jayal, Vikram Sharma, Parvendra Kumar, and Gambhir Singh Chauhan. "Assessment of soil erosion using WSA and SPR techniques for Giri watershed, Himachal Pradesh, NW Himalaya, India." Disaster Advances 16, no. 6 (May 15, 2023): 18–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.25303/1606da18044.

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A watershed is the result of several geomorphic processes such as weathering, erosion, degradation and aggradation which are influenced by several factors viz. tectonics, lithology, climate, landslides and mass wasting processes etc. In a tropical climate, watersheds contribute a significant amount of eroded material which is reflecting the impact of lithology, precipitation, tectonics, relief and anthropogenic activities. In the Himalayan region besides significant heterogeneity in lithology, stratigraphy, structure and tectonics, it is observed that variability is exhibited in climatic conditions over a small region. These factors contribute to the development of geomorphic landforms and are best studied in watersheds or river basins. In the present study, Giri Watershed (GW) is assessed to contemplate susceptibility to erosion for 66 sub-watersheds using geomorphic parameters. The prioritization of subwatersheds has been done using Weighted Sum Analysis (WSA) and Sediment Production Rate (SPR) methods. The quantitative analysis of subwatersheds is categorized into different priority classes viz. very high, high, moderate, low and very low, among which 27 subwatersheds have very high to high susceptibility to erosion.

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Meraj, Gowhar, Tanzeel Khan, Shakil A. Romshoo, Majid Farooq, Kumar Rohitashw, and Bashir Ahmad Sheikh. "An Integrated Geoinformatics and Hydrological Modelling-Based Approach for Effective Flood Management in the Jhelum Basin, NW Himalaya." Proceedings 7, no. 1 (November 15, 2018): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ecws-3-05804.

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In the present study, using static land system parameters, such as geomorphology, land cover, and relief, we calculated the water yield potential (RP) of all the watersheds of the Jhelum basin (Kashmir Valley) using the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) based watershed evaluation model (AHP-WEM). The results revealed that among the 24 watersheds of the Jhelum basin, the Vishav watershed, with the highest RP, is the fastest water yielding catchment of the Jhelum basin followed by Bringi, Lidder, Kuthar, Sind, Madhumati, Rembiara, Sukhnag, Dal, Wular-II, Romshi, Sandran, Ferozpur, Viji-Dhakil, Ningal, Lower Jhelum, Pohru, Arin, Doodganga, Arapal, Anchar, Wular-I, Gundar, and Garzan in the case of a same intensity storm event. The results were validated with the mean annual peak discharge values of the watersheds and a strong positive correlation of 0.71 was found. Further, for the forecasting of the floods in the watersheds that had a small lag time, such as in the case of Vishaw, Bringi, and Lidder, we evaluated the performance of the HEC-GeoHMS hydrological model to simulate stream discharge during storm events. It was observed that the model performs well for August-September period with a strong positive correlation (0.94) between the observed and simulated discharge and hence could be used as a flood forecasting model for this period in the region.

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10

Ahmad, Sarfaraz, and Khatib Khan. "Impact of Elevation - Glaciation - Tectonics on landscape characteristics of the watersheds in Bhagirathi valley, Garhwal Himalaya." Journal of The Indian Association of Sedimentologists 37, no. 2 (December 31, 2020): 141–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.51710/jias.v37i2.110.

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Terrain attributes of watersheds i.e., mean , maximum, minimum elevation, mean slope elevation, mean aspect, HI (Hypsometrical Integral), Plan and Profile curvature index were determined using ASTER DEM in Bhagirathi basin, Uttaarakhand. These attributes are used in determine the impact of elevation, glaciations and tectonic processes on terrain characteristics of the watersheds. The scatter diagrame between altitude and terrain attribute were used to analyse th impact of altitude and impact of glacition is revealed through Box Whisker diagram using moderate and fully glacier watersheds. The results indicated that permanent snowline altitude is important that determine the watershed density in particular elevation and bear direct relationship with area and degree of glaciations. It is found that slope, STD of elevation in glacier basin, profile and plan curvature, relief influenced by glaciations.

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11

Khuman, Y. S. C., Ranjita Pandey, and K. S. Rao. "Fuelwood consumption patterns in Fakot watershed, Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand." Energy 36, no. 8 (August 2011): 4769–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.05.011.

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12

Parihar, D. S., Mahendra Singh, and Surendra Singh. "Water Resources and Management in Gori Ganga Watershed, Kumaun Himalaya by Using Remote Sensing and GIS." International Journal of Research and Review 8, no. 12 (December 16, 2021): 281–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.52403/ijrr.20211235.

