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1
Polinsky, Maria. "Bilingual children and adult heritage speakers: The range of comparison." International Journal of Bilingualism 22, no. 5 (July 16, 2016): 547–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1367006916656048.
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This paper compares the language of child bilinguals and adult unbalanced bilinguals (heritage speakers) against that of bilingual native speakers of their home language (baseline). We identify four major vectors of correspondence across the language spoken by these three groups. First, all varieties may represent a given linguistic property in a similar way (child bilinguals = adult heritage speakers = bilingual native speakers of their home language). This occurs when either (i) the property in question is highly robust and is acquired by learners without difficulty or (ii) the property is already in decline in the baseline. We illustrate scenario (i) with data from Russian count forms, which are morphologically quite complex. The preservation of these forms in child bilinguals and adult heritage speakers suggests that simplicity of encoding is not the only factor determining robustness of retention. Second, child and heritage speakers may share a linguistic structure that differs from the one found in the baseline (bilingual native speakers of their home language ≠ child bilinguals = adult heritage speakers). This scenario occurs when incipient structural changes in the baseline become amplified in the language of next-generation bilinguals, or when a given structure is rare, confined to a specific register, and/or reinforced through literacy. Third, a structure may be acquired by bilingual children faithfully, but undergo reanalysis/attrition in the adult heritage language (bilingual native speakers of their home language = child bilinguals ≠ adult heritage speakers). Russian relativization illustrates this scenario; child bilinguals show native-like performance on relative clauses but adult heritage speakers show an exaggerated subject preference in the interpretation of gaps. Finally, a structure that is not fully learned by child speakers may be reanalyzed by adult heritage speakers following general principles, thus bringing the adult heritage representation closer to that of the baseline (bilingual native speakers of their home language = adult heritage speakers ≠ child bilinguals). Heritage speakers’ production and comprehension of psychological predicates in Spanish illustrates this possibility.
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Silva-Corvalán, Carmen. "Simultaneous bilingualism: Early developments, incomplete later outcomes?" International Journal of Bilingualism 22, no. 5 (June 23, 2016): 497–512. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1367006916652061.
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Purpose: Research on the language of heritage speakers has shown that in situations of societal bilingualism the functionally restricted language evidences the simplification of some grammatical domains. A frequent question is whether this stage of grammatical simplification is due to incomplete or interrupted acquisition in the early years of a bilingual’s life, or a result of processes of attrition of acquired knowledge of the underused language. This article considers the issue of incompleteness through an examination of the relationship between bilingual children’s developing grammars and the more or less changed bilingual systems of adult second and third generation immigrants (“heritage speakers”) in the USA. Methodology: The issue of incompleteness is examined in two corpora: (1) Recordings of 50 Spanish-English adult Mexican-American bilinguals; and (2) Longitudinal data obtained during the first six years of life of two Spanish-English bilingual siblings. Data analysis: Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the grammar of subjects, verbal clitics, and verb tenses of the Spanish of the bilinguals under study. Findings: The outcome of reduced exposure and production of a minority language in simultaneous bilingual acquisition reflects the incomplete acquisition by age 6;0 of some aspects of the input language. The bilingual siblings’ unequal control of the minority language is shown to parallel the range of proficiencies identified across the adult heritage speakers. Significance: Some linguists argue that heritage speakers’ grammars are less restrictive or “different” in some respects but not incomplete. In contrast, this article demonstrates that at least some of the reduced grammars of heritage speakers result from a halted process of acquisition in the early years of life. Furthermore, while difference is not an explanatory construct, incomplete acquisition due to interrupted development caused by restricted exposure and production offers an explanation for the range of proficiencies attested among adult heritage speakers.
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Rinke, Esther, Cristina Flores, and Aldona Sopata. "Heritage Portuguese and Heritage Polish in Contact with German: More Evidence on the Production of Objects." Languages 4, no. 3 (July 10, 2019): 53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages4030053.
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This paper compares the production of different types of direct objects by Portuguese–German and Polish–German bilingual school-aged children in their heritage languages (HLs), Polish and European Portuguese (EP). Given that the two target languages display identical options of object realization, our main research question is whether the two HLs develop in a similar way in bilingual children. More precisely, we aim at investigating whether bilingual children acquiring Polish and EP are sensitive to accessibility and animacy when realizing a direct object in their HL. The results of a production experiment show that this is indeed the case and that the two groups of bilinguals do not differ from each other, although they may overgeneralize null objects or full noun phrases to some extent. We conclude that the bilingual acquisition of object realization is guided by the relevant properties in the target languages and is not influenced by the contact language, German.
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Montrul, Silvina. "Heritage language development: Connecting the dots." International Journal of Bilingualism 22, no. 5 (July 18, 2016): 530–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1367006916654368.
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To date, the vast majority of research on the linguistic abilities of heritage speakers has focused on young adults whose heritage language is no longer developing. These adults began their journey as bilingual children acquiring the heritage language with the majority language simultaneously since birth or sequentially, as a second language. If longitudinal studies are not always feasible, linking research on the structural development of bilingual pre-school children with research on young adult heritage speakers adds a much needed perspective to understand the initial state and the end state of heritage language development. The purpose of this study is to connect the beginning of heritage language development with its ultimate attainment by comparing the expression of subjects in Spanish in 15 school-age bilingual children and 29 young adult heritage speakers, all of them simultaneous bilinguals with English as the dominant language and Spanish as the weaker language. The oral production of null and overt subjects by child and adult heritage speakers was compared to that of age-matched monolingual speakers in Mexico (20 children, 20 adults). To provide a wider context the study includes a group of 21 adult immigrants, who could also potentially influence the input to the heritage speakers. The results confirm that discourse pragmatic properties of subject expression in Spanish are vulnerable to incomplete acquisition and permanent optionality in child and adult bilingual grammars.
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Rose, Karen, Sharon Armon-Lotem, and Carmit Altman. "Profiling Bilingual Children: Using Monolingual Assessment to Inform Diagnosis." Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 53, no. 2 (April 11, 2022): 494–510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2021_lshss-21-00099.
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Purpose: Diagnostic tools developed for monolinguals are frequently used for bilingual linguistic assessment. The absence of evaluation criteria for using monolingual norms for bilinguals contributes to inconsistent diagnostic procedures, impacting research and clinical practice. This study considers the reliance on monolingual tools to assess the heritage language to identify bilingual atypical language development (ALD) even when bilingual norms are available for the societal language. Method: One hundred thirty-one English–Hebrew bilingual children aged 5;6–5;11 (years;months) were assessed using diagnostic tools. Bilingual standards are available for the societal language but not for the heritage language. Fifteen English–Hebrew bilingual children were suspected of ALD. They were individually compared with 116 typically developing bilingual peers. The Core Language Score and seven subtest standardized scores of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Preschool–Second Edition were analyzed in the heritage language, English. Results: Results revealed that a composite score used for differential diagnosis in monolingual children cannot be relied upon for bilingual children. Measurements vary in their diagnostic accuracy, with Concepts and Following Directions (comprehension of instructions), Receptive and Expressive Word Classes (lexicon), and Sentence Repetition (syntax) being the most promising for identifying ALD in bilingual children. Lastly, bilingual children's age of onset of bilingualism must be considered in the analysis of linguistic outcomes. Conclusions: Findings elucidate that monolingual assessments for heritage speakers must consider bilingual models of development to ensure a reliable and informative diagnosis. Interacting factors, such as reliance on language-specific knowledge and the recruitment of other nonlinguistic processing skills, may influence a measurement's sensitivity. The findings are pertinent to the practice of speech-language pathologists, informing evidence-based assessment procedures for bilingual children. A group study to determine whether the suggested bilingual standards can identify ALD with acceptable specificity and sensitivity is now recommended.
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Cummings Ruiz, Laura D., and Silvina Montrul. "Assessing Rhotic Production by Bilingual Spanish Speakers." Languages 5, no. 4 (November 3, 2020): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages5040051.
