Journal articles: 'Hepatitis viruses Transmission'

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W Smith, David. "Sexual transmission of hepatitis viruses." Microbiology Australia 28, no. 1 (2007): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ma07019.

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Hepatitis viruses are often not perceived as sexually transmitteddiseases, but sex is an extremely important mode of transmission worldwide for hepatitis B, and it plays a significant role for hepatitis C, hepatitis A and hepatitis D.

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Shapiro, Craig N. "Transmission of Hepatitis Viruses." Annals of Internal Medicine 120, no. 1 (January 1, 1994): 82. http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-120-1-199401010-00014.

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Khaertynov, Kh S., V. A. Anokhin, and E. R. Nizamova. "Clinical and epidemiological features of neonatal hepatitises." Kazan medical journal 93, no. 6 (December 15, 2012): 921–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/kmj2107.

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Neonatal hepatitis is one of the most actual problems of children under 6 months of age. The term «neonatal hepatitis» includes infectious liver injury which develops in antenatal period or occurrs during first 3 months of life. The most common causes of liver damage in newborns are viral infections including cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, enteroviruses, parvoviruses, hepatitis B and C viruses. Nowadays the most frequent perinatal infection is cytomegalovirus (1-2% of all newborns). It manifests clinically in 10-15% of cases, with liver involved in 40-63,3% of cases. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis B and C viruses is usually intranatal, transplacental transmission is rare. Mother-to-infant transmission of other hepatotropic viruses (A, D and E) is very rare. A number of hereditary diseases associated with metabolic disorders (amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, bile acids) and enzyme deficiencies (arginase deficiency, hemochromatosis), etc. can mimicry the clinical picture of neonatal hepatitis. Liver damage can be the only manifestation of perinatal infection (hepatitis B and C, herpes viruses) or come along with other organ damage (generalized herpes virus infection, bacterial infections, toxoplasmosis). Perinatal hepatitis B and C are usually chronic. Neonatal hepatitis caused by herpes simplex virus is usually an acute, possibly fulminant infection. Neonatal hepatitis caused by cytomegalovirus has a variety of clinical subtypes: from a non-jaundice type (with a good prognosis) to a cholestatic form (with possible formation of biliary atresia and liver cirrhosis). Thus, different neonatal hepatitises have their particular features. Wide spectrum of laboratory tests available nowadays allows to define the exact reason for neonatal hepatitis and its clinical course.

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Klimov, V. A. "Enteric hepatitis." Spravočnik vrača obŝej praktiki (Journal of Family Medicine), no. 1 (January 1, 2023): 7–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.33920/med-10-2301-01.

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Viral hepatitis is an extensive group of human diseases caused by viruses with tropism to liver damage, which leads to a liver function disorder. There are various ways of viral hepatitis transmission, but the main ones are enteral and parenteral. Hepatitis with a predominantly enteral route of transmission includes hepatitis A and E. Methods for diagnosing and treating this pathology are presented in the article.

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Stevens, Cladd E. "In Utero and Perinatal Transmission of Hepatitis Viruses." Pediatric Annals 23, no. 3 (March 1, 1994): 152–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/0090-4481-19940301-08.

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Cretel, Elodie, Rémi N. Charrel, Michel Rotily, Sylvette Rousseau, Jean François Cantaloube, and Xavier de Lamballerie. "Co-transmission of hepatitis C and G viruses." Journal of Hepatology 27, no. 2 (August 1997): 426. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-8278(97)80193-6.

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Lin, Ho-Hsiung. "Perinatal Transmission of Hepatitis Viruses: The Possible Mechanisms." Taiwanese Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 43, no. 1 (March 2004): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1028-4559(09)60045-0.

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Kayesh, Mohammad Enamul Hoque, Michinori Kohara, and Kyoko Tsukiyama-Kohara. "Epidemiology and Risk Factors for Acute Viral Hepatitis in Bangladesh: An Overview." Microorganisms 10, no. 11 (November 15, 2022): 2266. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10112266.

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Viral infections by hepatotropic viruses can cause both acute and chronic infections in the liver, resulting in morbidity and mortality in humans. Hepatotropic viruses, including hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis D virus (HDV), and hepatitis E virus (HEV), are the major pathogens that cause acute and chronic infections in humans. Although all of these viruses can cause acute hepatitis in humans, HAV and HEV are the predominant causative agents in Bangladesh, where the occurrence is sporadic throughout the year. In this review, we provide an overview of the epidemiology of hepatotropic viruses that are responsible for acute hepatitis in Bangladesh. Additionally, we focus on the transmission modes of these viruses and the control and prevention of infections.

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Singh, S. "Sexual co-transmission of HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C viruses." Sexually Transmitted Infections 76, no. 4 (August 1, 2000): 317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/sti.76.4.317.

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Tokur, Bahar, and Koray Korkmaz. "Seafood associated human pathogenic non-enveloped viruses." Ege Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 38, no. 2 (June 15, 2021): 253–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.12714/egejfas.38.2.16.

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Non-enveloped human pathogenic viruses, highly stable in the environment, can be transmitted by different routes, such as contaminated food and water. The waterborne transmission of non-enveloped viruses to humans causes illnesses when individuals are exposed to contaminated water resources such as agricultural water, drainage, outdoor water, field or subsurface water and even drinking water. In addition to waterborne transmission, viral foodborne transmission may consist because of contagious seafood, through infected food handlers due to inadequate hygienic activities, aerosol containing viruses produced by infected people. Most hazardous non enveloped enteric viruses assocated with water and seafood cause a significant and emerging food safety and public health problem and threat. In this review, norovirus (NoVs), hepatitis E virus (HEV) and hepatitis A (HAV), human adenovirus, rotavirus A and sapovirus are evaluated as seafood associated human pathogenic non-envoleped viruses.

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Velebit, B. "Foodborne viruses — an emerging pathogens." Theory and practice of meat processing 5, no. 4 (December 29, 2020): 18–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.21323/2414-438x-2020-5-4-18-22.