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Uttarakhand Himalaya has been famous for its water resources (source for many rivers), forest diversity, unique wildlife, rich traditional culture, tribal culture and sacred Hindu’s shrine (i.e. Gangotri, Yamnotri, Kedarnath and Badrinath). The present study aims to assess the status of water resources in the Gori Ganga watershed. Water resources and their management were collected through field visit, use of Global Position System (GPS) and various methods (include questionnaire, personal interviews, direct interaction and group discussion with the villagers). Study explores the ability of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) in delineating watershed and drainage network of the Gori Ganga River basin. Gori Ganga watershed is laying in Eastern Kumaon Himalaya with great utility of water resources in socio-economic development for livelihood where the settlements are situated in valleys to high altitude. Gori Ganga drainage network i.e. Ralam, Mandakani and Bona gad is glacial fed river and these entire Rivers’s water received annually from glaciers which are very useful for development of villages, towns and hydro power stations in the watershed region. Study explores some traditional water resources (Glacier, streams, springs/Dhare/Naule, lakes/Kund/Taals and drainage network) and uses of water resources for traditional uses i.e. Gharat (watermill), drinking water, hydro power production, agriculture irrigation, fisheries and animal husbandry etc. in the study area. Keywords: Water Resource, Management, Socio and Economic Development, Remote Sensing and GIS.

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13

Kamboj, Nitin. "Seasonal hill River problems and their bio-engineering remedial measures in Shiwalik Himalaya." Environment Conservation Journal 11, no. 3 (December 24, 2010): 171–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.36953/ecj.2010.110331.

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Doon valley in lower Shiwalik hills of Uttarakhand is infested with large number of seasonal hill rivers originated from Shiwalik hills. The flash flood in the torrent as the peak storm during rainy season caused severe main problems as land erosion and the flood water often inundated the household properties, death of livestock and flooding in agricultural fields. In the study , Sabhawala watershed area land damaged by uncontrolled torrent flow during monsoon period which is very severe to watershed in particular affecting 257.78 ha out of total 1173.6 ha (21.96 %) watershed area. The present paper conclude that bio-engineering measures are essential for the protection and rehabilitation of seasonal rivers affected agricultural area for sustainable conservation of agriculture land resource

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Arya, Manju, Deepak a, and J. S. Rawat. "STUDY OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM AND ITS HYDROLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS USING GEO-SPATIAL TECHNIQUES: A MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS IN MUTHUGAD WATERSHED OF GRAHWAL HIMALYA, UTTARAKHAND." International Journal of Advanced Research 11, no. 05 (May 31, 2023): 1563–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/17024.

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Measurements of the shape or geometry of any natural form, including those of plants, animals, and relief features, are referred to as morphometry. Morphometry is the accurate measurement of landforms. One of the crucial requirements for effective management and planning of water resources within the watershed is an understanding of the behavior of the surface drainage network. In order to comprehend and interpret the dynamics of the watersheds drainage system and to understand the drainage network features, morphometric study of a watershed is a vital stage in watershed development and management. Watershed characterization includes morphometry as a key component. Aspects that are dimensional, aerial, and relief are typically present for the conservation of surface and ground water, watershed development and management strategies are crucial. Applying mathematical equations and statical measures to data from topographic maps and satellite images, morphometric attributes reflect a measurement of the earths surface and are processed in accordance with the principles of quantitative analysis. A study of drainage morphometry and its impact on the hydrology of the Mathugad watershed, Grahwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand (India) has been made. Total basin covers 77.12 sq km area. Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) data and on 1:50000 scale and Survey of India Toposheet as reference were utilized to create slope maps, aspect grids, and digital elevation models (DEMs) for the thorough investigation. Geographic information systems (GIS) were employed to assess the linear, areal, and relief aspects of the morphometric parameters. Numerous morphometric features of the Mathugad watershed have been intended by applying GIS techniques and using SRTM data. The research shows that the rainfall has a moderate to large impact on how stream segments develop in the basin area thrusting and faultings controlling influence is primarily responsible for the basins elongated structure. Relief ratio indicates that the discharge capability of these watersheds is very high and the groundwater potential is meager. Dendritic drainage pattern in the area shows that the area consists of homogeneous rock material which is structurally undisturbed. Form factor and circulatory ratio statics indicates basin shape is elongated the results clearly indicate relations among various morphometric attributes of the basin and help to understand their role in sculpturing the surface of the region. These studies are very useful for planning rainwater harvesting and watershed management.

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Chanyal, P. C. "Applications of remote sensing and GIS for watershed characterization and soil loss assessment of tons watershed in Dehradun, Garhwal Himalaya." International Journal of Agricultural and Applied Sciences 1, no. 1 (June 30, 2020): 56–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.52804/ijaas2020.1113.

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Watershed characterization is the most important part of watershed management which includes soil loss, soil loss assessment indicates the amount of soil loss or erosion in ton/hectare/ year through applying to Geospatial techniques as Remote sensing and GIS. The agricultural land is being lost by manmade as well natural whereas manmade or anthropogenic factor accelerates erosion of soil. It is a worldwide phenomenon leading to loss of decrease of water table availability for plants, increases runoff from the more impermeable subsoil, and loss of nutrients from the soil. Watershed management and assessment of soil loss are most helpful for planning and batter management in a watershed and planning units. Remote sensing and GIS along with the satellite image-based model approach provides a scientific, quantitative, and applied result. It can compute a consistent outcome of soil erosion and sediment yield for a wide range of areas under all climatic circumstances. Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) apply to soil loss, which is integrated with Remote Sensing and GIS in Tons watershed lies between 77°56’05” E to 78°01’01” East longitude and 30° 21’05” N to 30°26’51” North latitude, having 97.02 km2 area (9,702 hectares) under the sub-tropical climatic region of Uttarakhand. The present case study based on computational with software and geospatial technologies results come i.e. A = is the computed soil loss per unit area, R = is the rainfall erosivity, K = is the soil erodibility factor, L = is the slope-length factor, C = is the cover and management factor, P = is the support practice factor. The rainfall erosivity (R=87.5 + 0.375 × R), C P is under range 0.006-0.8, Soil Erosion Risk range is slight to High 51.40% and 0.85% total area of the study region. Average annual soil loss ton/ha/year indicated in different land-use classification as lowest soil loss found in River bed (0.17 ton/ha/year) and highest shown in the open forest (56.58 ton/ha/year) in 2016. The study area comes under a low probability zone and partially comes under a moderate and moderate-high zone. The case study can be highly recommended and will help to implementation of management of soil loss and soil conservation practice in the Tons watershed as well as Himalayan regions. Keywords: RUSLE, Tons Watershed, Soil Loss, Remote Sensing & GIS, Garhwal Himalaya.

