Academic literature on the topic 'High sensitivity measurements'

Low level counting techniques are a powerful tools in many different fields including biological and chemical tracer studies, archaeological and geological dating, investigation of natural and induced radioactivities and the study of fundamental particles physics. Since they play a crucial role in many applications, developments are continuously pursue to improve the extreme sensitivity typical of these techniques. The fundamental request of low level counting techniques is the capability to detect feeble signals, characterized by low counting rates, above the background composed of spurious counts; they thus have the capability to measure very low activities of natural and artificial radionuclides. During my PhD work I have focused on two main applications using low level counting systems: the search of rare physics events and the environmental monitoring. Both the studied systems use γ spectroscopy with High Purity Germanium detectors (HPGe). This technique is one of the most sensitive, it exploits the excellent energy resolution typical of such detectors and their low intrinsic background. The first system is composed of two n-type HPGe GMX 100-95 in Low Background configuration, they have been designed with radiopure selected materials to reach an intrinsic background as low as possible. This work has brought to a unique configuration associated to an electrical cooling system, different from the one that was available on market. Since the two GMX detectors have been conceived to work in coincidence I have optimized the measuring system studying different radionuclide decay schemes to consider the most probable coincidences between the γ -rays emitted during the decay of the isotope under study. A dedicated data acquisition has been developed with particular attention to the co- incidence detection efficiency. Furthermore I have developed the analysis software to For some rare physics events experiments the only way to enhance the sensitivity is the background reduction; for this purpose all the materials of the experimental facility should be selected as radiopure as possible. The development and optimization of the low background system composed of the two GMX detectors, working in coincidence, can select suitable materials through the measurement of very low radionuclide concentrations. The other system I have worked on is a Broad Energy Germanium (BEGe5030) in low background configuration. This detector can register with excellent energy resolution and high efficiency a wide energy spectrum, from 3 keV up to 3 MeV, thanks to some of its peculiar features. The thin dead layers surrounding the active volume and the thin entrance window on its top are responsible for its capability to detect very low energy radiations. I have optimized this system using Monte Carlo simulations to detect low contamina- tions of radionuclides in several samples. In particular in the last century, the environmental monitoring has became an impor- tant aspect of radio-protection; nuclear tests, nuclear accidents, wastes and fall-out in general can release a large quantity of radionuclides. Since toxicity and radioactivity of these contaminations are dangerous it is mandatory an environmental monitoring at the area of interest. Plutonium isotopes significantly contribute to the contamination due to nuclear fall- out events in environment; since they are very toxic it is important to quickly monitor a large number of samples in the area of interest. Using the BEGe I have developed a quick and sensitive method to detect Plutonium isotopes concentration in environmental samples through the detection of the X-rays emitted during their decays. This result is a very important improvement in Plutonium detection for monitoring measurements since the counting methods commonly used are characterized by long measuring and sample treatments time.

The objective of this work is to use MOSFET dosimeters to accurately measure surface dose delivered during CT examinations in various scanning conditions. To achieve this, the behaviour of MOSFETs under kilovoltage x-ray irradiation first needed to be investigated. A dose-to-dose reproducibility of 4.5%, and a mean change in sensitivity response of 10.4% with accumulated dose were measured. A Monte Carlo model of the x-ray source of a PQ5000 CT simulator was built and validated in order to investigate the MOSFET response characteristics and perform dose calculations. An over-response of 10% was observed when the beam energy was decreased from 140 to 80 kVp, and a slight anisotropy of 8.5% from the mean value over 360º was observed. The dosimeters were calibrated on a solid water phantom using a method involving MC surface dose calculations. Good agreement was found between measurements and simulations of surface dose on a cylindrical PMMA phantom for a stationary tube technique, single axial scan and multiple contiguous axial scans, with generally less than 7.5% discrepancies. Film and MOSFET measurements were then performed for helical adult brain scan parameters using different pitch and collimator settings. The use of five MOSFETs combined in a linear array was found to be suitable to accurately measure surface dose in helical scans for almost all pitch and collimation combinations.