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Due to its articulatory precision, the Spanish rhotic system is generally acquired in late childhood by monolingually-raised (L1) Spanish speakers. Heritage speakers and second language (L2) learners, unlike L1 speakers, risk an incomplete acquisition of the rhotic system due to limited Spanish input and possible phonological interference from English. In order to examine the effects of age of onset of bilingualism and cross-linguistic influence on bilinguals’ rhotic productions, twenty-four adult participants (six sequential bilingual heritage speakers, six simultaneous bilingual heritage speakers, six L1 Spanish speakers, six L2 Spanish learners) were audio recorded in a storytelling task and a picture naming task. The alveolar taps [ɾ] and alveolar trills [r] produced in these tasks were examined according to duration of the rhotic sound and number of apical occlusions. Results showed that the sequential bilinguals, but not the simultaneous bilinguals or the L2 learners, patterned similarly to the L1 Spanish speakers in their production of taps and trills. Neither heritage group produced the English alveolar approximant [ɹ]; the L2 learners, on the other hand, did produce [ɹ] when speaking Spanish. The results of this study suggest that early language input can affect the production of sounds that are acquired in late childhood.
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LLEÓ, CONXITA. "Aspects of the Phonology of Spanish as a Heritage Language: from Incomplete Acquisition to Transfer." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 21, no. 4 (August 7, 2017): 732–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728917000165.
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The present study analyzes percentages of target-like production of Spanish spirantization and assimilation of coda nasals place of articulation, in three groups of bilingual children simultaneously acquiring German and Spanish: two very young groups, one living in Germany and another one in Spain, and a group of 7-year-old bilinguals from Germany. There were monolingual Spanish and monolingual German control groups. The comparison between groups shows that the Spanish of bilinguals is different from that of monolinguals; and the Spanish of bilinguals in Germany is different from that of bilinguals in Spain. Results lead to the conclusion that the Spanish competence of the bilinguals from Germany is still incomplete, and influenced by transfer of the majority language (German). Only bilingual children living in Germany show influence of the majority language onto the heritage language, whereas transfer does not operate on the Spanish competence of the bilingual children from Spain.
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Abbot-Smith, Kirsten, Patrycja Morawska-Patera, Magdalena Łuniewska, Megan Spruce, and Ewa Haman. "Using parental questionnaires to investigate the heritage language proficiency of bilingual children." Child Language Teaching and Therapy 34, no. 2 (June 2018): 155–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265659018780958.
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We asked whether parental questionnaires on the heritage language proficiency of bilingual children might elucidate how proficient bilingual children are in their heritage language. We tested 20 UK-based Polish–English bilingual children between 4;5 and 5;9 years on Polish and English versions of the Cross-linguistic Lexical Tasks (CLTs). These comprise receptive and expressive picture tasks. Our bilingual group performed significantly worse on the Polish CLTs than on the English CLTs overall. They also performed significantly worse on the English CLTs than did an age- and gender-matched group of monolingual English-speaking children. Therefore our bilingual sample represent the type of bilinguals for whom education professionals have difficulty determining whether weak English is due to diminished English input vs. an underlying speech, language or communication need. Parents of the bilinguals completed a Polish adaptation of the Children’s Communication Checklist 2. They also completed the Parents of Bilingual Children Questionnaire (PaBiQ), which includes risk factor measures (‘No Risk Index’ and children’s ‘Current Language Skills’). The PaBiQ also includes measures of the Amount and Length of Exposure to the majority language (English) prior to age four as well as the Proportion of English in the current input. For the bilingual sample the CCC2 General Communication Composite (GCC), which measures structural language, significantly predicted Polish CLT production, uniquely accounting for 25% of the variance. The parent-rated PaBiQ ‘Current Polish Skills’ section predicted the Polish CLT comprehension. While the PaBiQ measure of Amount and Length of English Exposure was related to both Polish comprehension and production, it did not retain significance in a regression analysis. Therefore, parental questionnaires of the heritage language could provide a useful first step for education professionals when deciding whether to refer bilingual children for speech and language assessment. Large scale studies are needed to further develop these parental questionnaires.
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STOEHR, ANTJE, TITIA BENDERS, JANET G. VAN HELL, and PAULA FIKKERT. "Heritage language exposure impacts voice onset time of Dutch–German simultaneous bilingual preschoolers." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 21, no. 3 (June 22, 2017): 598–617. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728917000116.
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This study assesses the effects of age and language exposure on VOT production in 29 simultaneous bilingual children aged 3;7 to 5;11 who speak German as a heritage language in the Netherlands. Dutch and German have a binary voicing contrast, but the contrast is implemented with different VOT values in the two languages. The results suggest that bilingual children produce ‘voiced’ plosives similarly in their two languages, and these productions are not monolingual-like in either language. Bidirectional cross-linguistic influence between Dutch and German can explain these results. Yet, the bilinguals seemingly have two autonomous categories for Dutch and German ‘voiceless’ plosives. In German, the bilinguals’ aspiration is not monolingual-like, but bilinguals with more heritage language exposure produce more target-like aspiration. Importantly, the amount of exposure to German has no effect on the majority language's ‘voiceless’ category. This implies that more heritage language exposure is associated with more language-specific voicing systems.
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Lunde, Molly Perara. "Voice Onset Timing in the English of Spanish Heritage Speakers." Interacción 14 (October 1, 2015): 17–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.18041/1657-7531/interaccion.0.2334.
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The phonological system of bilinguals has been the subject of many recent studies. Several studies have specifically looked at Voice Onset Time (VOT) production in bilinguals in order to answer questions about the phonological system or systems of different types of bilinguals. For example, prior studies have looked at the effects of bilingual phonological production based on age of acquisition of a second language, cross-linguistic influence, and childhood experience with the language. This study will specifically examine the VOT production of a group of bilingual English-Spanish students who are enrolled in a Spanish as a Heritage Language Program (henceforth, SHL) at the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque, New Mexico. This population is of particular interest as Spanish and English have been in long-standing contact in this region of the country. This study will measure the VOT of this diverse group of bilinguals in order to assess whether and to what extent exposure to and/or proficiency in Spanish has an effect on the production of English VOTs in this region of the country.
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Kim, Ji Young. "Spanish–English Cross-Linguistic Influence on Heritage Bilinguals’ Production of Uptalk." Languages 8, no. 1 (January 9, 2023): 22. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages8010022.
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The present study examines the production of uptalk in Spanish and in English by Spanish heritage speakers in Southern California. Following the L2 Intonation Learning Theory, we propose that cross-linguistic influence in heritage bilinguals’ uptalk may occur along multiple dimensions of intonation. In this study, we examined the systemic dimension (i.e., presence of uptalk and presence of uptalk with IP-final deaccenting), the frequency dimension (i.e., frequency of uptalk and frequency of uptalk with IP-final deaccenting), and the realizational dimension (i.e., pitch excursion and rise duration) of heritage bilinguals’ uptalk. Our data showed that the three dimensions of intonation demonstrate varying degrees of cross-linguistic influence. The heritage bilinguals produced uptalk with IP-final deaccenting in both languages (i.e., systemic dimension), but produced it more in English than in Spanish (i.e., frequency dimension). That is, IP-final deaccenting emerges in heritage bilinguals’ uptalk in Spanish, but heritage bilinguals seem to recognize that this is an English feature that is not allowed in Spanish and try to suppress it as much as possible when producing uptalk in Spanish. However, in the realizational dimension, the heritage bilinguals demonstrated either phonetic assimilation to English (i.e., pitch excursion) or individual variability conditioned by language learning experience (i.e., rise duration). The asymmetry found across the dimensions suggests that, when bilinguals’ two languages are in competition for finite online resources, such as in the case of spontaneous speech production, phonological distinctions between L1 and L2 prosodic structures are kept, whereas phonetic differences that do not lead to any change in meaning are more prone to undergo cross-linguistic influence in order to reduce online processing cost. This study attempts to fill a gap in the literature on the cross-linguistic influence of intonation by bringing attention to heritage bilinguals. Heritage bilingualism introduces bilingual contexts that are often left unnoticed in traditional L2 acquisition scenarios (e.g., transfer from L2 to L1 intonation, asymmetry between order of acquisition and language dominance). Given that many aspects of cross-linguistic influence are shared across bilinguals, the investigation of heritage bilinguals’ intonation will contribute to building robust models of bilingual intonation.