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Viral foodborne illnesses which have become a significant cause of all reported foodborne illnesses in recent years and considered as an emerging risk in veterinary public health. Foodborne transmission can occur by contamination of food by infected food handlers, by contamination of food during the production process and by consumption of products of animal origin harboring a zoonotic virus. Microbiological genomics studies discovered that noroviruses and hepatitis A viruses were primarily associated with food-handler transmission and sewage-contaminated foods while hepatitis E was associated with consumption of raw or undercooked meat of pig or wild animals. Routine harmonized surveillance of viral outbreaks, and surveillance of virus occurrence in food commodities, in combination with systematic strain typing, and joint expertise from veterinary, food, and clinical microbiologists would be recommended to aid source attribution studies and identify risk prevention measures.

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Di Cola, Guadalupe, Anabella C. Fantilli, María Belén Pisano, and Viviana E. Ré. "Foodborne transmission of hepatitis A and hepatitis E viruses: A literature review." International Journal of Food Microbiology 338 (January 2021): 108986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108986.

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Allain, J. P., and D. Candotti. "Current problems with detection and transmission of hepatitis viruses." ISBT Science Series 3, no. 1 (June 2008): 104–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2824.2008.00176.x.

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Rashid, MH, MA Alim, MK Rahman, MM Hoque Chowdhary, MM Rahman Khan, I. Mahmood, and ARMS Ekram. "Hepatitis E Vaccine: Present and Future." TAJ: Journal of Teachers Association 22, no. 2 (December 1, 2009): 330–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/taj.v22i2.37755.

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Viral hepatitis is a major public health problem in the world, and it can be caused by blood- and food-borne viruses. Blood-borne 'hepatitis agents are HBV, HCV and HDV, whereas HAV and HEV are food-borne hepatitis viruses. HEV infection is an important infectious agent in developing countries, but it is also an emerging disease in developed countries, which is likely due to travel or immigration from endemic areas. The main route of human HEV transmission is fecal-oral (fecally contaminated water), although other routes were also reported such as person-to-person transmission, blood products, mother-to-child transmission and zoonotic transmission (e.g., by pigs, particularly in developed countries, and seafood. Epidemiologically, only one serotype of HEV exists in the world, Genetically , the virus has been classified into four genotypes and several subgenotypes designated 1 (1a-e), 2 (2a and b), 3 (3aj) and 4 (4a-g). Each genotype shows a distinct geographical distrib ution. Genotype 1 of HEV is reported from developing countries in Asia and Africa; genotype 2 has been detected in some countries in Africa as well as in Mexico; genotype 3 is distributed globally and genotype 4 of HEV is only found in Asian countries. The genotypes may not only vary with respect to their geographical distribution, but also in their pathogenicity. Genotypes 1 and 2 are primarily human pathogens, causing acute hepatitis in young, nonimmunocompromised people; genotypes 3 and 4, however, have been found in swine and other animals and could therefore be responsible for zoonotic transmissions, preferentially in the elderly or in immunocompromised patients.TAJ 2009; 22(1): 330-336

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Jobayer, Mohammad, Zeenat Afroz, Mizanur Rahman, Nadira Akter, SM Shamsuzzaman, and KM Shahidul Islam. "Hepatitis: Knowledge and Awareness among the Infected Population." Bangladesh Medical Research Council Bulletin 43, no. 3 (April 16, 2018): 126–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bmrcb.v43i3.36415.

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Hepatitis viruses are serious global public health problem and rapidly spreading in the developing countries due to factors like illiteracy, lack of health education, poverty. The aim of this study was to assess the level of knowledge and awareness of hepatitis infected people toward the disease, its consequences, routes of transmission of virus and preventive measures including vaccination. This cross-sectional study was carried out in the Department of Microbiology of Dhaka Medical Collage, Dhaka, Bangladesh from February to August 2013 among 2254 male jobseekers to Malaysia. History was taken and information was collected from HBsAg and anti-HCV positive persons by a predesigned questionnaire. Prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in adult population was 2.35% and appears to be on decline and prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection was 0.13% that is still low in Bangladesh. No significant relationship was found between the demographic profile like religion, locality, occupation of the study population and hepatitis infection. In majority of the positive jobseekers, routes of transmission of viruses were not well established. Among infected population about 90% had educational status below secondary level, they were from low income group, and 60% of them were unemployed. Three fourth of them did not have proper knowledge about the disease, only about 10% of them properly knew about routes of transmission of hepatitis viruses and 91% did not have adequate knowledge about the preventive measures including vaccination. Knowledge about hepatitis was poor among infected population and they were not much aware about the disease; so measures should be taken to create awareness among the population about hepatitis and the preventive measures to halt the transmission of such infections.

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Fry, Donald E. "Hepatitis: Risks for the Surgeon." American Surgeon 66, no. 2 (February 2000): 178–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000313480006600214.

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Six different hepatitis viruses have now been characterized. Hepatitis B and C are the two hepatitis infections that are of greatest concern for surgeons. Hepatitis B and C share several features that have led to this concern. Both are blood-borne infections. Both are associated with chronic infection ultimately leading to cirrhosis, portal hypertension, and hepatocellular carcinoma, and both can be occupational infections for the surgeon after percutaneous injury associated with infected blood. Chronic hepatitis B infection is seen in 1.25 million people in the U.S. It is associated with a transmission rate to healthcare workers of 25 to 30 per cent following a hollow needle stick injury. Five per cent of acute infections result in chronic disease. It can be effectively prevented as an occupational infection by vaccination with the highly effective hepatitis B vaccine. Chronic hepatitis C infection is present in nearly 4 million people in the U.S. It has a lower rate of transmission than hepatitis B following needle stick injury, but it has a 50 to 80 per cent rate of chronic disease after acute infections. There is no vaccine for hepatitis C, and only prevention of blood exposure will avoid the risks of this occupational infection. Other hepatitis viruses are likely to be identified. Prevention of blood exposure, by the better use of barriers in the operating room and modification of surgical techniques, is recommended to prevent occupational infection from both known and unknown blood-borne viruses from the surgical patient.

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Neto, Miguel Cendoroglo, Sandra Ivelize Rodrigues Manzano, Maria Eugenia Canziani, Antonio Eduardo Benedito Silva, Maria Lúcia Ferraz Cirenza, Ricardo de Cintra Sesso, Horácio Ajzen, and Sérgio Antonio Draibe. "Environmental Transmission of Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C Viruses Within the Hemodialysis Unit." Artificial Organs 19, no. 3 (March 1995): 251–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1594.1995.tb02323.x.