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Bagwari, H., G. Negi, and N. Todaria. "Biomass production of forests in Rawanganga watershed in Garhwal Himalaya." Indian Journal of Forestry 33, no. 1 (March 1, 2010): 55–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.54207/bsmps1000-2010-23x9s2.

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Three forest types were recognized in Rawanganga watershed, Quercus glauca dominated forest at lower altitudes (800 - 1200m), Pinus roxburghii dominated forest at middle altitudes (1200 -1600m) and mixed Oak forest at higher altitudes (>1600m). A total of 25 tree species were recorded in all the three types of forests, however, maximum tree species were found in mixed Oak forest. Absence of some species, either in seedling or sapling or from both layers suggested that despite the dominance of such species in canopy, regeneration was suppressed severely and may pose a threat to their survival in coming years. The biomass increment and carbon sequestration by these forest types was in order of Quercus glauca forest>Mixed Oak forest>Pine forest.

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17

Dobriyal, R. M., G. S. Singh, K. S. Rao, and K. G. Saxena. "Medicinal Plant Resources in Chhakinal Watershed in the Northwestern Himalaya." Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants 5, no. 1 (September 22, 1997): 15–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/j044v05n01_04.

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18

Ahmed, Kaleem, and Jamal A. Khan. "Herpetofauna assemblage in two watershed areas of Kumoan Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India." Journal of Threatened Taxa 13, no. 2 (February 27, 2021): 17684–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/jott.5587.13.2.17684-17692.

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We surveyed herpetofauna along the poorly-explored region of two watersheds of Kumoan Himalaya, Dabka and Khulgarh. Adaptive cluster method was used to collect forest floor reptiles, and stream transect was used for stream reptiles and amphibians. In total, 18 species of reptiles were recorded in two watersheds, with 15 and nine species recorded in Dabka and Khulgarh, respectively. Forest floor density of reptiles was 87.5/ha in Dabka and 77.7/ha in Khulgarh. In terms of species, Asymblepharus ladacensis and Lygosoma punctatus density were highest in Dabka and Khulgarh, respectively. Eight species of amphibians were recorded in Dabka with a density of 9.4/ha and four species in Khulgarh with density of 5.2/ha. In both watersheds, density of Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis was highest. Reptilian and amphibian diversity of Dabka was 1.52 and 1.23, respectively, and in Khulgarh 0.43 and 0.23, respectively. In both watersheds reptile density, diversity and richness decreased with increasing elevation. Reptile density showed a weak correlation with microhabitat features such as litter cover, litter depth, and soil moisture in both watersheds. Amphibian density was positively correlated with soil moisture, litter cover, and litter depth. Comparison showed that Dabka is richer and more diverse than Khulgarh, presumably because of the undisturbed habitat, broad and slow stream, and deeper forest litter of the former.

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19

Thayyen, R. J., and J. T. Gergan. "Role of glaciers in watershed hydrology: a preliminary study of a "Himalayan catchment"." Cryosphere 4, no. 1 (February 9, 2010): 115–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-115-2010.

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Abstract. A large number of Himalayan glacier catchments are under the influence of humid climate with snowfall in winter (November–April) and south-west monsoon in summer (June–September) dominating the regional hydrology. Such catchments are defined as "Himalayan catchment", where the glacier meltwater contributes to the river flow during the period of annual high flows produced by the monsoon. The winter snow dominated Alpine catchments of the Kashmir and Karakoram region and cold-arid regions of the Ladakh mountain range are the other major glacio-hydrological regimes identified in the region. Factors influencing the river flow variations in a "Himalayan catchment" were studied in a micro-scale glacier catchment in the Garhwal Himalaya, covering an area of 77.8 km2. Three hydrometric stations were established at different altitudes along the Din Gad stream and discharge was monitored during the summer ablation period from 1998 to 2004, with an exception in 2002. These data have been analysed along with winter/summer precipitation, temperature and mass balance data of the Dokriani glacier to study the role of glacier and precipitation in determining runoff variations along the stream continuum from the glacier snout to 2360 m a.s.l. The study shows that the inter-annual runoff variation in a "Himalayan catchment" is linked with precipitation rather than mass balance changes of the glacier. This study also indicates that the warming induced an initial increase of glacier runoff and subsequent decline as suggested by the IPCC (2007) is restricted to the glacier degradation-derived component in a precipitation dominant Himalayan catchment and cannot be translated as river flow response. The preliminary assessment suggests that the "Himalayan catchment" could experience higher river flows and positive glacier mass balance regime together in association with strong monsoon. The important role of glaciers in this precipitation dominant system is to augment stream runoff during the years of low summer discharge. This paper intends to highlight the importance of creating credible knowledge on the Himalayan cryospheric processes to develop a more representative global view on river flow response to cryospheric changes and locally sustainable water resources management strategies.

