Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Heifer calves'

This study was to evaluate effects of milk replacer (MR) composition on: mass and composition of mammary parenchyma (PAR) and fat pad (MFP), growth hormone (GH)/insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) axis gene expression, and putative mammary epithelial stem cells. The hypothesis was that diet during the pre-weaning period alters the development, persistence, or activity of populations of putative mammary epithelial stem cells, possibly through involvement of GH/IGF-I axis molecules. Twenty-four newborn heifers were fed one of four MR diets: CON (20% CP, 21% fat MR fed at 441 g DM/d), HPLF (28% CP, 20% fat MR fed at 951 g DM/d), HPHF (27% CP, 28% fat MR fed at 951 g DM/d), and HPHF+ (27% CP, 28% fat MR fed at 1431 g DM/d). Animals were harvested on d 65 of life and mammary tissue was subjected to biochemical, molecular, and histological examination. By design, the effects of diet were evaluated at a common chronological age, but not necessarily at the same physiological age (body weight). Results from heifers reared on CON were compared to the average results from heifers reared on the other 3 diets. The second comparison evaluated the effect of increased fat in MR when protein content and intake were the same. The final comparison evaluated the effect of increased intake of a high-fat, high-protein MR. Neither diet composition nor nutrient intake in pre-weaned heifers affected PAR weight, PAR composition, GH/IGF-I axis gene expression, or putative mammary epithelial stem cell abundance when assessed at a common chronological age. Changes in MFP size and composition were observed, but no diet effect on GH/IGF-I axis gene expression in MFP was observed. This suggests nutrition is not critical for regulating the expression of local GH/IGF-I axis components or stem cell populations in the developing heifer mammary gland.
Ph. D.

With feed costs representing on average 65% of the total cost of production improvements in feed efficiency could have a major impact on the beef industry. Postweaning performance and feed efficiency data were collected on 114 heifers born on the University of Arizona's V bar V Ranch. Residual feed intake (RFI) was significantly correlated with dry matter intake (DMI) (r = 0.46) and G:F (r = -0.43), while G:F was moderately correlated with initial age (r = -0.54), initial body weight (r = -0.40), and average daily gain (ADG) (r = 0.68). Residual gain (RG) was moderately correlated with RFI (r = -0.41) and highly correlated with ADG (0.62) and G:F (0.73). In addition, RG was significantly correlated (r = -0.21) with initial weight suggesting that selection for RG could lead to increased cow mature size. Heifers were sorted into three breed categories: Hereford, Hereford cross, and Wagyu cross and breed effect on performance and feed efficiency traits were analyzed. Significant differences in DMI, FCR, and RG were noted, but likely due to significant differences in age at the time of testing. RFI was not significantly different between breed groups, suggesting that RFI is less influenced by animal age than other measures of feed efficiency. In addition, sires of study heifers with 5 or more progeny were selected and progeny performance and feed efficiency traits were compared between sires. No significant differences in ADG, RFI, FCR, or RG were noted between sire progeny. This was likely due to an insufficient number of progeny used in the trial. Further research and an increased number of animals used may uncover significant impacts of sire on RFI.

Current data indicates that feeding dairy calves more nutrients in early life allows them to produce more milk in the future. Mechanisms responsible are poorly understood. Thirty-six Holstein heifer calves were fed either a restricted (R; 20.2% crude protein [CP], 19.8% fat, dry matter (DM) basis, fed at 0.44 kg/hd/d, DM basis) or an enhanced (EH; 28.9% CP, 26.2% fat, DM basis, fed at 1.08 kg/hd/day, DM basis) milk replacer (MR) and given either a placebo or estradiol (E2) implant to assess differential responses to E2. Our underlying hypothesis was that calves fed more nutrients are better able to respond to mammogenic stimuli and will have a more developed mammary gland as a result of imposed treatments. Enhanced-fed calves grew at a faster rate, were heavier at weaning, and had more functional mammary tissue (i. e., parenchyma; PAR) mass in the mammary gland at weaning (7.3-fold). Additionally, biochemical composition of the PAR was not impacted by the dietary treatments imposed. Furthermore, EH-fed calves had an increase in the number of actively dividing cells throughout the mammary PAR as well as increased intensity of estrogen receptor expression in the population of cells expressing the estrogen receptor. Enhanced-fed calves had an up-regulation of genes and pathways in the PAR related to metabolism, cellular signaling, and cellular growth. When given E2, EH-fed calves experienced the greatest overall mammary gland development and had the greatest PAR mass without compromised composition. When comparing EH- and R-fed calves given E2, differential expression of genes and pathways related to cell growth, cell signaling, and metabolism was observed. In summary, data indicates that enhanced feeding of calves in early life allows increased responsiveness to mammogenic stimuli and a corresponding increase in mammary development. We suggest that this may at least partly explain the improved future milk production in calves fed in this manner.