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Kupisch, Tanja, and Jason Rothman. "Terminology matters! Why difference is not incompleteness and how early child bilinguals are heritage speakers." International Journal of Bilingualism 22, no. 5 (June 22, 2016): 564–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1367006916654355.
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This paper integrates research on child simultaneous bilingual acquisition more directly into the heritage language acquisition literature. The child simultaneous bilingual literature mostly focuses on development in childhood, whereas heritage speakers are often tested at an endstate in adulthood. However, insights from child simultaneous bilingual acquisition must be considered in heritage language acquisition theorizing precisely because many heritage speakers demonstrate the adult outcomes of child simultaneous bilingual acquisition. Data from child simultaneous bilingual acquisition raises serious questions for the construct of incomplete acquisition, a term broadly used in heritage language acquisition studies to describe almost any difference heritage speakers display from baseline controls (usually monolinguals). We offer an epistemological discussion related to incomplete acquisition, highlighting the descriptive and theoretical inaccuracy of the term. We focus our discussion on two of several possible causal factors that contribute to variable competence outcomes in adult heritage speakers: input and formal instruction in the heritage language. We conclude by offering alternative terminology for heritage speaker outcomes.
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Azar, Zeynep, Ad Backus, and Aslı Özyürek. "Language contact does not drive gesture transfer: Heritage speakers maintain language specific gesture patterns in each language." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 23, no. 2 (April 30, 2019): 414–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s136672891900018x.
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This paper investigates whether there are changes in gesture rate when speakers of two languages with different gesture rates (Turkish-high gesture; Dutch-low gesture) come into daily contact. We analyzed gestures produced by second-generation heritage speakers of Turkish in the Netherlands in each language, comparing them to monolingual baselines. We did not find differences between bilingual and monolingual speakers, possibly because bilinguals were proficient in both languages and used them frequently – in line with a usage-based approach to language. However, bilinguals produced more deictic gestures than monolinguals in both Turkish and Dutch, which we interpret as a bilingual strategy. Deictic gestures may help organize discourse by placing entities in gesture space and help reduce the cognitive load associated with being bilingual, e.g., inhibition cost. Therefore, gesture rate does not necessarily change in contact situations but might be modulated by frequency of language use, proficiency, and cognitive factors related to being bilingual.
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AMENGUAL, MARK. "Interlingual influence in bilingual speech: Cognate status effect in a continuum of bilingualism." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 15, no. 3 (December 12, 2011): 517–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728911000460.
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The present study investigates voice onset times (VOTs) to determine if cognates enhance the cross-language phonetic influences in the speech production of a range of Spanish–English bilinguals: Spanish heritage speakers, English heritage speakers, advanced L2 Spanish learners, and advanced L2 English learners. To answer this question, lexical items with considerable phonological, semantic, and orthographic overlap (cognates) and lexical items with no phonological overlap with their English translation equivalents (non-cognates) were examined. The results indicate that there is a significant effect of cognate status in the Spanish production of VOT by Spanish–English bilinguals. These bilinguals produced /t/ with longer VOT values (more English-like) in the Spanish production of cognates compared to non-cognate words. It is proposed that the exemplar model of lexical representation (Bybee, 2001; Pierrehumbert, 2001) can be extended to include bilingual lexical connections by which cognates facilitate phonetic interference in the bilingual mental lexicon.
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Meir, Natalia, Marina Avramenko, and Tatiana Verkhovtceva. "Israeli Russian: Case morphology in a bilingual context." Russian Journal of Linguistics 25, no. 4 (December 18, 2021): 886–907. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2687-0088-2021-25-4-886-907.
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The current study investigates case morphology development in a bilingual context. It is aimed at investigating potential mechanisms driving divergences in heritage language grammars as compared to the baseline monolingual standards. For the purposes of the study, 95 bilingual and monolingual children and adults were compared. Bilinguals residing in Israel acquired Russian from birth, while the age of onset of Hebrew varied. The participants completed a production task eliciting accusative case inflections. Both child and adult heritage speakers of Russian with early age of onset of Hebrew (before the age of 5) showed divergences in the production of the accusative case inflections as compared to monolingual Russian-speaking controls (adult and child), whereas grammars of Israeli heritage Russian speakers with later ages of onset of Hebrew, after the age of 5, were found to be intact. On the basis of Russian in contact with Hebrew, the study discusses how heritage language grammars differ from the baseline grammars of monolingual speakers and which mechanisms are associated with heritage language ultimate attainment. The effects of the age of onset and cross-linguistic influence from the dominant societal language are discussed as potential factors affecting the acquisition / maintenance of linguistic phenomena in heritage language grammars.
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Hoot, Bradley. "Narrow presentational focus in heritage Spanish and the syntax‒discourse interface." Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 7, no. 1 (January 25, 2016): 63–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/lab.14021.hoo.
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Abstract The grammars of bilinguals have been found to differ from those of monolinguals especially with regard to phenomena that involve the interface of syntax and discourse/pragmatics. This paper examines one syntax‒discourse interface phenomenon – presentational focus – in the grammars of heritage speakers of Spanish. The results of a contextualized acceptability judgment task indicate that lower proficiency heritage speakers show some variability in the structures they accept to realize focus, whereas higher proficiency heritage bilinguals pattern with monolinguals. These results suggest that some explanations of domain-specific vulnerability in bilingual grammars, including the Interface Hypothesis (Sorace, 2011), may need to be revised.
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Light, Duncan. "Bilingual heritage interpretation in Wales." Scottish Geographical Magazine 108, no. 3 (December 1992): 179–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00369229218736863.
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Bousquette, Joshua. "From Bidialectal to Bilingual." American Speech 95, no. 4 (November 1, 2020): 485–523. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00031283-8620496.
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The present work examines nominal case marking in Wisconsin Heritage German, based on audio recordings of six speakers made in the late 1940s. Linguistic data provide positive evidence for a four-case nominal system characteristic of Standard German. At the same time, biographical and demographic information show that the heritage varieties acquired and spoken in the home often employed a different nominal system, one that often exhibited dative-accusative case syncretism and lacked genitive case—features that surfaced even when Standard German was spoken. These data strongly suggest that speakers were proficient in both their heritage variety of German, acquired through naturalistic means, as well as in Standard German, acquired through institutional support in educational and religious domains. Over time, these formal German-language domains shifted to externally oriented, English-language institutions. Standard German was no longer supported, while the heritage variety was retained in domestic and social domains. Subsequent case syncretism in Wisconsin Heritage German therefore reflects the retention of preimmigration, nonstandard varieties, rather than a morphological change in a unified heritage grammar. This work concludes by proposing a multistage model of domain-specific language shift, informed by both synchronic variation within the community as well as by social factors affecting language shift over time.
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Cummings Ruiz, Laura D. "The Effect of English-Spanish Language Contact on North Midland /u/ Production." Heritage Language Journal 19, no. 1 (November 18, 2022): 1–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15507076-12340028.