The development of an experimental apparatus to produce Bose-Einstein condensates (BECs) of 87Rb atoms and their application to magnetometry are discussed. Optical detection of atomic Larmor precession is a widely explored method for high-sensitivity measurements of magnetic fields. In this context, short laser/atom interaction time, atomic thermal diffusion and decoherence effects are among the main limitations. In this thesis, we overcome such problems by using spin-polarised 87Rb ultra-cold atoms as the sensing element. After the atoms are polarised, a resonant pulse of radio-frequency excites Larmor precession, which is sensitive to external magnetic fields. By measuring the perturbations of the radio-frequency induced spin precession, information on the magnetic fields of interest. This is achieved by monitoring the polarisation plane’s rotation of a linearly polarised resonant laser probe. In the first part of this thesis, the building and optimisation of a laser-cooling set up to obtain a BEC in a hybrid trap is reported. In order to achieve the Phase Space Density (PSD) required for BEC, several different stages of trapping and cooling are necessary. Each phase has been implemented and optimised. The first step consists in the magneto-optical trap (MOT). Here a velocity dependent damping force and a spatially dependent confining force give the largest changes in PSD. Then atoms are loaded into a hybrid trap obtained by overlapping a quadrupole magnetic potential and a far detuned optical crossed dipole trap. The final stage for the condensation consists of forced evaporative cooling, both via magnetic and optical evaporation. In the second part of the thesis, a general overview of the principles of optical atomic magnetometry is provided and the advantages of using ultra-cold atoms with respect to conventional thermal vapours are discussed. The implementation, operation and a preliminary characterisation of the ultra-cold atom magnetometer are described along with the preliminary results collected. Finally, a plan for future improvements of its sensitivity is presented.

2011 - 2012<br>Earth's surface and interior continuously deform as a result of geological and geophys- ical processes. To study these phenomena and to understand better the rheological properties of the Earth, measurements of Earth's deformation become of fundamental importance, providing a critical link between Earth's structure and dynamics, also in order to optimize the response to natural hazards and identify potential risk areas. The study of crustal deformation is a complex but very important research topic that encompasses several scienti c disciplines, including di erential geometry, theory of elas- ticity, geodynamics and physics in general. The use of di erent kind of geodetic data to study geodynamic phenomena became increasingly important, playing a key role in the knowledge of their temporal and mag- nitude variations at many di erent spatial and time scales. These measurements provide signi cant constraints on the changes in Earth's lithosphere and processes that cause them, like for example movements of magma, changes in strain before, during, and after earthquakes, motion of ice sheets. Yet even today, large portions of the Earth are infrequently monitored, or not at all. Deformation can be measured in several ways, as relative movement of points on the Earth's surface, through measurements of strain and tilt, or by GPS (Global Position- ing System), VLBI (Very Long Base Interferometry) and SLR (Satellite Laser Ranging) measurements. Among the di erent types of instruments, the laser strainmeters (or in- terferometers), measuring the displacement between two points away from a few meters to over a kilometer, are characterized by very high accuracy and long-term stability, necessary to investigate processes of crustal deformation. The analysis of interferomet- ric data allows to study both local and global geodynamic phenomena in a broad band of frequencies. This thesis introduces results related to some analysis of data recorded by two laser interferometers installed at Gran Sasso (Italy) Underground Laboratories and describes the installation of two new laser interferometers in the Canfranc (Spain) Underground Laboratory, at the end of August 2011, with the analysis of their rst sequences. In the rst chapter some general concepts about strain, crustal deformation and their measurements are introduced. The study of the deformation on the Earth's surface improved in the last fty years, changing from