Ph. D.

The objective was to examine the efficacy of saliva collection techniques and salivary cortisol assay to determine potential stress response in dairy heifers post challenge with adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) (Experiment 1), lactating cows without experimental stressors (Experiment 2), and gilt piglets versus boar piglets within two hours post castration stress (Experiment 3). Data were from the Holstein and Jersey dairy herd maintained by the Dairy Educational Unit at North Carolina State University and the crossbred swine herd maintained by the Swine Educational Unit also at North Carolina State University. In cattle (Experiments 1 & 2), saliva was collected using gauze squares secured by hemostats and introduced to each animalâs mouth until soaked. The same procedure was followed for the piglets (Experiment 3) with the addition of Sprite⢠to the gauze before introduction into the animalsâ mouth. Serum and saliva cortisol concentrations show a similar pattern after a stimulus to the adrenal gland with ACTH in Experiment 1. Salivary cortisol concentrations were lower than that found in serum and ranged from 27.40% to 59.94% of serum concentrations. In Experiment 2 the lack of an induced stress in lactating cows did not provide sufficient circulating cortisol for the sensitivity of the radioimmunoassay procedure utilized in this project. Data from these collections do illustrate the lack of a measureable stress response in animals from all three cow groups studied: Blood only, blood and saliva, or saliva only collection suggesting that neither sampling method elicits more stress response than the other. Sufficient saliva and circulating cortisol were obtained from the boar and gilt piglets in Experiment 3 to support our hypothesis that saliva is a viable tool for assessing stress in piglets. Mean concentrations for gilts were significantly lower than that of the castrated boars (1.36±0.301 versus 2.3074± 0.22 ng/mL).

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
A reprodução é o principal fator limitante na eficiência da produção de carne, e a baixa taxa de concepção observada no rebanho brasileiro reflete a baixa taxa de fertilidade das vacas e a idade tardia à puberdade das novilhas de substituição. A fim de fornecer mais informações sobre as estratégias nutricionais para o melhor desenvolvimento das novilhas Nelore e melhorar o desempenho das vacas, foram realizados três estudos e os resultados são apresentados em quatro artigos. No primeiro trabalho, foram utilizadas 80 vacas Nelore grávidas (6 meses de gestação) com idade inicial de seis anos e peso inicial médio e escore de condição corporal inicial de 515,5 ± 1,34 kg e 4,68 ± 0,15, respectivamente. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado, com quatro tratamentos e vinte repetições. As estratégias avaliadas foram suplementação com 1 kg/vaca/dia de suplementação somente no pré-parto, somente no pós-parto, no pré e pós-parto, e somente mistura mineral ad libitum durante o pré e pós-parto. Observou-se o efeito da suplementação sobre o peso corporal (PC) das vacas no parto e sobre o peso dos bezerros ao nascimento (P <0,05). Houve também efeito da suplementação no pré e pós-parto (P <0,05) no PC final, ganho médio diário e escore de condição corporal final dos animais. Houve uma tendência, com a suplementação no pós-parto, de maior produção de leite das vacas (P = 0,065) e, para os seus componentes, houve efeito de suplementação no pós-parto apenas para proteína do leite (PL) (P = 0,003). Houve um efeito da suplementação no pós-parto sobre nitrogênio ureico sérico, glicose, ácidos graxos não esterificados, β-hidroxibutirato e progesterona (P <0,05). Todos os metabólitos foram influenciados (P <0,05) no dia pós-parto. As vacas suplementadas no pós-parto apresentaram maior taxa