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Venkateswarlu, Devarakonda, Burri T. Rao, Devarakonda Manasa, and Ravi Y. Chowdhary. "An assessment of knowledge and awareness on hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses among police trainees attending police training college, Ongole, Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh, India." International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health 8, no. 10 (September 27, 2021): 5006. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20213811.

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Background: HBV and HCV are blood borne viral diseases, and knowledge about modes of transmission and preventive aspects can help in reduce the risk of getting liver diseases and mainly transmitted through transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products. The knowledge regarding HBV and HCV infection studied in many professional groups, but few surveys are available among the police professionals. The study was conducted to assess the knowledge and awareness regarding Hepatitis B and C viruses’ transmission among these police trainees, and to find out the awareness regarding symptoms, signs, complications and importance of Hepatitis B vaccine.Methods: A cross sectional observationalstudywasconductedamongthepolicetraineesattendingdistrictpolicetraining college, Ongole, Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh. Information about socio demographic characteristics, basic knowledge about hepatitis B and C viruses, its modes of transmission, prevention, symptoms and signs and also complications, Hepatitis B vaccination were also assessed from all these police trainees. The data were collected, tabulated, and statistically analyzed.Results: Among total police trainees 61.8% belong to upper middle class, 62.4% were degree holders and most of them belonging to Krishna (32.2%) district. About 59% of police trainees aware about hepatitis B virus infection and 67% know about hepatitis C virus infection. 67.2% were listen about availability of hepatitis B vaccination, none of the participants were aware about hepatitis B vaccine zero dose schedule.Conclusions: Efficient health programme managing departments must take the responsibility for HBV education, transmission, testing, vaccination accessibility and availability.

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Sayed, Ibrahim M. "Dual Infection of Hepatitis A Virus and Hepatitis E Virus— What Is Known?" Viruses 15, no. 2 (January 20, 2023): 298. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v15020298.

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Viral hepatitis is an infection of human hepatocytes resulting in liver damage. Dual infection of two hepatotropic viruses affects disease outcomes. The hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) are two enterically transmitted viruses; they are positive single-stranded RNA viruses and have common modes of transmission. They are transmitted mainly by the fecal-oral route and ingestion of contaminated food, though the HAV has no animal reservoirs. The HAV and HEV cause acute self-limiting disease; however, the HEV, but not HAV, can progress to chronic and extrahepatic infections. The HAV/HEV dual infection was reported among acute hepatitis patients present in developing countries. The impact of the HAV/HEV on the prognosis for acute hepatitis is not completely understood. Studies showed that the HAV/HEV dual infection increased abnormalities in the liver leading to fulminant hepatic failure (FHF) with a higher mortality rate compared to infection with a single virus. On the other hand, other reports showed that the clinical symptoms of the HAV/HEV dual infection were comparable to symptoms associated with the HAV or HEV monoinfection. This review highlights the modes of transmission, the prevalence of the HAV/HEV dual infection in various countries and among several study subjects, the possible outcomes of this dual infection, potential model systems for studying this dual infection, and methods of prevention of this dual infection and its associated complications.

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Lunn, Ruth M., Gloria D. Jahnke, and Charles S. Rabkin. "Tumour virus epidemiology." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 372, no. 1732 (September 11, 2017): 20160266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0266.

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A viral etiology of cancer was first demonstrated in 1911 by Peyton Rous who injected cell-free filtrate from a chicken sarcoma into healthy chickens and found it induced a tumour. Since the discovery over 50 years ago of the Epstein-Barr virus as the cause of Burkitt lymphoma, seven other human viruses or groups of viruses—hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, human immunodeficiency virus type 1, some human papillomaviruses, human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1, Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and Merkel cell polyomavirus—have been linked to human cancer. Collectively, these eight viruses cause over 20 different types of cancer and contribute to 10–12% of all cancer, with a greater burden in low- and middle-income countries. For many viruses, immunosuppression greatly increases the risks of persistent infection, development of chronic sequelae and cancer. Although several viruses share similar routes of transmission (especially sexual activity, injection drug use and mother-to-child transmission), the predominant route of transmission varies across viruses, and for the same virus can vary by geographical location. In general, vulnerable populations at the greatest risk for viral infections and their associated diseases include people, especially children, living in low- to middle-income countries, men who have sex with men, people who use injection drugs and female sex workers. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Human oncogenic viruses’.

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Bragina, E. E. "Viral infection of spermatozoa. Part 1. Hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus (review)." Andrology and Genital Surgery 21, no. 4 (February 12, 2021): 12–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.17650/2070-9781-2020-21-4-12-19.

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Intragametal viral infection of spermatozoa can cause true vertical transmission of viruses through germ cells. Currently, human papilloma-virus, including oncogenic risk strains, and hepatitis B virus, have been detected in spermatozoa. The possibility of vertical transmission of hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus has been proven.Intragametal infection of spermatozoa with viruses of human papillomavirus and hepatitis B virus leads to abnormalities in the development of the embryo and can cause spontaneous abortions both duringnatural conception and when using assisted reproductive technologies.The development of adequate methods for diagnosing an intragametal spermatozoa virus infection will make it possible to find out, at least in some patients, the cause of infertility and pregnancy abnormalities and apply appropriate antiviral therapy in preparation for natural conception or the use of assisted reproductive technologies.

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Schwartzbrod, L., and S. Boher. "Viruses and Shellfish." Water Science and Technology 27, no. 7-8 (April 1, 1993): 313–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1993.0565.

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While studying the cycle of viral contamination of aqueous media, it appears that the human being is both the primary contaminator and the secondary receiver of the viruses transported in the aqueous medium. Human contamination takes place by drinking water of poor quality, by eating vegetables irrigated with waste water or shellfish. Shellfish consumption is clearly associated with the transmission of enteric infections and epidemics have been reported in many countries. The viruses responsible for the transmission of epidemics are mostly gastro-enteric viruses (Norwalk virus, Rotavirus and “small round viruses”) and the hepatitis A virus. The shellfish implicated are oysters, cockles, mussels and clams. Shellfish depuration techniques involve either closed loop circuits or semi-open circuits. They are very effective bacteriologically, but they do not totally eliminate the viral particles. Furthermore, sanitary controls are, usually, based on the sole research of fecal coliform although this bacterial type is a bad indicator of viral contamination. It is therefore necessary to include a virological criterion in the sanitary control of shellfish.