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Abstract Monolingually-raised English speakers in the North Midland region of the United States have been found to produce a centralized or fronted /u/, despite it not being a standard feature of the region. The production of this relatively novel sound in bilingual contexts, as is the case of English-Spanish bilingual communities in the Chicagoland area, is not currently well-understood. In order to examine the effect of language contact and phonetic transfer on bilinguals’ speech, 20 adult heritage speakers from the Chicagoland area were recorded while producing /u/ in English and Spanish. 20 formant values at equidistant points from these vowels were taken and then analyzed using a generalized additive mixed-effects model (GAMM). The results of the GAMM and its visualization showed that, overall, the heritage speakers produced a fronted /u/ when speaking English but maintained a backed production of /u/ when speaking Spanish. These results suggest that bilingual heritage speakers are participating in the sound change of the North Midland, while successfully separating its influence from their Spanish speech.
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Kupisch, Tanja, Nadine Kolb, Yulia Rodina, and Olga Urek. "Foreign Accent in Pre- and Primary School Heritage Bilinguals." Languages 6, no. 2 (May 24, 2021): 96. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages6020096.
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Previous research has shown that the two languages of early bilingual children can influence each other, depending on the linguistic property, while adult bilinguals predominantly show influence from the majority language to the minority (heritage) language. While this observed shift in influence patterns is probably related to a shift in dominance between early childhood and adulthood, there is little data documenting it. Our study investigates the perceived global accent in the two languages of German-Russian bilingual children in Germany, comparing 4–6-year-old (preschool) children and 7–9-year-old (primary school) children. The results indicate that in German the older children sound less accented than the younger children, while the opposite is true for Russian. This suggests that the primary school years are a critical period for heritage language maintenance.
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Moro, Francesca R. "Aspectual distinctions in Dutch-Ambon Malay bilingual heritage speakers." International Journal of Bilingualism 21, no. 2 (July 27, 2016): 178–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1367006915608515.
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Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions: This paper investigates the effects of Dutch on the tense-aspect system of heritage Ambon Malay, a variety spoken by Dutch-Ambon Malay bilinguals in the Netherlands. The study asks whether the cross-linguistic contrasts between the two languages – Dutch obligatorily marks past/non-past and finiteness, whereas Ambon Malay lacks a grammaticalized expression of these distinctions – has an effect on the aspectual system of heritage Ambon Malay. Design/Methodology/Approach: The database for the study consists of video descriptions provided by 32 bilingual speakers (the experimental groups) and by three control groups: 27 homeland speakers of Ambon Malay, 5 first generation speakers of Ambon Malay in the Netherlands (late bilinguals), and 10 monolingual speakers of Dutch. Data and Analysis: The frequency and distribution of aspect markers is analysed statistically in the four groups. Findings/Conclusions: The analysis of the data reveals that, under the influence of Dutch, the Ambon Malay progressive marker ada has undergone a shift in temporal status and frequency and it is now interpreted as a marker of present tense, as well as of progressive aspect. The other two aspect markers, the iamitive/perfective su and verbal reduplication (iterative) are used significantly less by heritage speakers. Originality: This study shows that when a grammatical category is present and productive in the dominant language of a bilingual heritage speaker, but not in the heritage language, there is a great likelihood that it will undergo contact-induced grammaticalization, even in a relatively short time contact situation. The study also shows that input-related factors, such as transparency and phonological salience, contribute to the (in)stability of aspectual forms in the heritage language. Significance/Implications: This finding has implication for the incomplete acquisition perspective on heritage languages, which sees these languages as grammatically simplified systems (see, e.g., Montrul, 2009; Polinsky, 2008), because it shows that heritage languages can also gain grammatical distinctions previously absent in the (homeland) language.
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Torres, Julio, and Cristina Sanz. "Is There a Cognitive Advantage for Spanish Heritage Bilinguals? A First Look." Heritage Language Journal 12, no. 3 (December 30, 2015): 292–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.46538/hlj.12.3.4.
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We report the findings from an ongoing study on the relationship between bilinguals’ language experience and cognitive control. Previous research suggests that early bilingualism exerts an advantage on executive control, possibly due to the cognitive requirements involved in the daily juggling of two languages (Adesope, Lavin, Thompson, & Ungerleider, 2010). However, other researchers also have argued against a cognitive control advantage in bilinguals (Hilchey & Klein, 2011). It remains unclear whether cognitive benefits hold true for bilinguals across different contexts, given differences in sociolinguistic and socioeducational settings that shape individual bilingualism. In the current study, following Costa, Hernández and Sebastián-Gallés (2008) who tested Catalan-Spanish bilinguals, young adult simultaneous heritage bilinguals and late classroom emerging bilinguals of Spanish in the U.S. completed three blocks of the Attentional Network Task (ANT) (Fan, McCandliss, Sommer, Raz, & Posner, 2002) to gauge executive control abilities. Results for the executive network component of the ANT reveal no significant differences between the two bilingual groups, although the descriptive data trend suggests that HL bilinguals experienced less difficulty in solving conflicting information and demonstrated fewer switching costs between trials. These first findings imply that the bilingual advantage is not replicated across contexts, and that socioeducational practices determine individual patterns of language use, which in turn leads to variation in cognitive outcomes.
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Minkov, Miriam, Olga Kagan, Ekaterina Protassova, and Mila Schwartz. "Towards a Better Understanding of a Continuum of Heritage Language Proficiency: The Case of Adolescent Russian Heritage Speakers." Heritage Language Journal 16, no. 2 (August 31, 2019): 211–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.46538/hlj.16.2.5.
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The study presented here has three goals: (1) to identify types of errors in the noun inflectional morphology in Russian as a heritage language among Russian-speaking adolescents in Israel (n=11), the United States (n=11), Finland (n=14), and Germany (n=9), (2) to compare errors in speech production between these groups, and (3) to investigate the impact of Russian language use at home and in educational settings (formal bilingual education versus after-school classes) on the preservation of Russian noun morphology. The participants’ speech was elicited through retelling of Mayer and Mayer’s (1978) picture book 'Frog, Where Are You?' Case and gender errorsin speech production were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. The groups were found to be clustered at the opposite ends of a proposed continuum of noun morphology knowledge, with Russian German and Russian Finish bilinguals outperforming their counterparts in Israel and the U.S. The results of the study indicate the advantage of predominantly Russian use at home and formal bilingual schooling for the acquisition of Russian morphology.
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Prentza, Alexandra, and Maria Kaltsa. "Linguistic Profiling of Heritage Speakers of an Endangered Language: The Case of Vlach Aromanian–Greek Bilinguals." Open Linguistics 6, no. 1 (November 28, 2020): 626–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/opli-2020-0034.
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AbstractThis is the first attempt to profile the heritage speakers of an endangered spoken-only variety of Vlach Aromanian in Greece. Neither the variety nor its speakers has been investigated before; hence, the study also aims at evaluating the exact state of endangerment of the Sirrako variety, as this is revealed by the language practices and skills of its bilingual speakers. To this aim, a background questionnaire was developed and administered to 60 bilingual speakers of Vlach Aromanian and Greek including questions on the age of onset of exposure to both languages, early home language practices, current language practices (orality and literacy) and attitudes toward the heritage and majority language. Significant variation in language practices, literacy skills, oral input and current competence across three generations of speakers was identified with a substantial decline in heritage language competence in younger bilinguals, verifying our claim of the endangered state of Vlach Aromanian.
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Tao, Lily, Marcus Taft, and Tamar H. Gollan. "The Bilingual Switching Advantage: Sometimes Related to Bilingual Proficiency, Sometimes Not." Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 21, no. 7 (August 2015): 531–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355617715000521.