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Bisht, Sapna, Subrat Sharma, and Smita Chaudhry. "Flash Flood Risk Susceptibility in Gagas River Watershed - Kumaun Lesser Himalaya." International Journal of Advanced Remote Sensing and GIS 5, no. 1 (May 23, 2016): 1709–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.23953/cloud.ijarsg.55.

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Parihar, D. S., and J. S. Rawat. "SPATIO-TEMPORAL CHANGE IN SNOW COVER AREA USING RS & GIS IN THE GORI GANGA WATERSHED, KUMAUN HIGHER HIMALAYA." International Journal of Advanced Research 9, no. 03 (March 31, 2021): 30–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/12550.

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Present research paper is an attempt to examine the dynamics of snow cover by using Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI) in Gori Ganga watershed, Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand (India). For the study of snow cover of Landsat satellite imageries of three different time periods like Landsat TM of 1990, Landsat TM of 1999 and Landsat TM 2016 were used. Geographical distribution of snow cover reveals that in 1990 about 30.97% (678.87 km2), in 1999 about 25.77% (564.92 km2) area of the Gori Ganga watershed was under snow cover while in 2016 the snow cover was found only 15.08% (330.44 km2). These data suggest that due to global warming about 348.43 km2 snow cover of Gori Ganga watershed has been converted into non-snow cover area at an average rate 13.40 km2/year during the last 26 years.

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Tamang, Niraj Bal, Naresh Kazi Tamrakar, Milan Magar, and Mahesh Raut. "Fluvial morphology and sediment transport of the Malekhu Khola, Central Nepal Lesser Himalaya." Bulletin of the Department of Geology 18 (January 23, 2017): 35–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/bdg.v18i0.16455.

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Areas near the rivers and streams have been widely used for settlement, development works and agriculture due to availability of the resources such as water, aggregates and comparatively easier terrain. It is very important to understand prevailing fluvial conditions for sustainable output. The fluvial conditions of the Malekhu Watershed including the river characteristics, sediment transport and sediment dynamics were studied. Ten river transects and the corresponding segments of the Malekhu Khola were surveyed for cross-sections and longitudinal profiles. Samples were collected in each of the transects and were analysed for suspended sediment concentration. The riverbed sampling was made using Wolman’s pebble count for establishing grain size distribution. Manning’s roughness coefficients were determined to estimate discharge. The study shows that the Malekhu Khola is a sixth order stream. It has been classified into A4-, B4- and C4-type streams. The hypsometric analysis of the Malekhu Watershed shows that it is in mature stage of erosion. Sediment grain size slightly increases downstream but sorting remains extremely poor to moderately poor. The Malekhu Khola shows eroding tendency at 1.2 km, 16.6 km and 20 km from the origin and brings larger particles only during high flow period at the remaining transects. Mean Suspended Sediment Concentrations (SSC) for the Malekhu Khola was 72.14 mg/L, and it increases with increasing discharge and increasing watershed area and is related to velocity of the river, mining activities and local tributaries.Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 18, 2015, pp. 35-48

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Jain, Alka, J. Pal, S. Rai, and E. Sharma. "An analysis of forest vegetation and land use change in the Khecheopalri sacred lake watershed in Sikkim." Indian Journal of Forestry 28, no. 4 (December 1, 2005): 339–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.54207/bsmps1000-2005-d0i6vp.

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The present study was conducted in a 12 km2 sacred Khecheopalri Lake Watershed in the Sikkim Himalaya. The Lake is known for its sanctity, pristine condition, multi ethnicity and also as famous tourist destinations of Sikkim. The influx of tourists is high with visible impact of disturbance on the Lake and its watershed. The anthropogenic pressure has led to land use/cover change of the watershed in the past decade with increase of agricultural land at the expense of forests. The forested vegetation composition in the lake watershed forest has density of 248 trees/ha with sub-canopy species being dominated in the lower diameter class. The local people remove about 28% wood from annual biomass increment and the canopy species have reduced considerably because of fuelwood and timber collection resulting in invasion of some opportunistic species in the regeneration stage. The pressure of grazing is also high resulting in removal of 47% of annual primary production of floor phytomass during 1998. Therefore, the anthropogenic pressure on the watershed forest needs to be minimized for minimizing the soil erosion processes and thus maintaining the health of the Lake.

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Mishra, Prabuddh Kumar, Aman Rai, Kamal Abdelrahman, Suresh Chand Rai, and Anuj Tiwari. "Analysing Challenges and Strategies in Land Productivity in Sikkim Himalaya, India." Sustainability 13, no. 19 (October 8, 2021): 11112. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su131911112.