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MacLean, Alison, Neil J. Angus, Roger Evans, Andrew J. Hay, and Darrel O. Ho-Yen. "Nursing knowledge of hepatitis – 25 years later." Journal of Infection Prevention 13, no. 1 (November 10, 2011): 28–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1757177411427480.

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This is a survey of nurses’ and nursing students’ knowledge about hepatitis A and B and the results are compared with a similar survey of 25 years ago. Questionnaires were given to registered nurses, healthcare assistants and first and third year student nurses during May 2009. In 2009, more participants knew about the transmission of hepatitis B compared with those in 1984. However, in 1984 and 2009, there was ignorance about hepatitis B’s long incubation period and faecal-oral transmission of hepatitis A. Third year students demonstrated better understanding than first years in their knowledge of hepatitis A, B and C. It is encouraging that there has been an increase in the knowledge about hepatitis B transmission. Knowledge about hepatitis A remains poor and it is still being confused with hepatitis B. The overall knowledge about the hepatic viruses remains low and highlights an educational need among today’s nurses.

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Lin, Hsiang Ju. "Molecular evidence for transmission of viruses: hepatitis B and C viruses and human immunodeficiency virus." Clinica Chimica Acta 313, no. 1-2 (November 2001): 9–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0009-8981(01)00643-x.

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Kidd-Ljunggren, Karin, Yuzo Miyakawa, and Alistair H. Kidd. "Genetic variability in hepatitis B viruses." Journal of General Virology 83, no. 6 (June 1, 2002): 1267–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-83-6-1267.

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In 1988, it was reported that the full nucleotide sequences of 18 hepatitis B virus (HBV) strains clustered into four genetic groups (A to D) with more than 8% divergence between the groups. This classification of strains in terms of genome sequence has since proven to be an important tool in the understanding of HBV epidemiology and evolution and has been expanded to include three more genotypes. In parallel with the HBV genotypes described in humans, HBV strains isolated from different primates and hepadnaviruses found in woodchucks, ground squirrels, ducks and herons have been studied. Sequence differences between HBV genotypes can lead to structural differences at the level of the pregenome and can also lead to dramatic differences at the translational level when specific and commonly occurring mutations occur. There is increasing evidence that the clinical picture, the response to treatment and the long-term prognosis may differ depending on which genotype has infected the patient. The consideration of traditional serological patterns in a patient must therefore take the genotype of the infecting strain into account. Nucleotide variability between HBV strains has been used in several studies to trace routes of transmission and, since it is becoming increasingly clear that the differences between HBV genotypes are important, the need for reliable and easy methods of differentiating HBV genotypes has arisen. This review summarizes the knowledge of HBV genotypes with regard to their genetic, structural and clinically significant differences and their origin and evolution in the context of the hepadnaviruses in general.

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Nurgalieva, Zhannat Z. "Epidemiology and transmission of hepatitis B and C viruses in Kazakhstan." World Journal of Gastroenterology 13, no. 8 (2007): 1204. http://dx.doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v13.i8.1204.

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Shetty, Anup Kumar, and Jeshma Crasta Kannur. "Occurrence of Hepatitis E virus infection in patients screened for Hepatitis A virus." Indian Journal of Microbiology Research 8, no. 3 (September 15, 2021): 200–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.18231/j.ijmr.2021.041.

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: Infectious hepatitis can be caused by Hepatitis A and Hepatitis E viruses. Hepatitis E infection is a water-borne disease transmitted by faeco-oral route. It is a cause of major health problems in developing countries. Outbreaks can happen due to improper hygiene and poor sanitation. Hepatitis E infection shows similar mode of transmission and clinical features of Hepatitis A infection. : This study was conducted to investigate the occurrence of Hepatitis E virus infection in patients screened for hepatitis A virus.: This prospective surveillance study was conducted between March 2020 to March 2021 on 57 serum samples which is came for the screening of anti-Hepatitis A virus IgM by enhanced Chemiluminescence method. These samples were collected and tested for anti- Hepatitis E virus IgM by Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.: Among 57 samples, 11 samples (19.3%) were positive for Hepatitis A Virus IgM, 13 samples (22.8%) were positive for Hepatitis E virus IgM, and 7 samples (12.3%) were positive for both.: Hepatitis E virus infections were more than Hepatitis A virus. Hepatitis E and Hepatitis A virus co- infection was also observed. Screening of both viruses is suggested for infectious hepatitis.

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Kresina, Thomas F., Diana Sylvestre, Leonard Seeff, Alain H. Litwin, Kenneth Hoffman, Robert Lubran, and H. Westley Clark. "Hepatitis Infection in the Treatment of Opioid Dependence and Abuse." Substance Abuse: Research and Treatment 1 (January 2008): SART.S580. http://dx.doi.org/10.4137/sart.s580.

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Many new and existing cases of viral hepatitis infections are related to injection drug use. Transmission of these infections can result directly from the use of injection equipment that is contaminated with blood containing the hepatitis B or C virus or through sexual contact with an infected individual. In the latter case, drug use can indirectly contribute to hepatitis transmission through the dis-inhibited at-risk behavior, that is, unprotected sex with an infected partner. Individuals who inject drugs are at-risk for infection from different hepatitis viruses, hepatitis A, B, or C. Those with chronic hepatitis B virus infection also face additional risk should they become co-infected with hepatitis D virus. Protection from the transmission of hepatitis viruses A and B is best achieved by vaccination. For those with a history of or who currently inject drugs, the medical management of viral hepatitis infection comprising screening, testing, counseling and providing care and treatment is evolving. Components of the medical management of hepatitis infection, for persons considering, initiating, or receiving pharmacologic therapy for opioid addiction include: testing for hepatitis B and C infections; education and counseling regarding at-risk behavior and hepatitis transmission, acute and chronic hepatitis infection, liver disease and its care and treatment; vaccination against hepatitis A and B infection; and integrative primary care as part of the comprehensive treatment approach for recovery from opioid abuse and dependence. In addition, participation in a peer support group as part of integrated medical care enhances treatment outcomes. Liver disease is highly prevalent in patient populations seeking recovery from opioid addiction or who are currently receiving pharmacotherapy for opioid addiction. Pharmacotherapy for opioid addiction is not a contraindication to evaluation, care, or treatment of liver disease due to hepatitis virus infection. Successful pharmacotherapy for opioid addiction stabilizes patients and improves patient compliance to care and treatment regimens as well as promotes good patient outcomes. Implementation and integration of effective hepatitis prevention programs, care programs, and treatment regimens in concert with the pharmacological therapy of opioid addiction can reduce the public health burdens of hepatitis and injection drug use.