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AbstractThis study investigated the relationship between bilingualism and task switching ability using a standardized measure of switching and an objective measure of bilingual language proficiency. Heritage Language (HL) speaking Spanish-English and Mandarin-English bilinguals and English speaking monolinguals completed all four subtests of the Color-Word Interference Test (CWIT), an English verbal fluency task, and a picture naming test (the Multilingual Naming Test) in English. Bilinguals also named pictures in their HL to assess HL proficiency. Spanish-English bilinguals were advantaged in task switching, exhibiting significantly smaller switching cost than monolinguals, but were disadvantaged in verbal fluency and picture naming. Additionally, performance on these cognitive and linguistic tasks was related to degree of HL proficiency, so that increased ability to name pictures in Spanish was associated with greater switching advantage, and greater disadvantage in both verbal fluency and picture naming. Mandarin-English bilinguals, who differed from the Spanish-English bilinguals on several demographic and language-use characteristics, exhibited a smaller but statistically significant switching advantage, but no linguistic disadvantage, and no clear relationship between HL proficiency and the switching advantage. Together these findings demonstrate an explicit link between objectively measured bilingual language proficiency and both bilingual advantages and disadvantages, while also showing that consequences of bilingualism for cognitive and linguistic task performance can vary across different language combinations. (JINS, 2015, 21, 531–544)
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Giguere, David, and Erika Hoff. "Home language and societal language skills in second-generation bilingual adults." International Journal of Bilingualism 24, no. 5-6 (June 19, 2020): 1071–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1367006920932221.
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Aims: Research aims were (a) to test competing predictions regarding the levels of heritage and societal language proficiency among young adults who experienced early exposure to both languages, and (b) to identify sources of individual differences in degree of bilingualism. Design/methodology/approach: Participants comprised 65 Spanish–English bilinguals who reported using both languages on a weekly basis, 25 native English monolinguals, and 25 native Spanish monolinguals. Language and literacy skills were assessed with a battery of standardized and research-based assessments. Degree of bilingualism was calculated for the bilingual participants. Data and analysis: Paired sample t-tests compared the bilinguals’ skills in English to their skills in Spanish. Hierarchical regression evaluated factors related to their degree of bilingualism. Independent sample t-tests compared bilinguals’ single-language skills to monolinguals. Findings/conclusions: The bilinguals’ English skills were stronger than their Spanish skills on every measure. Thus, degree of bilingualism was largely a function of level of Spanish skill and was associated with concurrent Spanish exposure. Bilinguals’ English skills were not different from the monolinguals except in speed of lexical access. The bilinguals’ Spanish skills were significantly lower than the Spanish monolinguals on every measure except in accuracy judgments for grammatically correct sentences. Originality: Previous studies of bilingual adults have focused on sequential bilinguals and previous studies of heritage language speakers have focused on their grammatical skills. This is the first study, to our knowledge, to assess a wide range of functionally relevant skills in adults with early exposure to a heritage and societal language. Significance/implications: These findings demonstrate that early exposure to and continued use of a home language does not interfere with the achievement of societal language and literacy skills, while also demonstrating that even a widely and frequently used home language may not be acquired to the same skill level as a societal language used in school.
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Oriyama, Kaya. "Heritage Language Maintenance and Japanese Identity Formation: What Role Can Schooling and Ethnic Community Contact Play?" Heritage Language Journal 7, no. 2 (August 30, 2010): 237–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.46538/hlj.7.2.5.
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This study examines the role of schooling and ethnic community contact in ethnolinguistic and cultural identity construction and heritage language maintenance through the surveys and narratives of three groups of Japanese-English bilingual youths and their parents in Sydney, Australia, as a part of a larger longitudinal study from childhood. The bilingual youths were either born in Australia or immigrated there at a young age, and one or both of their parents are Japanese. All youths attended local Japanese community (heritage) language schools on weekends for varying periods of time while receiving Australian education (one group received some Japanese education as well) during the week. The bilinguals were grouped by types of schooling and community contact. The results show that community schools foster positive Japanese inclusive identity and heritage language development, especially with home, community, and peer support. Contrary to previous studies, positive attitudes toward hybrid identities and Japanese maintenance were found, regardless of the levels of Japanese proficiency. The development of identity and heritage language appear to be influenced not only by schooling and community, but also by wider socio-cultural contexts.
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Laleko, Oksana. "Resolving Indeterminacy in Gender Agreement: Comparing Heritage Speakers and L2 Learners of Russian." Heritage Language Journal 16, no. 2 (August 31, 2019): 151–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.46538/hlj.16.2.3.
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Cross-linguistically, both heritage language (HL) speakers and second language (L2) learners have been shown to experience difficulty in producing and interpreting linguistic structures characterized by indeterminacy, or lack of an invariable and transparent relationship between meaning and form. This article compares two populations of Russian-English bilinguals on their strategies of resolving ambiguity within the system of grammatical gender in Russian, with a particular focus on indeterminacy in gender agreement with animate nouns. As a result of complex interactions among lexical, morpho-phonological, and discourse-level gender categorization cues, the agreement behavior of animate nouns in Russian is not fully uniform. The results of a scaled acceptability ratings study demonstrate that gender agreement in transparent and non-ambiguous contexts is largely unproblematic for both bilingual groups; however, contexts that require conflict resolution between different types of cues and those characterized by underspecification represent two areas where HL speakers and L2 learners diverge from monolingual Russian-speaking controls. Across all experimental conditions, bilingual speakers demonstrate a higher reliance on morpho-phonological gender categorization cues and assign less weight to lexical and referential factors in gender assignment than monolinguals. The results further show that the two populations of bilinguals are not fully alike with respect to dealing with different types of indeterminacy. In particular, HL speakers exhibit an advantage over L2 learners in conflict resolution; however, both bilingual groups struggle with constructions that give rise to referential ambiguity due to underspecification. These results expand our understanding of the problem of indeterminacy in bilingual acquisition of gender and offer implications for theories of language acquisition and language instruction.
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Lorenz, Eliane, Richard J. Bonnie, Kathrin Feindt, Sharareh Rahbari, and Peter Siemund. "Cross-linguistic influence in unbalanced bilingual heritage speakers on subsequent language acquisition: Evidence from pronominal object placement in ditransitive clauses." International Journal of Bilingualism 23, no. 6 (August 13, 2018): 1410–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1367006918791296.
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Aims and objectives: The main objective of this study is to find evidence for the Linguistic Proximity Model, which allows for facilitative and non-facilitative cross-linguistic influence (CLI) from all previously known languages in third language (L3) acquisition. We target CLI in L3 English based on bilingual heritage speakers (Russian-German and Turkish-German) in comparison with second language acquisition of monolingual German speakers. Methodology: We examine the outcome of an English word order test. The participants produced sentences based on randomly ordered words. The focus of this study is the placement of direct and indirect pronominal objects with varying ditransitive verbs. Data analysis: 195 students in school years 7 and 9, separated into three language groups, participated in the study: German monolinguals ( nG7 = 47; nG9 = 64), Russian-German bilinguals ( nR7 = 19; nR9 = 30) and Turkish-German bilinguals ( nT7 = 19; nT9 = 16). The placement of pronominal objects in the sentence task is compared to results from equivalent word order tests in English, German, Russian and Turkish that were repeated with native speakers. Findings: We find some support for the Linguistic Proximity Model because the outcome shows that facilitative and non-facilitative CLI is possible from both the heritage language and the majority language. Determining factors are the background languages, the age of the participants and frequency. However, the majority language, German, displays the strongest influence of both background languages due to its dominant status. Originality: This study provides further support for the Linguistic Proximity Model, by using a sentence completion task with unbalanced bilingual heritage speakers. Significance/implications: We provide evidence for showing that both facilitative and non-facilitative influence from all previously known languages of bilingual heritage speakers is possible and verifiable. We therefore add to the field of L3 acquisition and the discussion about current models of CLI.
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CHUNG, EUN SEON. "Second and heritage language acquisition of Korean case drop." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 21, no. 1 (December 20, 2016): 63–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728916001218.
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The primary objective of this paper is to investigate how early and late bilinguals attain implicit knowledge of Korean case drop that necessitates integration of multiple levels of information. An oral picture description task and a written forced-choice elicitation task were developed to investigate how different populations employ the relevant factors in Korean case drop and if certain types of cues are more accessible than others. The results reveal qualitative differences in the underlying linguistic knowledge of early vs. late bilinguals with early bilinguals achieving a higher level of mastery than late bilinguals in both oral and written tasks. The results underline the importance of age, context, and mode of acquisition and suggest that bilingual difficulty in the present phenomenon mainly arises from learners heavily relying on cues that are readily available to them in their respective context of acquisition and failing to effectively coordinate multiple constraints.