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Agriculture is the major source of livelihood in rural areas and is considered the backbone of the Indian economy. In Sikkim, agriculture is being practiced by 80% of the rural population, and having no other major livelihood options has created immense pressure on the farmers and agricultural land. Agriculture sector is under great stress as the farmers are being confronted by various challenges in Sikkim Himalaya in recent years, such as land degradation, climate change and socio-economic problems. Despite the number of indigenous agriculture management methods being practised in Sikkim Himalaya, the agricultural production system is weakening. In this context, this paper presents an analysis of challenges faced by indigenous communities, local farmers and potential sustainable strategies for their management in Rani Khola watershed of Sikkim Himalaya. Data and information were collected by field observation, questionnaire surveys of 300 households, key informant interviews and focus group discussions conducted during 2017–18. Data processing and analysis were carried out with a combination of techniques, such as the application of remote sensing (RS), geographic information system (GIS)-based data processing and descriptive statistics. Major challenges identified in the watershed are water scarcity (80%), climate change (88%), soil erosion and runoff (72%), higher investment cost (100%), lack of irrigation facilities (77%), fragmentation and size of landholdings (100), human–wildlife conflict (59%) and pests and disease (60%). Some possibilities and innovations that could address these problems are the use and retaining of various indigenous soil and water conservation (SWC) measures, diversified farming systems, community involvement in the government development process, better irrigation facilities, strengthening the local economy, coordinated planning between stakeholders and development of market feedback mechanism within the system.

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Chen, Lu, and Qinghong Ran. "The bedrock river profile fitting and the indicative significance: a case study in Gyirong watershed of the Middle Himalaya." Advances in Engineering Technology Research 4, no. 1 (March 22, 2023): 312. http://dx.doi.org/10.56028/aetr.4.1.312.2023.

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Area-slope (AS) Model focuses on quantitative study of bedrock river which has been widely used in the longitudinal profile simulation of bedrock and alluvial rivers, but many applications have failed to carefully consider the mechanism, fitting effect and applicability, resulting in unsatisfactory simulation results. In order to verify the channel profile analysis capability, the study analyzes the oretical basis of AS model and applies to the river channel fitting and knickpoint identification in the Gyirong Watershed in the middle Himalayan Orogen. The results show that, for rivers with different equilibrium status, the fitting curves have different splattering patterns. More than 80% knckpoints locate on the elevation between 4000 –5050 m where coincided with Tibetan Himalayan Unit. Although climate affects the spatial distribution of knickpoints, the structure of Gyirong watershed have developed before modern climate pattern.

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Altaf, Farrukh, Gowhar Meraj, and Shakil A. Romshoo. "Morphometric Analysis to Infer Hydrological Behaviour of Lidder Watershed, Western Himalaya, India." Geography Journal 2013 (April 7, 2013): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/178021.

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West Lidder River, in the Northwest Greater-Himalayan mountain range, is the major source of irrigation and drinking water supplies for the Kashmir Valley with a population of seven million people. The major source of water for the whole Lidder River is snow and icemelt emanating from its two subcatchments East Lidder and West Lidder. Snowmelt significantly contributes to the evolution of drainage patterns in this area. Quantitative morphometry plays a vital role in routing the snowmelt and other hydrological processes. Morphometric analysis of the West Lidder River catchment was carried out using geospatial technique. The outcome revealed that the entire study area has uniform lithology and is structurally permeable. The high drainage density of all subwatersheds indicate more surface runoff. The morphometric analysis also indicates that the area is more prone to weathering due to very-coarse to coarse drainage texture. All the subwatersheds showed dendritic to subdendritic drainage pattern. An immense control of structure on the drainage in some subwatersheds is indicated by their high bifurcation ratios. Circulatory and elongation ratios show that the subwatersheds have elongated to circular shapes. From the integrated analysis of the morphometric parameters, important hydrologic behaviour of 17 subwatersheds could be inferred.

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Joshi, Vinita, and Anita Pande. "Landslide Occurrences under Diverse Landuse/cover in Lower Kosi Watershed, Central Himalaya." Journal of the Geological Society of India 99, no. 12 (December 20, 2023): 1695–704. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12594-023-2525-4.

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GARDNER, KYLE. "MOVING WATERSHEDS, BORDERLESS MAPS, AND IMPERIAL GEOGRAPHY IN INDIA'S NORTHWESTERN HIMALAYA." Historical Journal 62, no. 1 (August 8, 2018): 149–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x18000146.

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AbstractThis article uses the British colonial history of border making in northern India to examine the assumptions and contradictions at work in the theorizing, configuring, and mapping of frontiers and borders. It focuses, in particular, on the development of the ‘water-parting principle’ – wherein the edge of a watershed is considered to be the border – and how this principle was used to determine boundaries in the northwestern Himalaya, a region that had long-established notions of border points, but no borderlines. By the twentieth century, the water-parting principle would become the dominant boundary logic for demarcating borders in mountainous regions, and would be employed by statesmen, treaty editors, and boundary commissioners around the world. But for the northwestern Himalaya, a region that British colonial officials considered to be the ‘finest natural combination of boundary and barrier that exists in the world’, making a border proved much more difficult than anticipated.