mostly descriptive and qualitative to more quantitative. The state and magnitude of the stress in the Earth's lithosphere, and thus of the deformation, play an important role on various geophysical problems, such as the plate mechanisms, energy budget of the Earth, earthquake mechanism and crustal movements. In Chapter 2 there is a description of the Earth's tidal deformation. The body tides, due to a direct e ect of gravitational attraction from the Sun, Moon and other objects, can be modeled very accurately. In addition, there is a part of deformation, known as ocean loading, arising from the mass uctuations of the oceans. These last is also rather well understood, but the modeling of its e ects still needs to be improved. This phenomenon is very signi cant for the interferometric strain sequences because they are clearly dominated by the semidiurnal and diurnal strain tides. Chapter 3 describes the laser interferometry and, in particular, the operating principle of the Gran Sasso (Italy) laser interferometers, which provide very high-sensitivity strain data, by comparing the optical length of a longer measurement arm (about 90 meters in length) and a shorter xed reference arm (about 20 cm in length). Although the interferometers measure strain directly, the presence of cavities, topography, and local inhomogeneities of the crust can modify the strain measurement considerably. Also environmental and anthropic e ects appear as anomalous or noise signals in a broad frequency range, which includes for example the Earth tides. It is necessary to take some or all these possible e ects into account, depending on the phenomenon studied. In Chapter 4 data produced by Gran Sasso interferometers, rst alone and then to- gether with those produced by a third laser interferometer installed in Baksan (Russia) Underground Laboratory, are used to estimate the Free Core Nutation (FCN) param- eters. Even if tidal signal-to-noise ratio for strain is usually lower than for gravity, the analysis of strain data is promising, because relative perturbations in strain tides are about 10 times larger than in gravity tides. The inversion of realistic synthetic tidal parameters (obtained from observed amplitude and phase of eight diurnal tidal components) shows that the resolving power of strain tides is comparable to that of gravity tides if tidal parameters are inverted minimizing the L2 mis t (as usually done). Both resolving powers improve if data are inverted minimizing the L1 mis t, and this improvement is particularly notable for gravity tides. The inversions of strain records have been performed after correcting measured strain for local distortion of the regional strain eld and ocean loading. For estimating the FCR parameters, eight diurnal tidal constituents (Q1, O1, P1, K1, 1, 1, J1 and OO1) have been used, by comparing mea- surements (corrected for ocean loading) and model predictions (corrected for the local strain distortion), minimizing the L1 mis t. The analysis of the only Gran Sasso strain data provides a value for the FCN period (about 429 sidereal days) robust and compa- rable to those from gravity tides, obtained from the joint inversion of data from several stations. The agreement between observations and predictions looks better than in any previous work that makes use of strain tides. The joint analysis of Gran Sasso and Bak- san strain data con rms, but does not improve, these results recently obtained. In both cases the quality factor is not well constrained because of the large uncertainty on the 1 phase; however the results are consistent with recently published values ( 20000). In Chapter 5 the new mode of faulting, discovered in the last decades and referred to as slow slip earthquakes, is examined. Many aspects of slow slip remain unexplained. Here an attempt to describe the characteristics of the rupture propagation through the analysis of strain records from three di erent slow events related to the 1978 Izu- Oshima (Japan) earthquake, the 1999 Durmid Hill (California) slow event and the 2003 Tokachi-oki (Japan) earthquake. The signals recorded during these slow events exhibit the same peculiarities observed in the strain sequences recorded at Gran Sasso during the 6 April 2009 L'Aquila earthquake, rst direct measurement of the di usive character of the rupture propagation. By using two di erent propagation mechanisms along 1D straight paths, namely constant propagation velocity and di usive processes, predicted strain history at both interferometers is fully consistent with di usive slip