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Pascual y Cabo, Diego. "Examining the role of cross-generational attrition in the development of Spanish as a heritage language." Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 10, no. 1 (February 26, 2018): 86–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/lab.15057.pas.
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Abstract The goal of this article is to contribute to the literature on heritage speaker bilingualism by weighing in on the current debate regarding the source(s) of heritage speaker linguistic differences. Focusing on Spanish dative experiencers -gustar-like verbs-, I report on production and comprehension data from heritage speaker children and adults, from monolingual children and adults, as well as from adult bilingual immigrants. The results show (i) comprehension differences from expected outcomes for all heritage groups but not for the adult monolingual and bilingual control groups, and (ii) significant variation in the adult bilingual immigrant group’s production of the dative marker ‘a’ in obligatory contexts. I posit that this variation is at least in part responsible for the heritage speaker outcomes observed.
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Banasiak, Ilona, and Magdalena Olpińska-Szkiełko. "Sociolinguistic determinants of heritage language maintenance and second language acquisition in bilingual immigrant speakers." Glottodidactica. An International Journal of Applied Linguistics 47, no. 2 (January 10, 2021): 49–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/gl.2020.47.2.01.
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The objective of the study was to scrutinise the determinants of heritage language maintenance and second language acquisition in immigrant speakers and assess their significance and weight. Over one hundred cases of bilingual speakers with Polish as L1 (heritage language; Polish speakers abroad) and as L2 (national language; immigrant learners of Polish in Poland) were investigated in order to better understand the linguistic changes and multilingual practices involved in the process of relocating to another country. The cases underwent quantitative and qualitative analysis. The results revealed that in most cases bilinguals are at a high risk of losing their L1, and L2 becomes their dominant language. With the dominance of L2, identification with the culture of the country of residence also increases in bilinguals. Formal instruction in L1 proves to be the most important factor in heritage language maintenance, and the preservation of a sense of identification with the heritage culture. An important role in L1 and also L2 development is played by parental support and their actions.
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Taylor-Leech, Kerry, and Eseta Tualaulelei. "Knowing Who You Are: Heritage Language, Identity and Safe Space in a Bilingual Kindergarten." TESOL in Context 30, no. 1 (November 30, 2021): 63–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.21153/tesol2021vol30no1art1581.
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Evidence shows that when young children’s diverse language heritages are valued and supported, there are benefits for their linguistic and conceptual development, their sense of identity and their learning. However, there are few early learning settings in Australia which nurture young children’s bilingual repertoires. And, while it is well established that early childhood is a critical period for first and second language acquisition, there is a lack of empirical research available on children’s bilingual development in institutional early childhood education and care. Against this backdrop, our article reports on a study of a bilingual Samoan community kindergarten (a’oga amata) in southeast Queensland. In this paper, we focus on how the a’oga amata supported the maintenance of the children’s heritage language and culture. We explore language use in the a’oga amata, the cultural values underpinning the educators’ practices, and the positive responses of the children and parents in the study. We also examine the constraints on the community leaders and educators’ efforts to create an authentic bilingual experience in this English-dominant environment. Finally, we revisit the notion of safe spaces for young bilingual learners (Conteh & Brock, 2011) and rearticulate the need for clear language policies that support heritage language education.
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Taylor-Leech, Kerry, and Eseta Tualaulelei. "Knowing Who You Are: Heritage Language, Identity and Safe Space in a Bilingual Kindergarten." TESOL in Context 30, no. 1 (November 30, 2021): 63–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.21153/tesol2021vol30no1art1581.
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Evidence shows that when young children’s diverse language heritages are valued and supported, there are benefits for their linguistic and conceptual development, their sense of identity and their learning. However, there are few early learning settings in Australia which nurture young children’s bilingual repertoires. And, while it is well established that early childhood is a critical period for first and second language acquisition, there is a lack of empirical research available on children’s bilingual development in institutional early childhood education and care. Against this backdrop, our article reports on a study of a bilingual Samoan community kindergarten (a’oga amata) in southeast Queensland. In this paper, we focus on how the a’oga amata supported the maintenance of the children’s heritage language and culture. We explore language use in the a’oga amata, the cultural values underpinning the educators’ practices, and the positive responses of the children and parents in the study. We also examine the constraints on the community leaders and educators’ efforts to create an authentic bilingual experience in this English-dominant environment. Finally, we revisit the notion of safe spaces for young bilingual learners (Conteh & Brock, 2011) and rearticulate the need for clear language policies that support heritage language education.
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Cox, Jessica G., and Gian M. Zlupko. "Individual differences in language experience and bilingual autobiographical memory." International Journal of Bilingualism 23, no. 5 (September 6, 2017): 1180–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1367006917728394.
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Purpose: This study investigates factors underlying recall of autobiographical memories by considering multiple dimensions of bilingualism (e.g., proficiency, frequency of use), rather than treating it as a monolithic construct. Specifically, we investigated what factors predicted recall of memories in which the language of encoding did not match the language of the task, a recall phenomenon that, by definition, only occurs with bilingual individuals. Design: Spanish/English heritage bilinguals viewed cue words in English to prompt recall of autobiographical memories and narrated those memories out loud, then stated in what language the original events had occurred. Data and Analysis: The dataset consists of 18 narratives from each of 37 participants. Mixed-effects models determined which aspects of the heritage bilingual experience predicted recall of memories in which language of encoding and task did not match. Findings/Conclusions: More frequent use of Spanish and having been born outside the USA predicted more Spanish-language memories retrieved in an English-language task. Interestingly, Spanish proficiency, English age of acquisition, and the type of cue word (object, action, or emotion) did not have effects. Results are discussed in terms of language use and language skill, as well as the importance of considering the specific nature of the bilingual experience. Originality: This study follows calls to take a multifaceted approach to empirical studies of bilingualism and is innovative in its use of mixed-level models to do so. Significance/Implications: By analyzing multiple factors that contribute to bilingual experiences, we are able to better state what exactly it is about bilinguals that affects – or does not affect – cognition, including autobiographical memory. The results will allow us to be more precise in advising policy and practice, such as in bilingual education.
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Dutsova, Ralitsa. "Online Dictionary – Tool for Preservation of Language Heritage." Digital Presentation and Preservation of Cultural and Scientific Heritage 2 (September 30, 2012): 142–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.55630/dipp.2012.2.6.
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The paper aims to represent a bilingual online dictionary as a useful tool helping preservation of the natural languages. The author focuses on the approach that was taken to develop compatible bilingual lexical database for the Bulgarian-Polish online dictionary. A formal model for the dictionary encoding is developed in accordance with the complex structures of the dictionary entries. These structures vary depending on the grammatical characteristics of Bulgarian headwords. The Webapplication for presentation of the bilingual dictionary is also describred.
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Matusiak, Krystyna K., Ling Meng, Ewa Barczyk, and Chia-Jung Shih. "Multilingual metadata for cultural heritage materials." Electronic Library 33, no. 1 (February 2, 2015): 136–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/el-08-2013-0141.