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LI, Qiao-Hong, P. K. Joshi, Xue-Fei YANG, N. Lele, and Jian-Chu XU. "Resource Utilization Pattern Analysis in Pali Gad Watershed of Tehri,Garhwal Himalaya (India)." Acta Botanica Yunnanica 31, no. 6 (April 1, 2010): 551–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1143.2009.00551.

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Singh, Tejpal, and Vikrant Jain. "Tectonic constraints on watershed development on frontal ridges: Mohand Ridge, NW Himalaya, India." Geomorphology 106, no. 3-4 (May 2009): 231–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.11.001.

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Verma, Aman. "Butterfly diversity and abundance in a sub-tropical wetland environment of Shyamlatal, Western Himalaya." Asian Journal of Conservation Biology `11, no. 1 (May 16, 2022): 26–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.53562/ajcb.61599.

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Shyamlatal, a natural rain-fed wetland located at an elevation of 1300m in Champawat District, owes its prime conservation value in the Himalayan state of Uttarakhand, India. Because there is a scarcity of data on bio-resources that are critical to ecological functioning, the present study documented the species composition and seasonal patterns in richness and abundance of butterflies for their future management and conservation in a wetland environment of the Shyamlatal. A record of 64 species and 45 genera under six butterfly families was made from the catchment area of watershed and surrounding forests surveyed during 2016 to 2018. Nymphalidae with 28 species over 45.84% of the total individuals was the most dominant taxonomic group of butterflies. Species on conservation priority were rare (17.18% species), habitat specific (18.75% species), legally protected (7.81% species) and endemic (20.31% species) butterflies of the Himalaya. The overall species richness and diversity of butterflies varied across seasons and the high similarity in butterfly composition was observed during summer and autumn. Results provided baseline information on the importance of mosaic of vegetation in sustaining rich butterfly diversity around the wetland, which must be managed and conserved for maintaining ecological health and integrity of the region. The results also revealed that human activities have negative consequences on butterfly diversity in the study area.

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Das, Suresh, Milap Chand Sharma, Madhav Krishna Murari, Marcus Nüsser, and Susanne Schmidt. "Erratum to: Half-a-century (1971–2020) of glacier shrinkage and climatic variability in the Bhaga basin, western Himalaya." Journal of Mountain Science 20, no. 3 (March 2023): 889–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11629-022-7343-4.

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The original online version of this article was revised. The position of the watershed names “Bhaga Upper” and “Bhaga Lower” were erroneously placed in Fig. 10 in the original article. Fig. 10 has been corrected as follows.

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Rawat, J. S., and M. S. Rawat. "The Nana Kosi Watershed, Central Himalaya, India. Part II: Human Impacts on Stream Runoff." Mountain Research and Development 14, no. 3 (August 1994): 255. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3673777.

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DAS, SURESH, and MILAP CHAND SHARMA. "Glacier changes between 1971 and 2016 in the Jankar Chhu Watershed, Lahaul Himalaya, India." Journal of Glaciology 65, no. 249 (December 4, 2018): 13–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jog.2018.77.

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ABSTRACTGlacier changes in the Jankar Chhu Watershed (JCW) of Chandrabhaga (Chenab) basin, Lahaul Himalaya were worked out based on Corona and Sentinel 2A images between 1971 and 2016. The JCW consists of 153 glaciers (>0.02 km2) with a total area of 185.6 ± 3.8 km2that include 82 glaciers with debris-covered ablation zone, comprising 10.9% of the total glacierized area as in 2016. Change analysis based on Corona (1971), Landsat (2000) and Sentinel 2A (2016) was restricted to 127 glaciers owing to the presence of cloud cover on 26 glaciers in 1971. A subset of glaciers was also mapped using Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM; 1989) image. The total glacier area decreased by 14.7 ± 4.3 km2(0.3 ± 0.1 km2a−¹). The number of glaciers in the JCW increased by four between 1971 and 2016 due to fragmentation. More recently (2000–16), recession rate has increased. Clean-ice area decreased by 21.8 ± 3.8 km2(0.5 ± 0.1 km2a−¹) while debris-covered ice increased by 7.2 ± 0.4 km2(0.2 ± 0.01 km2a−¹). Field observations of select glaciers also support derived recession trend in the JCW. Retreat rates in the JCW have been observed to be much lower than previously reported.

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Joshi, Bhaskar Ch, Ranbeer S. Rawal, K. Chandra Sekar, and Aseesh Pandey. "Quantitative ethnobotanical assessment of woody species in a representative watershed of west Himalaya, India." Energy, Ecology and Environment 4, no. 2 (February 25, 2019): 56–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40974-019-00114-9.

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Sharma, Pardeep. "Shifting of Vegetation and Timber Lines in Pinder Watershed Central Himalaya Using Geospatial Technology." Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences 3, no. 1-2 (April 15, 2020): 35–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41976-020-00033-y.

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Khuman, Y. S. C., Nancy Raina, Ranjita Pandey, and K. S. Rao. "Fuelwood assessment at the micro-watershed level: a case study in Garhwal Himalaya, India." Chinese Journal of Population Resources and Environment 13, no. 2 (April 3, 2015): 177–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10042857.2015.1033801.