propagation, but inconsistent with constant velocity propagation. Not all slow earthquakes analysed are consistent with only one of the two models tested. Two of the four slow events (L'Aquila and Izu-Oshima F3 fault) are only consistent with di usive slip propagation. Constant velocity propagation gives much worst t to data, being unable to t the shape of minimum observed on signals recorded by BA interferometer and SHI borehole strainmeter for L'Aquila and Izu-Oshima slow earthquakes, respectively. For both slow events, the seismic moment density decreases about linearly with distance along the path, like the steady-state solution of 1D di usive processes. In the other cases (Durmid Hill, Tokachi-oki and Izu-Oshima F4 fault) it is not possible to discriminate the type of propagation. Observations are consistent with both types of slip propagation but for them the shape of seismic moment seems somewhat unrealistic, being a bell-shaped distribution peaked on the nodal line. These results suggest the necessity to deepen the source features, not well constrained in some cases. Moreover, also the assumption of 1D very thin path might be a source of uncertainty. In the last chapter the installation, occured in August 2011, of two new laser interferom- eters is described and their rst records analysed. These instruments, operating since November 2011, are installed in the Canfranc (Spain) Underground Laboratory (LSC). The LSC is located at depth in one of the most seismically active areas in Western Europe, at the Pyrenean chain that marks the boundary between the European plate and the Iberian microplate. The rst tests on strain data recorded by these interfer- ometers evidence the capability of producing clear records of low-frequency signals, for example relating to seismic waves, Earth free oscillations, and possible local aseismic stress release. A preliminary tidal analysis shows a good agreement between observed and predicted tides in the diurnal tidal band, suggesting that, if any, local strain dis- tortion e ects are small. In the semidiurnal tidal band, discrepancies between observed and predicted tides are noticeable; this might be a consequence of inadequate Earth and/or ocean models. These results deserve further investigation; in particular it would be interesting to deepen the local distortion e ect in the di erent frequency bands and estimate the ocean loading in more detail, especially in the Bay of Biscay which could be the main source of the discrepancies observed in the semidiurnal tidal band. [edited by author]<br>XI n.s.

The volumetric system is a commonly used experimental method for gas adsorption measurements. Starting from the conventional volumetric system (single-branched), the development of differential (double-branched) apparatus has been proposed to overcome some criticalities connected to the original design. The following study is focused on the assessment of the high-pressure differential volumetric apparatus (HP-ADVA) built at the University of Edinburgh in order to discover and characterise system peculiarities at different experimental conditions, in terms of temperature and pressure. To do this, an integrated approach is proposed: an initial experimental campaign has been performed to take confidentiality with the apparatus, then, the experimental results were the starting point for the development of a sensitivity and error analysis aimed at describing the effect of each operating parameter into the final result. In this regard, a different analytical approach, compared to the ones commonly proposed in literature, has been proposed to closely reproduce the real system. Beyond having obtained promising results, some criticalities, matching what originally hypothesized from the experimental campaign, have been noted: valve volume effect and temperature control and measurements have been discovered being crucial aspects, and, supposedly, source of errors leading to explain the unexpected results obtained by the experimental campaign. Moreover, the importance of symmetry maintenance among the branches has been repeatedly confirmed in the analysis. Some recommendations aimed at improving the system set-up have been moved regarding the installation of a temperature control system and more accurate temperature measurement devices. Additionally, an accurate assessment and characterisation of pneumatically-actuated valves, as well as of the differential pressure transducer used for pressure measurement, before the installation, could be useful to reduce inaccuracies.

PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO<br>COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR<br>PROGRAMA DE EXCELENCIA ACADEMICA<br>Um dos casos clínicos mais frequentes na sociedade moderna envolve a localização e extração de projéteis de armas de fogo, que normalmente são feitos de chumbo, um material não ferromagnético. O desenvolvimento de uma técnica que possibilite a localização precisa destes auxiliará o procedimento de remoção cirúrgica, tendo vasta relevância e impactando diretamente no aumento da taxa de sobrevivência de pessoas feridas. Dessa forma, esta dissertação apresenta e discute duas novas abordagens baseadas em técnicas de inteligência computacional, objetivando a localização de projéteis de armas de fogo inseridos no corpo humano, a partir do processamento da informação contida em mapas de campo magnético. Em ambas as abordagens analisadas modela-se o projétil como uma esfera de raio a, localizado em um espaço de busca contido em um plano xy, o qual está situado a uma distância h do sensor no eixo z. As técnicas de localização requerem a geração de um campo magnético primário alternado por meio de um solenoide, o qual incide sobre o espaço de busca. Caso exista um projétil de arma de fogo nesta região, serão induzidas correntes parasitas no projétil, as quais, por sua vez, produzirão um campo magnético secundário, que pode ser medido por um sensor de alta sensibilidade localizado na extremidade do solenoide. Na primeira abordagem analisada, as posições x e y do projétil são determinadas por um algoritmo de janelamento que considera valores máximos e médios pertencentes aos mapas de campo magnético secundário. A determinação da distância h entre a esfera e o sensor foi obtida por meio de uma rede neural, e o raio da esfera a é estimado por um algoritmo genético. Na segunda abordagem, as quatro variáveis de interesse (x, y, h e a) são inferidas diretamente por um algoritmo genético. Os resultados obtidos são avaliados e comparados.<br>In modern society, one of the most frequent clinical cases involves location and extraction of firearms projectiles, usually made of lead, a non-ferromagnetic material. The development of a technique that allows the precise location of these projectiles will aid their surgical removal, which has a great relevance because it contributes directly to the increase of the survival rate of wounded patients. Thus, this dissertation presents and discusses two new approaches based on computational intelligence techniques, aiming at locating firearm projectiles inserted into the human body, by processing the information contained in magnetic field maps. On both approaches, the projectile is modeled by a sphere with radius a, located on a search space contained in a xy plane that is situated at a distance h from the sensor, along the z axis. The proposed location techniques require the generation of a primary alternating magnetic field by means of a solenoid, which aims at inducing eddy currents in a firearm projectile contained in the search space. In turn, these currents will produce a secondary magnetic field, which can be measured by a high-sensitivity sensor located at the bottom of the solenoid. In the first developed technique, the x and y positions of the projectile were estimated by a windowing algorithm that takes into account maximum and mean values contained on the secondary magnetic field maps. In turn, the distance h between the sphere and the sensor is inferred by a neural network, and the radius of the sphere a is estimated by a genetic algorithm. In the second technique, the four variables of interest (x, y, h and a) are inferred directly by a genetic algorithm. The results obtained are evaluated and compared.

Abstract In this work, the homogeneity of both the B0 and B1 fields was studied. Both B0 and B1 field homogeneities are the basic assumptions of high resolution liquid state NMR. Although some inhomogeneity of both of the fields is always present, the spectrometers can be operated, with the help of the developed spectral purging techniques, without giving any thought to the field inhomogeneities or the necessary actions to minimize their adverse effects. Although the effect of B0 inhomogeneity can occasionally be seen, the B1 fieldin a modern probe head is often assumed to be sufficiently homogenous for any practical purpose. By using the method used in this study the B1 field strength along one axis, typically the z-axis, can be easily mapped. Based on the information gathered from a single experiment, one can obtain reliable and valuable information about the B1 field distribution, e.g. homogeneity of the coil. From such information, the degree of required artifact suppressing methods for successful NMR experiments can be determined. Since normal pulse length calibration also requires the acquisition of several 1-D spectra, the required experimentation time is not increased. Although the maximum amount of signal from an NMR experiment is obtained when the signal is acquired from a maximum number of resonating spins, the results presented show that significantly more homogenous B1 field along the active sample volume is achieved by rejection of the signal originating from the outer parts of the coil length. Although the total amount of signal obtained from the outer parts of the RF-coil is not very high, some loss of signal is associated with the spatially selective acquisition. The rejected signal, however, is a significant source of artifacts, and if no precautions were taken, the artifacts would severely decrease the quality of the acquired data. If the sample concentration can be increased, it would be advantageous to dissolve the amount of sample available in as small an amount of solvent as is possible and place the sample in the most B1 homogenous part of the probe-head RF-coil. With the same amount of nuclear spins concentrated into a smaller volume, the sensitivity of an NMR experiment can be increased manifold. As an application of a spatially selective data acquisition, a versatile method capable of producing a map of the B0 field strength and its variation along the sample volume is presented.