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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore multilingual access in digital libraries and to present a case study of creating bilingual metadata records for the Tse-Tsung Chow Collection of Chinese Scrolls and Fan Paintings. The project, undertaken at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Libraries, provides access to digital copies of calligraphic and painted Chinese scrolls and fans from the collection donated by Prof Tse-Tsung Chow (Cezong Zhou). Design/methodology/approach – This paper examines the current approaches to multilingual indexing and retrieval in digital collections and presents a model of creating bilingual parallel records that combines translation with controlled vocabulary mapping. Findings – Creating multilingual metadata records for cultural heritage materials is in an early phase of development. Bilingual metadata created through human translation and controlled vocabulary mapping represents one of the approaches to multilingual access in digital libraries. Multilingual indexing of collections of international origin addresses the linguistic needs of the target audience, connects the digitized objects to their respective cultures and contributes to richer descriptive records. The approach that relies on human translation and research can be undertaken in small-scale digitization projects of rare cultural heritage materials. Language and subject expertise are required to create bilingual metadata records. Research limitations/implications – This paper presents the results of a case study. The approach to multilingual access that involves research, and it relies on human translation that can only be undertaken in small-scale projects. Practical implications – This case study of creating parallel records with a combination of translation and vocabulary mapping can be useful for designing similar bilingual digital collections. Social implications – This paper also discusses the obligations of holding institutions in undertaking digital conversion of the cultural heritage materials that originated in other countries, especially in regard to providing metadata records that reflect the language of the originating community. Originality/value – The research and practice in multilingual indexing of cultural heritage materials are very limited. There are no standardized models of how to approach building multilingual digital collections. This case study presents a model of providing bilingual access and enhancing the intellectual control of cultural heritage collections.
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Beaudrie, Sara. "Spanish receptive bilinguals." Spanish Maintenance and Loss in the U.S. Southwest 6, no. 1 (April 9, 2009): 85–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sic.6.1.06bea.
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The growing amount of research in heritage languages (HL) consistently suggests that HL learners are a diverse population with language abilities that span across the whole spectrum of the bilingual range (Valdés 2001). Receptive bilinguals, sometimes called passive bilinguals, are at one end of this bilingual range, almost at the verge of culminating the language shift towards English monolingualism. This population of HL students has received scant attention from HL programs and researchers alike. The present study fills this gap in the literature by focusing specifically on receptive bilinguals of different generations enrolled in Spanish classes at a large university in the southwestern United States. It seeks to provide insights into their cultural and linguistic profile so as to begin to understand the factors that have influenced their current Spanish use and linguistic abilities in the language.
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Gathercole, Virginia C. Mueller. "Bilingualism matters." International Journal of Behavioral Development 38, no. 4 (June 4, 2014): 359–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165025414531676.
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The articles in this special issue provide a complex picture of acquisition in bilinguals in which the factors that contribute to patterns of performance in bilingual children’s two languages are myriad and diverse. The processes and contours of development in bilingual children are influenced, not only by the quantity, quality, and contexts of input, but by whether the child hears monolingual or bilingual speech, who is the source of that speech, the proportion of speakers of the heritage language in the community, the child’s birth order in the family, the family’s SES, the timing and the child’s stage of development, profile effects in performance, and characteristics of the languages being learned. One constant across the research is the finding that the majority language fairs well in development, while the minority language is threatened. The insights gained are relevant to future work on bilingual children, whether of a theoretical or applied focus.
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Smith, Giuditta, Roberta Spelorzi, Antonella Sorace, and Maria Garraffa. "Language Competence in Italian Heritage Speakers: The Contribution of Clitic Pronouns and Nonword Repetition." Languages 7, no. 3 (July 11, 2022): 180. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages7030180.
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The linguistic profile of bilingual children is known to show areas of overlap with that of children affected by Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), creating a need to differentiate the profiles and provide clinicians with tools to evaluate bilingual speakers in both of their languages. Data from typical adult bilinguals provide a picture of the language of a bilingual speaker at the end of language development. The present work explores how clitic production and nonword repetition (NWR) behave in mature language systems in situations of bilingualism, aiming to provide initial data as a benchmark on Italian as a non-dominant language. Heritage speakers (HSs) of Italian were confronted with adult immigrants (AIs) who moved from Italy to an English-speaking country in adulthood. Clitic pronouns were found to be vulnerable in HSs, who produced approximately 35% of the target clitics against the 80% of Ais, suggesting that clitic pronouns may not be reliable structures to test language competence in heritage Italian. On the other hand, HSs were >97% correct in NWR, suggesting that this paradigm should be explored as a possible marker to test language competence in these populations.
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Turan, Dilek, Elena Antonova-Ünlü, Çiğdem Sağın-Şimşek, and Mehmet Akkuş. "Looking for contact-induced language change: Converbs in heritage Turkish." International Journal of Bilingualism 24, no. 5-6 (May 26, 2020): 1035–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1367006920926263.
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Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: The aim of the study is to contribute to the debate about a possible contact-induced change in the heritage language and to examine whether there is contact-induced language change at the morpho-syntactic level in Turkish spoken in Germany. We focus on the perception and use of the converbs –Ip and –IncA in heritage Turkish. Design/methodology/approach: The perception and production of the converbs –Ip and –IncA by 30 German–Turkish bilinguals, who were born and have resided in Germany, are compared with those of the control group. Data and analysis: Two tasks are used in the study: a grammaticality judgement task and a picture-story description task. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses are utilized. Findings/conclusions: The analysis of the perception of the converbs by the participants revealed that the bilinguals’ perception of the grammatical constructions with –IncA and of the ungrammatical constructions with –Ip and –IncA differed significantly from that of the monolinguals; however, the perception of the grammatical constructions with –Ip was found to be similar between the bilingual and monolingual groups. The analysis of the production of the converbs by the bilingual participants showed that they tended to use the converbs significantly less than the monolingual control group did. The qualitative analysis of the production task also revealed that there were several cases in the use of the converbs that could be considered as ungrammatical and/or unconventional.
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Goldin, Michele, Julio César López Otero, and Esther Hur. "How frequent are these verbs?" Isogloss. Open Journal of Romance Linguistics 9, no. 2 (January 30, 2023): 1–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.5565/rev/isogloss.194.
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In monolingual (L1) acquisition, children produce target-like subject-verb agreement early in development in both Spanish (Grinstead 1998) and English (Guasti 2002). However, in heritage simultaneous bilinguals (2L1) and child second language acquirers (L2), agreement morphology shows variability (Goldin 2020; Herschensohn & Stevenson 2005) due to age of acquisition (AoA) effects. Lexical frequency is another factor that has been shown to play a role in modulating L1 (i.e. Ambridge et al. 2015) and heritage acquisition (i.e. Giancaspro 2017, 2020), but little is known about its effect in child L2. This study explores the extent to which verb lexical frequency plays a role in the acquisition of verb morphology for bilingual children with differing AoA, comparing 42 2L1 heritage children with 46 L2 Spanish learners with AoA of 5;0. They participated in a Spanish fill-in-the-blanks production task. The results of an analysis focused on singular correr and comer (chosen because they differ in only one phoneme) indicated that responses to comer, the more frequent verb, were more target-like for both groups, and that frequency showed a stronger effect for heritage 2L1 children than for L2 children, while also modulating non-target-like responses. We discuss these findings with implications for bilingual development and education.
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CHANG, CHARLES B. "Bilingual perceptual benefits of experience with a heritage language." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 19, no. 4 (June 25, 2014): 791–809. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728914000261.
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Research on the linguistic knowledge of heritage speakers has been concerned primarily with the advantages conferred by heritage language experience in production, perception, and (re)learning of the heritage language. Meanwhile, second-language speech research has begun to investigate potential benefits of first-language transfer in second-language performance. Bridging these two bodies of work, the current study examined the perceptual benefits of heritage language experience for heritage speakers of Korean in both the heritage language (Korean) and the dominant language (American English). It was hypothesized that, due to their early bilingual experience and the different nature of unreleased stops in Korean and American English, heritage speakers of Korean would show not only native-like perception of Korean unreleased stops, but also better-than-native perception of American English unreleased stops. Results of three perception experiments were consistent with this hypothesis, suggesting that benefits of early heritage language experience can extend well beyond the heritage language.
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FAIRCHILD, SARAH, and JANET G. VAN HELL. "Determiner-noun code-switching in Spanish heritage speakers." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 20, no. 1 (September 9, 2015): 150–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728915000619.