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Silva, Sávio Freire da, Roseane Mara Cardoso Lima Verde, José Felipe Pinheiro do Nascimento Vieira, Leonardo Ferreira Soares, Matheus Hipólito do Nascimento, and Evaldo Hipólito de Oliveira. "HIV and viral hepatitis co-infection in pregnancy: an epidemiological, clinical and diagnostic review." Brazilian Journal of Biological Sciences 4, no. 8 (2017): 345–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.21472/bjbs.040813.

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Even though the survival of the population infected with HIV has been increased due to the intensification of antiretroviral therapy, co-infection with hepatitis B or hepatitis C has attracted the attention of doctors and other health professionals regarding the increased incidence of chronic complications resulting from viral hepatitis in HIV-infected population, which differs from that with other opportunistic diseases. Women coinfected with these viruses have an increased risk of complications during pregnancy, and the vertical transmission of these infections cause significant morbidity and mortality among children. This study aimed to investigate the risks of co-infection with HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C during pregnancy, through a literature review of the last ten years, using the databases LILACS, MEDLINE and SCIELO, which make up the Virtual Health Library. A total of 106 articles were found, by searching in these databases, 46 of which were pre-selected to be read in full, resulting in 15 approved articles. It was noted that most of the accepted studies were carried out in countries of sub-Saharan Africa and Europe, followed by Brazil and the United States. The presence of co-infections made the infection worse and led to disease progression, both in the mother and in the child, compared to infection with only one of these viruses. Therefore, early diagnosis and prevention and treatment are essential to reduce and prevent the vertical transmission of these viruses.

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Vickery, Karen. "Duck hepatitis B virus: a model for assessing the efficacy of disenfectants against human hepatitis B virus infection." Microbiology Australia 31, no. 4 (2010): 171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ma10171.

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One of the most important aspects of infection control is the interruption of transmission of infectious organisms to and from patients within the hospital environment. Of particular concern are the blood-borne viruses HIV, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). Disinfectants play an important role in infection control, but their virucidal efficacy is difficult to measure in vitro because of the high susceptibility of tissue culture systems to damage by chemical agents and the relatively low titres which are achieved in growing many important viruses. Additionally, HBV is almost uncultivable in vitro and fails to infect more common laboratory animals. Therefore, the duck model of HBV infection has been used for testing disinfectant action against HBV.

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KOMA, T., K. YOSHIMATSU, S. P. YASUDA, T. LI, T. AMADA, K. SHIMIZU, R. ISOZUMI, et al. "A survey of rodent-borne pathogens carried by wildRattusspp. in Northern Vietnam." Epidemiology and Infection 141, no. 9 (November 1, 2012): 1876–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268812002385.

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SUMMARYTo examine the prevalence of human pathogens carried by rats in urban areas in Hanoi and Hai Phong, Vietnam, we live-trapped 100 rats in January 2011 and screened them for a panel of bacteria and viruses. Antibodies againstLeptospira interrogans(22·0%), Seoul virus (14·0%) and rat hepatitis E virus (23·0%) were detected in rats, but antibodies againstYersinia pestiswere not detected. Antibodies againstL. interrogansand Seoul virus were found only in adult rats. In contrast, antibodies to rat hepatitis E virus were also found in juvenile and sub-adult rats, indicating that the transmission mode of rat hepatitis E virus is different from that ofL. interrogansand Seoul virus. Moreover, phylogenetic analyses of the S and M segments of Seoul viruses found inRattus norvegicusshowed that Seoul viruses from Hai Phong and Hanoi formed different clades. Human exposure to these pathogens has become a significant public health concern.

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Danis, K., L. Doherty, M. McCartney, J. McCarrol, and H. Kennedy. "Hepatitis and HIV in Northern Ireland prisons: a cross-sectional study." Eurosurveillance 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2007): 3–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.2807/esm.12.01.00674-en.

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A study was undertaken in Northern Ireland (NI) prisons to (i) determine prevalence of bloodborne viruses among inmates, (ii) estimate the extent of self-reported risk behaviours. All three prisons in NI were included in the study. Outcome measures included (i) antibodies to hepatitis C (HCV), hepatitis B (HBV) core antigen, HIV, (ii) self-reported risk behaviour. Five prisoners (0.75 %) tested positive for HBV, seven (1.1%) for HCV and none for HIV. Eleven per cent reported ever having injected drugs. Of these, 20% had started injecting while in prison, and 12% shared injecting equipment in prison. Two per cent had completed HBV immunisation. Injecting drugs was associated with HCV (adjusted prevalence ratio=5.2; 95% CI 0.9-16) and HBV infection (adjusted prevalence ratio=4.1; 95% CI 0.7-23). The low prevalence of bloodborne viruses within NI prisons is not consistent with findings of studies in other countries, possibly reflecting the unique sociopolitical situation in NI. In spite of knowledge of the risks of transmission of bloodborne viruses in prison, high-risk practices are occurring. Preventing risk behaviours and transmission of infection in prisons now poses a challenge for health services in the United Kingdom.

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Abad, F. Xavier, Cristina Villena, Susana Guix, Santiago Caballero, Rosa M. Pintó, and Albert Bosch. "Potential Role of Fomites in the Vehicular Transmission of Human Astroviruses." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67, no. 9 (September 1, 2001): 3904–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.67.9.3904-3907.2001.