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Rashid, Irfan, Shakil Ahmad Romshoo, Javaid Ahmad Hajam, and Tariq Abdullah. "A semi-automated approach for mapping geomorphology in mountainous terrain, Ferozpora watershed (Kashmir Himalaya)." Journal of the Geological Society of India 88, no. 2 (August 2016): 206–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12594-016-0479-5.

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39

Shrestha, Lisha, and Bharat Bhandari. "SUSCEPTIBILITY MAPPING OF RAINFALL INDUCED LANDSLIDES USING WEIGHT OF EVIDENCE METHOD IN JUMRE KHOLA WATERSHED OF PYUTHAN DISTRICT, NEPAL." Cognizance Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies 3, no. 11 (November 30, 2023): 205–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.47760/cognizance.2023.v03i11.014.

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The world’s development infrastructure is at risk from landslides and their consequences in many areas across the globe. There is evidence that landslide disaster is increasing in developing countries. Lesser Himalaya of Nepal is highly susceptible for landslide and various people lose their life and property each year due to landslide. The main aim of this study was to prepare 1) to identify the specific characteristics of landslides in Jumre Khola watershed. 2) To relate the rainfall intensity with landslides distribution in Jumre Khola watershed. & 3) To prepare landslide susceptibility map of Jumre Khola watershed. For this, a detailed landslide inventory was prepared by field survey and Google Earth imagery interpretation. This inventory map was separated into two groups for training the model and validating the result. A landslide susceptibility maps was developed by WOE model. Finally, validation of the model was done by using the success rate curve analysis. The verification result showed that the model performed very well with the success rate of 86.79%. The generalized linear model was performed between landslide and rainfall to know if there is significant relationship between landslide and rainfall. The Jumre Khola watershed is selected for the present study due to the presence of a large number of landslides in the region as well as due to the presence of huge amount of settlement in the mountain slopes and the river valley that are in high risk of landslides. The produced susceptibility map can be useful for general land-use planning, as well as it can provide information to the planners for the adaptation of appropriate mitigating measures for landside in the Jumre Khola watershed.

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Joshi, Mallika, Pankaj Kumar, and Purabi Sarkar. "Morphometric parameters based prioritization of a Mid-Himalayan watershed using fuzzy analytic hierarchy process." E3S Web of Conferences 280 (2021): 10004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202128010004.

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Watershed prioritization has become increasingly crucial for managing natural resources, especially the watersheds. A useful decision support tool to provide appropriate weights to different morphological attributes with lineage with soil erosion is required to identify environmentally stressed areas for the watershed resources. This study examines the Western Nayar watershed delineation and further examination of the watershed’s morphometric parameters. The morphometric parameters were quantified under the linear, areal, and relief heads for the watershed. The prioritization of sub-watersheds was done by the fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (FAHP). The study included nine morphometric parameters for forming a pairwise comparison matrix. The fuzzy analytic hierarchy process was employed for assigning the suitable weights to morphometric parameters, and further, these weights are normalized to assign the final ranks to the sub-watershed. In Western Nayar, SW9 got the highest priority, and SW1 was categorized as the least priority. The results were validated by the consistency ratio index, which depends on the matrix consistency index’s size that should be less than 10%. The consistency index of the present study was found to be 2%.

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Datta, S. K., and K. J. Virgo. "Towards Sustainable Watershed Development through People's Participation: Lessons from the Lesser Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, India." Mountain Research and Development 18, no. 3 (August 1998): 213. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3674034.

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JOSHI, MUKESH, SUBRAT SHARMA, D. S. RAWAT, and L. M. S. PALNI. "STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF AGROFORESTRY IN CENTRAL HIMALAYA: A CASE STUDY FROM HAIGAD WATERSHED, INDIA." Forests, Trees and Livelihoods 20, no. 4 (January 2011): 231–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2011.9756711.

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43

Joshi, B. K. "Common Property Resources Synergy and Perspectives of Sustainable Management in Garurganga Watershed, Indian Central Himalaya." Journal of Human Ecology 20, no. 1 (September 2006): 69–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2006.11905905.

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44

Yanglem Sharatchandra, Khuman, Raina Nancy, and Sreenivasa Rao Kottapalli. "Fuelwood assessment at micro-watershed level in Northeast Himalaya: a case study in Manipur, India." Chinese Journal of Population Resources and Environment 12, no. 2 (April 3, 2014): 137–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10042857.2014.910879.

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45

Krishna, Akhouri Pramod. "Remote sensing approach for watershed based resources management in the Sikkim Himalaya: A case study." Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing 24, no. 2 (June 1996): 71–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03016119.

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46

Kanwal, Manmohan Singh, Anil Kumar Yadava, and S. C. R. Vishvakarma. "Fuelwood Production and Utilization Pattern along an Altitudinal Gradient in Kosi Watershed of Kumaun Himalaya." Indian Forester 149, no. 7 (August 21, 2023): 737. http://dx.doi.org/10.36808/if/2023/v149i7/165487.

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47

Yamaha, Tomom, Hideako Motoyama, and Kadcha Bdr Thapa. "Mass Balance Study of a Glacier System from Hydrological Observations in Langtang Valley, Nepal Himalaya." Annals of Glaciology 6 (1985): 318–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/1985aog6-1-318-320.