de concepção do que a observada em animais não suplementados (P = 0,005). A suplementação com 1 kg/dia de suplementação com 28,6% de PC no pré-parto melhorou algumas das características produtivas, no entanto, a suplementação no pós-parto permite efeitos mais expressivos sobre a eficiência produtiva, metabólica e reprodutiva das vacas. Portanto, a suplementação no pós-parto é recomendada quando os animais têm escore de condição corporal vi (ECC) adequada ao parto. As bezerras das vacas do primeiro experimento foram utilizadas no segundo trabalho para avaliar estratégias de suplementação no sistema creep-feeding. Utilizaram-se quarenta e quatro bezerras Nelore, com idade e peso médio inicial, de quatro meses e 147,6 ± 1,34 kg, respectivamente. Um único suplemento com aproximadamente 20% de proteína foi fornecido em quantidades diferentes dependendo do peso corporal (PC). Os tratamentos consistiram no suprimento de 0,0%, 0,2%, 0,4% ou 0,6% do PC deste suplemento. Observou-se aumento do efeito linear (P <0,05) do peso corporal final e ganho médio diário de novilhas com aumento da suplementação. A suplementação múltipla aumentou o consumo, em kg/dia, de matéria seca (MS), matéria orgânica (MO), proteína bruta (PB), matéria seca digerida (MSD) e nutrientes digestíveis totais (NDT). Não houve efeito da suplementação (P> 0,05) nas concentrações de AGNE. Houve um efeito linear crescente (P <0,05) de suplementação sobre as concentrações de insulina. Conclui-se que a suplementação melhora o desempenho, as características nutricionais e metabólicas dos animais, sendo o suprimento de 0,6% do PC de suplemento com 20% de PB o tratamento mais efetivo. As mesmas novilhas foram utilizadas no terceiro experimento após o desmame para avaliar os efeitos da suplementação estratégica de novilhas Nelore após o desmame à concepção. As estratégias avaliadas foram: BAAL - suplementação com 0,2% de PC/animal/dia de suplementação nos primeiros 90 dias e suplementação com 0,6% de PC/animal/dia nos 90 dias subseqüentes; MEME - suplementação com 0,4% de PC/animal/dia durante 180 dias; ALBA - suplementação com 0,6% de PC/animal/dia de suplementação nos primeiros 90 dias e suplementação com 0,2% de PC/animal/dia nos 90 dias seguintes; e MM - apenas mistura mineral ad libitum durante os 180 dias. Observou-se que a suplementação melhorou o desempenho dos animais durante os primeiros 90 dias de experimento, o que pode ser verificado pelo ganho médio diário (GMD) das fêmeas (P = 0,001). O mesmo fato foi observado na fase de transição seca/água, onde a suplementação melhorou o peso corporal final (PCf) (P = 0,002) e GMD (P = 0,001). Verificou-se também que a suplementação múltipla aumentou o consumo de matéria seca (MS), matéria orgânica (MO), proteína bruta (PB), matéria seca digestível (MSD) e nutrientes digestíveis totais (NDT) durante todo o experimento e fibra em detergente neutro digestível(FDNd) e fibra em detergente neutro corrigida para cinzas e proteínas (FDNcp) apenas na transição seca/água. A suplementação aumentou o coeficiente de digestibilidade aparente de MS, MO, PB, vii FDNcp e NDT (P <0,05), ou seja, de todos os parâmetros analisados. Os níveis de nitrogênio ureico sérico (NUS), glicose (GLIC), insulina (INS) e progesterona (PROG) foram maiores em novilhas suplementadas do que em novilhas não suplementadas (P < 0,05). Por outro lado, a suplementação reduziu as concentrações de ácidos graxos não-esterificados (AGNE) (P = 0,001). Finalmente, foi obsevado que a taxa de concepção foi maior em novilhas suplementadas (P = 0,002). Concluiu- se que os melhores níveis de NUS, INS, GLIC, AGNE e PROG das novilhas suplementadas associadas ao maior PCf, digestibilidade e consumo dos componentes da dieta proporcionaram melhor desempenho reprodutivo para as novilhas suplementadas, independentemente da suplementação.