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ABSTRACT The persistence of human astroviruses dried on representative porous (paper) and nonporous (china) surfaces was investigated. Long-term astrovirus survival on fomites was monitored by an integrated cell culture-reverse transcription-PCR procedure. Viruses were applied to inanimate surfaces in the presence and absence of fecal material, and their survival was assayed at 4 and 20°C with high relative humidity. Astroviruses exhibited a notable persistence when dried on porous and nonporous materials, particularly at low temperature. Short-term survival of astroviruses on fomites was compared to that of other enteric viruses significant for health, such as rotavirus, adenovirus, poliovirus, and hepatitis A virus. Overall, astroviruses persisted better than poliovirus and adenovirus, although they exhibited a shorter survival than rotavirus and hepatitis A virus. Astroviruses show a high level of persistence at the desiccation step, which is of major significance in determining the chance of subsequent virus survival dried on fomites. Astroviruses are able to survive on inert surfaces long enough to suggest that fomites may play a relevant role in the secondary transmission of astrovirus diarrhea.

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Le Tortorec, Anna, Giulia Matusali, Dominique Mahé, Florence Aubry, Séverine Mazaud-Guittot, Laurent Houzet, and Nathalie Dejucq-Rainsford. "From Ancient to Emerging Infections: The Odyssey of Viruses in the Male Genital Tract." Physiological Reviews 100, no. 3 (July 1, 2020): 1349–414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00021.2019.

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The male genital tract (MGT) is the target of a number of viral infections that can have deleterious consequences at the individual, offspring, and population levels. These consequences include infertility, cancers of male organs, transmission to the embryo/fetal development abnormalities, and sexual dissemination of major viral pathogens such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis B virus. Lately, two emerging viruses, Zika and Ebola, have additionally revealed that the human MGT can constitute a reservoir for viruses cleared from peripheral circulation by the immune system, leading to their sexual transmission by cured men. This represents a concern for future epidemics and further underlines the need for a better understanding of the interplay between viruses and the MGT. We review here how viruses, from ancient viruses that integrated the germline during evolution through old viruses (e.g., papillomaviruses originating from Neanderthals) and more modern sexually transmitted infections (e.g., simian zoonotic HIV) to emerging viruses (e.g., Ebola and Zika) take advantage of genital tract colonization for horizontal dissemination, viral persistence, vertical transmission, and endogenization. The MGT immune responses to viruses and the impact of these infections are discussed. We summarize the latest data regarding the sources of viruses in semen and the complex role of this body fluid in sexual transmission. Finally, we introduce key animal findings that are relevant for our understanding of viral infection and persistence in the human MGT and suggest future research directions.

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Echevarría, José M., and Pilar León. "Epidemiology of viruses causing chronic hepatitis among populations from the Amazon Basin and related ecosystems." Cadernos de Saúde Pública 19, no. 6 (December 2003): 1583–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0102-311x2003000600003.

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On the last twenty years, viral hepatitis has emerged as a serious problem in almost all the Amerindian communities studied in the Amazon Basin and in other Amazon-related ecological systems from the North and Center of South America. Studies performed on communities from Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela have shown a high endemicity of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection all over the region, which is frequently associated to a high prevalence of infection by hepatitis D virus among the chronic HBV carriers. Circulation of both agents responds mainly to horizontal virus transmission during childhood through mechanisms that are not fully understood. By contrast, infection by hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is present in all the urban areas of South America, is still very uncommon among them. At the moment, there is not data enough to evaluate properly the true incidence that such endemicity may have on the health of the populations affected. Since viral transmission might be operated by mechanisms that could not be acting in other areas of the World, it seems essential to investigate such mechanisms and to prevent the introduction of HCV into these populations, which consequences for health could be very serious.

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Kenney, Scott P. "The Current Host Range of Hepatitis E Viruses." Viruses 11, no. 5 (May 17, 2019): 452. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11050452.

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Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen transmitting both human to human via the fecal oral route and from animals to humans through feces, direct contact, and consumption of contaminated meat products. Understanding the host range of the virus is critical for determining where potential threats to human health may be emerging from and where potential reservoirs for viral persistence in the environment may be hiding. Initially thought to be a human specific disease endemic to developing countries, the identification of swine as a primary host for genotypes 3 and 4 HEV in industrialized countries has begun a long journey of discovering novel strains of HEV and their animal hosts. As we continue identifying new strains of HEV in disparate animal species, it is becoming abundantly clear that HEV has a broad host range and many of these HEV strains can cross between differing animal species. These cross-species transmitting strains pose many unique challenges to human health as they are often unrecognized as sources of viral transmission.

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Bragina, E. E. "Viral infection of sperm. Part 2. Human herpes viruses, human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis C virus, Zika virus (review)." Andrology and Genital Surgery 21, no. 4 (February 12, 2021): 20–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.17650/2070-9781-2020-21-4-20-30.

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Intragametal viral infection of spermatozoa can cause true vertical transmission of viruses through germ cells. Currently, human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis C viruses, herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, Zika virus have been detected in spermatozoa. The possibility of vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus and Zika virus has been proven.Intragametal infection of spermatozoa with viruses of the herpes group leads to abnormalities in the development of the embryo and can cause spontaneous abortions both during natural conception and when using assisted reproductive technologies.The development of adequate methods for diagnosing an intragametal spermatozoa virus infection will make it possible to find out, at least in some patients, the cause of infertility and pregnancy abnormalities and apply appropriate antiviral therapy in preparation for natural conception or the use of assisted reproductive technologies.

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Dagnew, Mulat, Yihenew Million, Mucheye Gizachew, Setegn Eshetie, Gashaw Yitayew, Lakachew Asrade, Mulat Adefris, Feleke Moges, and Moges Tiruneh. "Hepatitis B and C Viruses’ Infection and Associated Factors among Pregnant Women Attending Antenatal Care in Hospitals in the Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia." International Journal of Microbiology 2020 (October 9, 2020): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/8848561.