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Hydrological and meteorological observations of river runoff, precipitation and air temperature were conducted 27 August to 26 October 1982, in Langtang Valley, Nepal Himalaya, whereby the mass balance of the glacier system there was estimated. Observed values suggest that (1) all glacier ablation and rainwater in the subwatershed of Langtang Valley drain into the river with the runoff coefficient of 1; (2) ablation of the glacier system can be estimated simply using a degree-day factor of 10 mm/degree-day; and (3) precipitation is considered uniform over the whole watershed. Assuming that the suggested phenomena persist throughout the year, records of monthly precipitation and monthly mean temperature in this valley, indicate that annual accumulation and ablation in the glacier system amount to 2000 ± 200 mm, respectively.

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Yamaha, Tomom, Hideako Motoyama, and Kadcha Bdr Thapa. "Mass Balance Study of a Glacier System from Hydrological Observations in Langtang Valley, Nepal Himalaya." Annals of Glaciology 6 (1985): 318–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500010788.

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Hydrological and meteorological observations of river runoff, precipitation and air temperature were conducted 27 August to 26 October 1982, in Langtang Valley, Nepal Himalaya, whereby the mass balance of the glacier system there was estimated. Observed values suggest that (1) all glacier ablation and rainwater in the subwatershed of Langtang Valley drain into the river with the runoff coefficient of 1; (2) ablation of the glacier system can be estimated simply using a degree-day factor of 10 mm/degree-day; and (3) precipitation is considered uniform over the whole watershed. Assuming that the suggested phenomena persist throughout the year, records of monthly precipitation and monthly mean temperature in this valley, indicate that annual accumulation and ablation in the glacier system amount to 2000 ± 200 mm, respectively.

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Adamowski, Jan, Hiu Fung Chan, Shiv O. Prasher, and Vishwa Nath Sharda. "Comparison of multivariate adaptive regression splines with coupled wavelet transform artificial neural networks for runoff forecasting in Himalayan micro-watersheds with limited data." Journal of Hydroinformatics 14, no. 3 (October 11, 2011): 731–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2011.044.

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Himalayan watersheds are characterized by mountainous topography and a lack of available data. Due to the complexity of rainfall–runoff relationships in mountainous watersheds and the lack of hydrological data in many of these watersheds, process-based models have limited applicability for runoff forecasting in these areas. In light of this, accurate forecasting methods that do not necessitate extensive data sets are required for runoff forecasting in mountainous watersheds. In this study, multivariate adaptive regression spline (MARS), wavelet transform artificial neural network (WA-ANN), and regular artificial neural network (ANN) models were developed and compared for runoff forecasting applications in the mountainous watershed of Sainji in the Himalayas, an area with limited data for runoff forecasting. To develop and test the models, three micro-watersheds were gauged in the Sainji watershed in Uttaranchal State in India and data were recorded from July 1 2001 to June 30 2003. It was determined that the best WA-ANN and MARS models were comparable in terms of forecasting accuracy, with both providing very accurate runoff forecasts compared to the best ANN model. The results indicate that the WA-ANN and MARS methods are promising new methods of short-term runoff forecasting in mountainous watersheds with limited data, and warrant additional study.

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Chowdhury, Arindam, Milap Chand Sharma, Sunil Kumar De, and Manasi Debnath. "Glacier changes in the Chhombo Chhu Watershed of the Tista basin between 1975 and 2018, the Sikkim Himalaya, India." Earth System Science Data 13, no. 6 (June 17, 2021): 2923–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-2923-2021.

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Abstract. Glaciers of the Tista basin represent an important water source for mountain communities and a large population downstream. The article presents observable changes in the Chhombo Chhu Watershed (CCW) glacier area of the Tista basin, the Sikkim Himalaya. The CCW contains 74 glaciers (> 0.02 km2) with a mean glacier size of 0.61 km2. We determined changes in glaciers from the declassified Hexagon Keyhole-9 (KH-9) (1975), Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper (TM) (1989), Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) (2000), Landsat 5 TM (2010), and Sentinel-2A (2018) images. The total glacier area in 1975 was 62.6 ± 0.7 km2; and by 2018, the area had decreased to 44.8 ± 1.5 km2, an area loss of 17.9 ± 1.7 km2 (0.42 ± 0.04 km2 a−1). Clean glaciers exhibited more area loss of 11.8 ± 1.2 km2 (0.27 ± 0.03 km2 a−1) than partially debris-covered and maximally debris-covered glaciers. The area loss is 5.0 ± 0.4 km2 (0.12 ± 0.01 km2 a−1) for partially covered glaciers and 1.0 ± 0.1 km2 (−0.02 ± 0.002 km2 a−1) for maximally covered glaciers. The glacier area loss in the CCW of the Sikkim Himalaya is 0.62 ± 0.5 km2 a−1 during 2000–2010, and it is 0.77 ± 0.6 km2 a−1 during 2010–2018. Field investigations of selected glaciers and climatic records also support the glacier recession in the CCW due to a significant increase in temperature (0.25 ∘C a−1) and more or less static precipitation since 1995. The dataset is now available from the Zenodo web portal: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4457183 (Chowdhury et al., 2021).

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Journal articles on the topic 'Himalaya watershed'

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