Reproduction is the main limiting factor in meat production efficiency and the low offtake rate observed in the Brazilian herd reflects the low fertility rate of cows and the late age at puberty of replacement heifers. In order to provide more information about nutritional strategies to better develop Nellore heifers and to improve dams’ performance, three studies were conducted and the results are here presented in four papers. In the first paper, were used 80 pregnant Nellore cows (6 months gestation) with initial age of six years and mean initial weight and initial body condition score of 515.5 ± 1.34 kg and 4.68 ± 0.15, respectively.The experimental design was completely randomized, with four treatments and twenty repetitions. The strategies evaluated were supplementation with 1 kg/cow/day of supplementation only in the pre-partum, only in the postpartum, in the pre and postpartum, and only ad libitum mineral mixture during the pre and postpartum.The effect of supplementation on the body weight (BW) of cows at calving and calf weight at birth (P <0.05) was observed. There was also effect of pre and postpartum supplementation (P <0.05) on the final BW, mean daily gain and final body condition score of the animals. There was a trend of postpartum supplementation on milk production from the matrices (P = 0.065) and, for its components, there was post-partum supplementation effect only on milk protein (MP) (P = 0.003). There was an effect of postpartum supplementation on serum urea nitrogen, glucose, non-esterified fatty acids, β- hydroxybutyrate and progesterone (P < 0.05). All metabolites were influenced (P < 0.05) by the postpartum day. Cows supplemented postpartum had a higher conception rate than that observed in non-supplemented animals (P = 0,005). Supplementation with 1 kg/day supplementation with 28.6% of CP in pre-partum improved some of the productive characteristics, however, postpartum supplementation allows more expressive effects on the productive, metabolic and reproductive efficiency of cows. Therefore, postpartum supplementation is recommended when the animals have adequate body condition score (BCS) at calving. The heifer calves of cows used in the first experiment were used in the iii second paper to evaluate supplementary strategies in the creep feeding system. Were used fourty-four Nellore heifer calves, with age and initial mean weight, of four months and 147.6 ± 1.34 kg, respectively.A single supplement with approximately 20% of protein was provided in different amounts depending on body weight (BW). Treatments consisted in the supply of 0.0%, 0.2%, 0.4% or 0.6% of BW from this supplement.Increasing linear effect (P < 0.05) of final body weight and average daily gain of heifer calves were observed with increased supplementation. Multiple supplementation increased consumption, in kg/day, of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), digested dry matter (dDM) and total digestible nutrients (TDN).There was no effect of supplementation (P > 0.05) on NEFA concentrations. There was an increasing linear effect (P < 0.05) of supplementation on insulin concentrations. It is concluded that supplementation improves the performance, nutritional and metabolic characteristics of the animals, being the supply of 0.6% of BW of supplement with 20% of CP the most effective treatment.The same heifers were used in the third experiment after weaning to evaluate the effects of strategic supplementation for Nellore heifers after weaning to conception. The evaluated strategies were: BAAL- supplementation with 0.2% of BW/animal/day of supplement in the first 90 days and supplementation with 0.6% of BW/animal/day in the subsequent 90 days; MEME - supplementation with 0.4% of BW/animal/day for 180 days; ALBA - supplementation with 0.6% of BW/animal/day of supplement in the first 90 days and supplementation with 0.2% of BW/animal/day in the subsequent 90 days; and MM - only mineral mix ad libitum during the 180 days.It was observed that supplementation improved the performance of the animals during the first 90 days of experiment, and this fact can be verified by the heifers' average daily gain (ADG) (P = 0.001).The same fact was observed in the dry/water transition phase, where supplementation improved final body weight (fBW) (P = 0.002) and ADG (P = 0.001).It was also verified that multiple supplementation increased dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), digestible dry matter (dDM) and total digestible nutrients (TDN) during the whole experiment, and digested neutral detergent fiber (dNDF), and neutral detergent fiber corrected for ash and protein (apNDF) only in the dry/water transition.Supplementation increased the total apparent digestibility coefficient of DM, OM, CP, apNDF and TDN (P <0.05), that is, of all analyzed parameters. Serum urea nitrogen (SUN), glucose (GLUC), insulin (INS) and progesterone (PROG) iv levels were higher in supplemented heifers than in non-supplemented heifers (P <0.05). On the other hand, supplementation reduced the concentrations of non- esterified fatty acids (NEFA) (P = 0.001). Finally, it was found that the conception rate was higher for supplemented heifers (P = 0.020). It was concluded that the best levels of SUN, INS, GLUC, NEFA and PROG of the supplemented heifers associated to the higher fBW, digestibility and consumption of the diet components provided better reproductive performance independently of the supplementation.