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Introduction. Hepatitis virus infection is a major public health burden and silent killer disease in sub-Saharan Africa, including Ethiopia. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the prevalence of hepatitis B and C viruses and associated factors among pregnant women attending an antenatal clinic in three tertiary hospitals in Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia. Methods. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 1121 pregnant women. Data on sociodemographic and associated factors were collected using a structured questionnaire. Serum samples were tested for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and anti-hepatitis C virus antibody (anti-HCV) using ELISA. SPSS version 20 was used for data analysis, and a multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between factors associated with hepatitis B virus and hepatitis virus C infection. Results. A total of 1121 pregnant women were included in the study. The mean age of study participants was 27.2 ± 4.8 yrs. The majority of pregnant women (895 (79.8%)) were from urban areas. The overall seroprevalence of HBsAg and anti-HCV antibody was 52 (4.6%) and 18 (1.6%), respectively. The coinfection rate of HBV/HCV was 1.4% (1/69). Ten (19.2%) of HBV positive cases were coinfected with HIV. There were no coinfections of HCV and HIV. Interestingly, pregnant women with a history of multiple sexual partners (AOR = 3.2, 95% CI, 1.7–7.6), blood transfusion (AOR = 7.6, 95% CI, 2.9–16.9), family history of HBV (AOR = 3.5, 95% CI, 1.7–7.6), being HIV-positive (AOR = 2.5, 95% CI, 1–5.9), and tattooing (AOR = 2, 95% CI, 1–3.8) were significant predictors of HBV infection. Similarly, young age (17–25 yrs) (AOR = 3.2, 95% CI, 1.8–8.6) and no educational background (AOR = 5, 95 CI, 1.7–14.8) were significant predictors of HCV infection. Conclusions. Hepatitis B and C viruses’ infection was intermediate among pregnant women; some risk factors were significantly associated with the majority of cases. Infants born from these infected mothers are at risk of infection. This calls for screening and integration of HBV prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) into HIV. Thus, the provision of health education on hepatitis B and C viruses’ transmission, vaccination, and screening of all pregnant women routinely are essential for the prevention of these viruses.

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Macpherson, Iain, Paul N. Brennan, and John F. Dillon. "Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and Liver Disease: A Review for the Dental Practitioner." Dental Update 49, no. 1 (January 2, 2022): 26–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/denu.2022.49.1.26.

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The prevalence of chronic liver disease continues to rise, and important causes include viral infections, such as hepatitis B and hepatitis C. Both of these viruses can be contracted by healthcare workers through an inoculation injury and can lead to liver cirrhosis and cancer. In addition, chronic liver disease can result in disorders of liver function, including coagulopathy and abnormal metabolism of drugs widely used in dentistry. This article reviews current prevalence, transmission rates and treatment of hepatitis B and hepatitis C, as well as particular considerations for dental patients with liver disease. CPD/Clinical Relevance: Viral hepatitis remains a risk to all healthcare workers, and patients with liver disease provide various challenges when providing dental treatment.

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Brook, M. G. "Sexual transmission and prevention of the hepatitis viruses A-E and G." Sexually Transmitted Infections 74, no. 6 (December 1, 1998): 395–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/sti.74.6.395.

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Sahar Abd, Al-Daim. "Overview of Foodborne viruses: Important viruses, outbreaks, health concerns, food Handling and fresh produce." Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Therapy 8, no. 1 (November 23, 2022): 038–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.17352/jfsnt.000038.

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Foodborne viruses can transmit through food in lots of ways including consuming items of animal origin containing zoonotic viruses, consuming contaminated food handled by infected food workers, and consuming contaminated food produced by humans. Viral foodborne illnesses are now a major contributor to all foodborne illness reports in recent years and are seen as a rising issue to the public health of humans and animals. Noroviruses and hepatitis A viruses were shown to be predominantly linked to the food-handler transmission and sewage-contaminated foods, according to microbiological research. In order to facilitate source attribution and identify risk preventive measures, routine, standard surveillance of viral outbreaks, and surveillance of virus occurrence in food products, combined with systematic strain typing, food and clinical microbiologists, would be advocated.

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Simmonds, P. "Reconstructing the origins of human hepatitis viruses." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 356, no. 1411 (July 29, 2001): 1013–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2001.0890.

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Infections with hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV, HCV) are widespread in human populations throughout the world, and are major causes of chronic liver disease and liver cancer. HBV, HCV and the related hepatitis G virus or GB virus C (referred to here as HGV/GBV–C) are capable of establishing persistent, frequently lifelong infections characterized by high levels of continuous replication. All three viruses show substantial genetic heterogeneity, which has allowed each to be classified into a number of distinct genotypes that have different geographical distributions and associations with different risk groups for infection. Information on their past transmission and epidemiology might be obtained by estimation of the time of divergence of the different genotypes of HCV, HBV and HGV/GBV–C using knowledge of their rates of sequence change. While information on the latter is limited to short observation periods and is therefore subject to considerable error and uncertainty, the relatively recent times of origin for genotype of each virus predicted by this method (HCV, 500–2000 years; HBV, 3000 years; HGV/GBV–C, 200 years) are quite incompatible with their epidemiological distributions in human populations. They also cannot easily be reconciled with the recent evidence for species–associated variants of HBV and HGV/GBV–C in a range of non–human primates. The apparent conservatism of viruses over long periods implied by their epidemiological distributions instead suggests that nucleotide sequence change may be subject to constraints peculiar to viruses with single–stranded genomes, or with overlapping reading frames that defy attempts to reconstruct evolution according to the principles of the ‘molecular clock’. Large population sizes and intense selection pressures that optimize fitness may be additional factors that set virus evolution apart from that of their hosts.

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R, Sukrutha Gopal, Radhika Chowdary D, and Anil Kumar B. "Seroprevalence of transfusion transmissible infections among healthy blood donors at KIMS blood bank." Journal of Medical and Scientific Research 2, no. 3 (April 2, 2014): 137–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.17727/jmsr.2014/2-024.

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Background: Safe blood is a critical component in improving health care and in preventing the spread of infectious diseases. Aims & Objectives: Blood transfusion can cause the transmission of infectious to recipients. This is an important mode of infection. The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence of such type of infection among blood donors and to compare the seroprevalence of transfusion transmitted diseases in blood donors. Retrospective study was conducted for 5 years from January-2009 to December-2013 at KIMS Blood Bank, Secunderabad. Materials and methods: All donors reporting to the blood bank during the period January-2009 to December-2013 were screened for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 1 & 2, hepatitis C viruses, malaria and syphilis. Screening of HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses were done by chemillumiencies and syphilis was screened by RPR method. Results: A total of 39780 voluntary blood donors were screened, of which 38697 were males and 1083 were females. Seropositivity of HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C viruses & syphilis were 0.26%, 1.28%, 0.51% and 0.03% respectively. No blood donors test showed positivity for malaria parasite. Conclusion: With the implementation of strict donor selection criteria and use of sensitive screening test, it may be possible to reduce the incidence of TTIs.