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Code-switching is prevalent in bilingual speech, and follows specific syntactic constraints. Several theories have been proposed to explain these constraints, and in this paper we focus on the Minimalist Program and the Matrix Language Frame model. Using a determiner-noun picture naming paradigm, we tested the ability of these theories to explain determiner-noun code-switches in Spanish–English bilinguals. The Minimalist Program predicts that speakers will use the determiner from the gendered language, whereas the Matrix Language Frame model predicts that the determiner will come from the language that dominates the syntactic structure in a code-switched utterance. We observed that the bilinguals had slowest naming times and decreased accuracy in Spanish determiner - English noun conditions (‘el dog’), and that adding a Matrix Language did not modulate this pattern. Although our results do not align with either theory, we conclude that they can be explained by the WEAVER++ model of speech production.
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Lorenz, Eliane, Sharareh Rahbari, Ulrike Schackow, and Peter Siemund. "Does bilingualism correlate with or predict higher proficiency in L3 English? A contrastive study of monolingual and bilingual learners." Journal of Multilingual Theories and Practices 1, no. 2 (December 1, 2020): 185–217. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/jmtp.15517.
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This study investigates whether English in instructed settings is more successfully acquired by learners who are already bilingual in comparison to those with a monolingual background. There remains substantial controversy regarding potential advantages of bilingual speakers in their acquisition of additional languages, especially in heritage speaker contexts. We here contribute to this discussion by analysing the English C-test results of 1,718 bilingual and monolingual students of grades 7 and 9, sampled in schools across Germany. The bilingual students speak either Russian or Turkish (heritage language) and German (majority language). The monolingual control group was raised in German only. The main predictor variables are reading fluency and comprehension in German and the heritage languages. Additional predictor variables include school type, school year, socioeconomic status, cognitive ability, amongst others. Using correlation and regression analyses we test if reading fluency and comprehension impact proficiency in English and if bilingual students enjoy advantages over their monolingual German peers. The results reveal no systematic advantage of bilingual students, although we find significant correlations between reading fluency and comprehension and C-test results. School type, cognitive skills, among others, are predictors for English performance, whereas socioeconomic status returns no significant effect.
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Moro, Francesca R. "Resultative constructions in heritage Ambon Malay in the Netherlands." Linguistics in the Netherlands 31 (November 10, 2014): 78–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/avt.31.07mor.
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Domains where languages have two or more competing syntactic constructions expressing the same meaning may be problematic for bilingual heritage speakers. One such variable domain is the resultative constructions in heritage Ambon Malay, a variety spoken in the Netherlands by Dutch-Ambon Malay bilinguals. In Ambon Malay, resultatives are expressed mostly by means of verb serialization (SVC), although resultative prepositional phrases (PP) and adjectival phrases (AP) also occur. In Dutch, resultative constructions usually involve verb particles, PPs and APs. This overlap of structures poses the conditions for transfer effects between the two languages. The frequency distribution of SVCs, PPs and APs is investigated in semi-spontaneous speech from heritage speakers of Ambon Malay and compared to that of baseline speakers. Heritage speakers show an increase in the frequency of constructions shared by both languages (PPs and APs), while they underuse the constructions attested only in the heritage language (SVC).
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Skorobogatova, Aleksandra S., Anna Smirnova Henriques, Svetlana Ruseishvili, Irina Sekerina, and Sandra Madureira. "Verbal working memory assessment in Russian-Brazilian Portuguese bilinguals." Cadernos de Linguística 2, no. 4 (November 17, 2021): e572. http://dx.doi.org/10.25189/2675-4916.2021.v2.n4.id572.
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In Brazil, the learning of a second language (L2) by native Brazilian Portuguese speakers has been extensively explored, but studies on language processing and language interaction among bilinguals are quite recent. The late bilingualism of the first-generation immigrants has been studied mainly from the perspective of their difficulties in learning Brazilian Portuguese. Brazil has numerous communities of heritage speakers of many languages such as Japanese, German, Italian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Russian. However, the number of studies that focus on the bilingual speech of heritage speakers in Brazil is also quite limited. The aim of the current study is to evaluate the working memory in Russian-Brazilian Portuguese bilinguals as a function of the language and type of bilingualism. For this purpose, 49 first-generation Russophone immigrants and 28 older Russian heritage speakers, all residing in Brazil, were tested in Russian and Portuguese using a Month-Ordering task. We found that the working memory scores of the first-generation Russophone immigrants were not statistically different between both languages, but the median working memory score of the older Russian heritage speakers in Russian was 1.5-fold lower than in Portuguese. As next steps, we plan to verify the relation between the working memory capacity and narrative production abilities of the older Russian heritage-Brazilian Portuguese bilinguals in their heritage and societal languages.
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Einfeldt, Marieke, Joost van de Weijer, and Tanja Kupisch. "The production of geminates in Italian-dominant bilinguals and heritage speakers of Italian." Language, Interaction and Acquisition 10, no. 2 (November 4, 2019): 177–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/lia.18015.ein.
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Abstract This study examines cross-linguistic influence (CLI) in adult Italian-German bilinguals based on the production of gemination, a phenomenon that exists in Italian but not in German. We analyzed the spontaneous Italian speech of two groups of Italian-German bilinguals (heritage speakers of Italian and Italian-dominant bilinguals) and a monolingual Italian control group. The results show that the geminates produced by the speakers in both bilingual groups were longer than their singletons. From this it seems that gemination is not affected by CLI. Based on our results, we discuss whether CLI is determined by (1) markedness, (2) frequency of Italian input during acquisition, (3) language dominance or (4) relevance (e.g. phonemic status), concluding that the latter is most crucial.
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Janssen, Bibi, and Natalia Meir. "Production, comprehension and repetition of accusative case by monolingual Russian and bilingual Russian-Dutch and Russian-Hebrew-speaking children." Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 9, no. 4-5 (October 9, 2019): 736–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/lab.17021.jan.
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Abstract The present study explores the acquisition of the Russian accusative [acc] case inflections in two groups of bilingual children (Russian-Dutch and Russian-Hebrew) who acquire Russian as their Heritage Language (HL) and two groups of monolingual Russian-speaking children within the Unified Competition Model (MacWhinney, 2008, 2012). Seventy-two typically developing children participated in the study. Children’s performance on three tasks was compared: elicited production, forced-choice comprehension and sentence repetition. The current study confirmed the predictions of the Unified Competition Model: monolingual children view the [acc] case inflection as a reliable cue. Conversely, bilingual children showed lower accuracy on nouns which require the use of a dedicated [acc] marker. Similarly, the percentage of children manifesting sensitivity to [acc] case cue was low in bilinguals. The findings of the study extend the Unified Competition Model to patterns of HL acquisition in bilinguals. Cue detection in HL for bilinguals is challenged when exposure is limited.
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Vargas Fuentes, Nicole A., Judith F. Kroll, and Julio Torres. "What Heritage Bilinguals Tell Us about the Language of Emotion." Languages 7, no. 2 (June 6, 2022): 144. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages7020144.
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Variation in the language experience of bilinguals has consequences for cognitive and affective processes. In the current study, we examined how bilingual experience influences the relationship between language and emotion in English among a group of Spanish–English heritage bilinguals on an emotion–memory task. Participants rated the emotionality of English taboo, negative and neutral words and then completed an unexpected recognition test. To account for language experience, data were gathered on the participants’ language dominance and proficiency. Results showed emotion–memory effects in the Spanish–English heritage bilinguals’ English (the societal language): taboo words were recognized significantly better than neutral words, while the emotionality of negative words carried over and significantly affected the recognition of preceding neutral words. Furthermore, such effects were modulated by language dominance scores with more pronounced emotion–memory effects in more English-dominant bilinguals. The findings contribute to a growing body of evidence showing that emotions are not necessarily restricted to the first acquired home language. Critically, for heritage speakers, there is often a shift in language dominance from the home language to the societal language. The present study demonstrates that the effects of emotion on memory are seen in the acquired societal language.