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológic
Este trabalho foi desenvolvido a partir de três estudos. Assim, o objetivo do primeiro estudo foi identificar variáveis que afetam o consumo de concentrado (CC), e desenvolver equações para predizer o CC de bezerros leiteiros até os 64 dias de vida. O banco de dados foi composto pelos dados individuais de 189 bezerros de 8 experimentos, totalizando 6.426 observações diárias de consumo. A informação coletada dos estudos foram: peso corporal ao nascimento (PCi; kg), CC (kg/dia), consumo de leite ou sucedâneo (CL; L/dia), sexo (macho ou fêmea), raça (Holandês ou mestiço Holandês×Gir) e idade (dias). A correlação entre o CC e as variáveis quantitativas CL, PCi, PCi metabólico (PCi0,75) e idade foi estabelecida. Posteriormente, foi realizada uma avaliação gráfica do comportamento padrão dos dados; e um modelo exponencial foi escolhido. Os dados foram avaliados usando a técnica de meta-análise para estimar os efeitos fixos e os efeitos aleatórios associados aos experimentos através de modelos mistos não-lineares. A técnica de validação cruzada foi utilizada para estimar a acurácia e precisão das equações desenvolvidas, com base no quadrado médio do erro de predição (QMEP), coeficiente de correlação de concordância, que foi decomposto em acurácia (Cb) e precisão (ρ). De forma adicional, uma análise tipo “bootstrap” foi utilizada para estimar o viés associado a cada parâmetro das equações desenvolvidas. Uma correlação negativa entre CC e CL foi observada (r= -0,388), no entanto, idade apresentou uma correlação positiva com CC (r= 0.66). Não foi observado efeito do tipo de alimento líquido utilizado (leite ou sucedâneo) no desenvolvimento da equação. No entanto, foram ajustadas 2 equações, significantemente diferente para todos os parâmetros, para predizer o CC para bezerros consumindo menos que 5 (CC<5) ou mais que 5 (CC>5) litros/dia de leite ou sucedâneo: CC<5 = 0,1839±0,0581 × CL × exp((-0,0040±0,0011 × CL + 0,0333 ±0,0021 ) × (I- (6,0332 ±0,3583 × CL + 0,8302± (0,12 × CL); CC>5 = 0,1225±0,0005 × CL × exp((-0,0015±0,0001 × CL + 0,0217±0,0006) ×))) 0,5092 - (I- (1,9508 × CL + 3,5382± )))1,3140 ±0,1710 - (0,12 × CL); onde CC<5 e CC>5 = consumo predito de concentrado para bezerros que consomen menos de 5 ou mais de 5 litros/dia de leite ou sucedâneo, respectivamente (kg/dia); CL = consumo de leite ou sucedâneo (L/dia) e I = idade (dias). Estas equações apresentaram alta acurácia (Cb de 0,97 e 0,95 para CC<5 e CC>5, respectivamente) e o erro aleatório do QMEP foi de 99,8 e 99,9% para CC<5 e CC>5, respectivamente. A análise “bootstrap” indicou um baixo viés para todos os parâmetros estimados em ambas as equações. A precisão das equações foi moderada, com valores de r2 de 0,61 e 0,52 e valores de ρ de 0,78 e 0,72 para CC<5 e CC>5, respectivamente. Conclui-se que a utilização de leite ou sucedâneo como alimento líquido não afeta o CC, ou o desenvolvimento do CC ao longo do tempo, o qual aumenta exponencialmente de acordo com a idade do bezerro. O CC foi negativamente afetado pelo CL e, por esta razão, diferentes equações são necessárias para estimar o CC de acordo com o CL. O segundo estudo objetivou avaliar a influência de diferentes níveis de proteína não-degradável no rúmen (PNDR) sobre o consumo, desempenho, características de carcaça, balaço de N, desenvolvimento da glândula mamária e o status hormonal de novilhas Holandesas em diferentes estágios fisiológicos (EF). Foram utilizadas 16 novilhas pré-puberes (PRE), com peso corporal inicial de 106±7,6 kg e 4±0,46 meses de idade, bem como 16 novilhas púberes (PUB), com peso corporal inicial de 224±7,9 kg e 12±0,45 meses de idade. O experimento teve uma duração de 84 dias e foi conduzido segundo um delineamento inteiramente casualizado, segundo um esquema fatorial 4×2, com 4 níveis de PNDR na proteína total da dieta ((38, 44, 51 e 57%) e animais em duas idades diferentes (pré-puberes e púberes). Entre os dias 36 e 40 e os dias 78 e 82 os animais foram submetidos à ensaios de digestibilidade com coleta de alimentos, sobras e coletas “spot” de fezes e urina. No dia 0 (imediatamente antes do início do