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Wiharta, Adnan S., Evi Setiadi, H. M. Sjaifullah Noer, Triyatmo Rachimhadhi, and Asri Rasad. "HBsAg in Cord Blood Qf Newborns of HBsAg-Positive Mothers." Paediatrica Indonesiana 34, no. 5-6 (November 5, 2018): 125–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.14238/pi34.5-6.1994.125-8.

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Vertical transmission of hepatitis B infection that may occur during pregnancy at delivery-, in infancy, and early childhood has an important role in the development of chronic hepatitis B. Intrauterine infection is suspected to occur when hepatitis B viruses cross the placenta into fetal circulation due to failure of placental tissue function. In Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital, Jakarta, 98 (6.4%) of 1536 pregnant mothers obseiVed during 3 years (1987 -1990) showed positive HBsAg. Six (8.3%) of 60 babies of born to HBsAg positive mothers showed positive HBsAg in their cord blood, but this disappeared after one month. All babies born to HBsAg positive mothers were vaccinated on months 0, 1, 2, and 12. HBsAg in cord blood might not play an important role in vertical transmission.

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CLIVER, DEAN O. "Epidemiology of Viral Foodborne Disease." Journal of Food Protection 57, no. 3 (March 1, 1994): 263–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-57.3.263.

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Virus transmission via foods begins with fecal shedding of viruses by humans. Foodborne viruses infect perorally: These same agents have alterative fecal-oral routes, including person- to-person transmission and the water vehicle. No zoonotic viruses are transmitted via foods in North America. Viruses rank high among foodborne disease agents in the United States, even though observation, diagnosis, and reporting of foodborne viral disease are inefficient. Risk assessment in developed countries considers viral infection rates and personal hygiene of food handlers, as well as the opportunities for contamination of shellfish and other foods by untreated sewage. Licensing of a vaccine against hepatitis A that could be administered to food handlers in North America would provide an important means of preventing foodborne viral disease. However, the most general concern in preventing all foodborne viral disease is to keep all human fecal contamination out of food.

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Gasim, Gasim I., Intisar A. Murad, and Ishag Adam. "Hepatitis B and C virus infections among pregnant women in Arab and African countries." Journal of Infection in Developing Countries 7, no. 08 (August 15, 2013): 566–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.3855/jidc.3243.

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Introduction: The epidemiology of viral hepatitis during pregnancy is of paramount importance for health planners and program managers. Data on viral hepatitis during pregnancy are not readily available in many African and Arab countries. Both regions have their own unique geography, and comprise over 59 states with crossover and interaction of different cultures. Methodology: A systematic electronic search of the published literature was conducted and data on epidemiology and risk factors of maternal hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and hepatitis C (HCV) infection in Arab and African countries were extracted from relevant studies. Results: The serology of hepatitis viruses varies greatly among these countries, with different viral genotype patterns. Such a variation in prevalence could be explained by the different risk factors involved. Sexual contact, perinatal infection, blood and its derivatives, hemodialysis, intravenous and percutaneous drug use, and occupational, habitual, and social behavior have been identified as risk factors for hepatitis transmission in various settings in these countries. Conclusions: Infection from hepatitis B and C viruses imposes major socioeconomic and even political burdens on such young and dynamic societies. Thus strategies and clear policies of intervention are required to combat the consequences of hepatitis B and C at both the regional and national levels.

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Pereira, Lenore. "Congenital Viral Infection: Traversing the Uterine-Placental Interface." Annual Review of Virology 5, no. 1 (September 29, 2018): 273–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-virology-092917-043236.

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Why certain viruses cross the physical barrier of the human placenta but others do not is incompletely understood. Over the past 20 years, we have gained deeper knowledge of intrauterine infection and routes of viral transmission. This review focuses on human viruses that replicate in the placenta, infect the fetus, and cause birth defects, including rubella virus, varicella-zoster virus, parvovirus B19, human cytomegalovirus (CMV), Zika virus (ZIKV), and hepatitis E virus type 1. Detailed discussions include ( a) the architecture of the uterine-placental interface, ( b) studies of placental explants ex vivo that provide insights into the infection and spread of CMV and ZIKV to the fetal compartment and how these viruses undermine early development, and ( c) novel treatments and vaccines that limit viral replication and have the potential to reduce dissemination, vertical transmission and the occurrence of congenital disease.

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Martinez, Miguel Angel, and Sandra Franco. "Therapy Implications of Hepatitis C Virus Genetic Diversity." Viruses 13, no. 1 (December 29, 2020): 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13010041.

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Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an important human pathogen with a high chronicity rate. An estimated 71 million people worldwide are living with chronic hepatitis C (CHC) infection, which carries the risk of progression to hepatic fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Similar to other RNA viruses, HCV has a high rate of genetic variability generated by its high mutation rate and the actions of evolutionary forces over time. There are two levels of HCV genetic variability: intra-host variability, characterized by the distribution of HCV mutant genomes present in an infected individual, and inter-host variability, represented by the globally circulating viruses that give rise to different HCV genotypes and subtypes. HCV genetic diversity has important implications for virus persistence, pathogenesis, immune responses, transmission, and the development of successful vaccines and antiviral strategies. Here we will discuss how HCV genetic heterogeneity impacts viral spread and therapeutic control.

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Holmberg, Scott D. "Molecular Epidemiology of Health Care–Associated Transmission of Hepatitis B and C Viruses." Clinics in Liver Disease 14, no. 1 (February 2010): 37–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cld.2009.11.008.

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Fabrizi, Fabrizio, and Paul Martin. "Health Care–Associated Transmission of Hepatitis B and C Viruses in Hemodialysis Units." Clinics in Liver Disease 14, no. 1 (February 2010): 49–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cld.2009.11.011.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Hepatitis viruses Transmission'

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