experimento) e dia 83 foram tomadas imagens de ultrassom na área lombar dos animais. Nos dias 0, 21, 42, 63 e 84 foram tomadas imagens de ultrassom da glândula mamaria. E, por fim, nos dias 0 e 84 foram tomadas amostras de sangue para estimar as concentrações séricas de progesterona, estrógeno, IGF-I e insulina. O EF afetou a digestibilidade aparente da MS, e novilhas PRE apresentaram menores valores. Novilhas PRE também apresentaram consumo preferencial por fibra em detergente neutro corrigida para cinzas e proteína (FDNcp) e atividade de seleção contra a proteína bruta (PB) maior que novilhas PUB. O ganho médio diário (GMD) e a retenção de N foram afetados pelo EF, e novilhas PRE apresentaram um GMD de 505 g/dia, enquanto novilhas PUB apresentaram um valor médio de 905 g/dia. Adicionalmente, estas variáveis foram afetadas pelo nível de PNDR, e maiores valores foram obtidos para o tratamento com 51% de PNDR. A análise de pixels na glândula mamária apontou efeito do EF, e novilhas PRE apresentaram maiores valores de pixel. As mensurações iniciais de progesterona sérica demonstraram que as novilhas PRE e PUB mantiveram seu EF durante o experimento. A concentração de IGF-I foi afetada somente pelo EF, e novilhas PUB apresentaram maiores valores. A concentração de insulina não foi afetada pelo EF, mas apresentou uma tendência de ser maior para os tratamentos com 51% de PNDR. Conclui-se que o nível dietético de 51% de PNDR é responsável por aumentar o desempenho de novilhas PRE e PUB. Adicionalmente, novilhas PRE tem menor habilidade de seleção, o que afeta, negativamente, a sua digestibilidade e desempenho. Finalmente, estes animais são mais propensos a ter uma maior proporção de gordura na glândula mamaria, mesmo sob moderadas taxas de crescimento. O terceiro estudo foi conduzido com o objetivo de avaliar de níveis crescentes de PNDR sobre o consumo, as digestibilidade parciais e total, a cinética e as características ruminais, bem como a utilização do N de novilhas leiteiras holandesas. Foram utilizadas 8 novilhas holandesas fistuladas no rúmen, com peso corporal inicial de 276±8,3, em delineamento em quadrado latino 4×4 duplo, com quatro níveis de PNDR na proteína dietética, como segue: 38% de PNDR (38PNDR); 44% de PNDR (44PNDR); 51% de PNDR (51PNDR) e 57% de PNDR (57PNDR). O experimento teve duração de 84 dias, subdivididos em 4 períodos experimentais de 21 dias (14 dias de adaptação + 7 dias de coletas). Foram realizadas 8 coletas “spot” de fezes, urina, conteúdo ruminal e digesta omasal, com intervalo de 8 horas entre cada coleta, como segue: no 15o dia as amostras foram coletadas as 0600h e 1500h; no 16o dia as amostras foram coletadas as 0000h, 0900h e 1800h; e no 17o dia as amostras foram coletadas as 0300h, 1200h e 2100h. No 19o dia foi realizado esvaziamento completo do rúmen 4 horas após a alimentação matutina e no 21o dia o esvaziamento foi realizado imediatamente antes da alimentação matutina. O consumo diário de MS, matéria orgânica (MO), PB, FDNcp e FDNcp potencialmente digestível (pdFDNcp) não foi afetado pelos níveis de PNDR. Adicionalmente, o consumo relativo (g/kg de peso corporal) de MS, PB e FDNcp, assim como o fluxo ruminal de MS, MO, PB, FDNcp pdFDNcp não foram afetados pelos níveis de PNDR. A digestibilidade total da MS, MO, PB, FDNcp e pdFDNcp, bem como as digestibilidade ruminal e intestinal da MS, MO, FDNcp e pdFDNcp não foram afetados pelos níveis de PNDR. No entanto, as digestibilidade ruminal e intestinal da PB apresentaram uma tendência de decréscimo de acordo com o aumento nos níveis de PNDR. Não foram observados efeitos dos níveis de PNDR sobre as taxas de ingestão, passagem e digestão, assim como sobre a concentração de ácidos graxos voláteis. O tratamento 38PNDR apresentou maior concentração de nitrogênio amoniacal ruminal em relação aos outros tratamentos. A excreção de nitrogênio urinário apresentou tendência de queda de acordo com o aumento nos níveis de PNDR. Adicionalmente, o nitrogênio retido apresentou tendência de aumento de acordo com o aumento nos níveis de PNDR e foi maior para os tratamentos 51PNDR e 57PNDR. A síntese de proteína bruta microbiana, a eficiência de síntese de proteína microbiana (PBmic) e a eficiência de uso do nitrogênio para síntese de proteína microbiana diminuíram de acordo com o aumento nos níveis de PNDR na dieta. O fluxo de PNDR aumentou, enquanto a quantidade de proteína degradável no rúmen decresceu de acordo com o aumento nos níveis de PNDR. Adicionalmente, o fluxo de proteína metabolizável apresentou tendência de aumento de acordo com o aumento nos níveis de PNDR e maiores valores foram observados para os tratamentos 51PNDR e 57PNDR. Conclui-se que a digestibilidade intestinal da PB é negativamente afetada pelos níveis de PNDR, o que é proporcionado pela redução no fluxo de PBmic, sendo que esta, provavelmente, digestibilidade intestinal da proteína maior que os alimentos. A excreção urinária de N diminui à medida que a PNDR dietética aumenta, o que é proporcionado pela queda nas perdas ruminais de nitrogênio na forma de amônia e pelo aumento na reciclagem de nitrogênio para o rúmen. A redução na excreção urinaria de nitrogênio, aliada ao aumento no fluxo de proteína metabolizável, o qual foi promovida pelo aumento no fluxo de PNDR ao intestino delgado, são determinantes para promover aumentos na retenção de nitrogênio, o que ocorreu nos tratamentos 51PNDR e 57PNDR.
This work was developed from three studies. Therefore, the objective of the first study was to identify variables that influence starter feed intake (SFI), and to develop equations to predict SFI in milk-fed dairy calves up to 64 days of age. The database was composed of individual data of 189 calves from 8 experiments, totaling 6,426 daily observations of intake. The information collected from the studies were: birth body weight (birth BW; kg), SFI (kg/day), fluid milk or milk replacer intake (MI; L/day), sex (male or female), breed (Holstein or Holstein×Gyr crossbred), and age (days). A correlation between SFI and the quantitative variables MI, birth BW, metabolic birth BW (birth BW 0.75), and age was established. Subsequently, data were graphed and based on a visual appraisal of the pattern of the data; an exponential function was chosen. The data were evaluated using a meta-analysis approach to estimate fixed and random effects of the experiments using nonlinear mixed coefficients statistical models. Cross-validation was used to estimate the accuracy and precision of the developed equations using the mean square error of prediction (MSEP), concordance correlation coefficient, which was decomposed into accuracy (Cb) and precision (ρ) parameters, and the coefficient of determination (r 2) as a proxy for precision. In addition, a bootstrap analysis was used to estimate the bias associated with each parameter of the developed equation structure. A negative correlation between SFI and MI was observed (r = –0.388), but age had a positive correlation with SFI (r =0.66). No effect of liquid feed source (milk or milk replacer) was observed in developing the equation. However, 2 equations, significantly different for all parameters, were fit to predict SFI for calves that consume less than 5 (SFI<5) or more than 5 (SFI>5) L/day of milk or milk replacer: SFI<5 = 0.1839±0.0581 ×MI×exp((-0.0040±0.0011× MI + 0.0333 ±0.0021) × (A- (6.0332 × MI + 0.8302±)))±0.35830.5092 - (0.12 × MI); CC>5 = 0.1225±0.0005 × MI × exp((-0.0015±0.0001 × MI + 0.0217±0.0006) × (A- (1.9508±0.1710 × MI + 3.5382±1.3140))) - (0.12 × MI); whereSFI<5 and SFI>5 = starter feed intake prediction for calves that consume less than 5 and more than 5 L/day of milk or milk replacer, respectively (kg/d); MI = milk or milk replacer intake (L/d) and A = age (days). These equations had high accuracy (Cb of 0.97 and 0.95, respectively) and the random errors of MSEP were 99.8 and 99.9% for SFI<5 and SFI>5 equations, respectively. Small biases were observed with the bootstrap analyses for all estimated parameters. The equations’ precision was moderate, with r 2 values of 0.61 and 0.52 and ρ values of 0.78 and 0.72 for SFI<5 and SFI>5, respectively. In conclusion, the use of milk or milk replacer as liquid feed did not affect SFI, or development of SFI over time, which increased exponentially with calf age. Starter feed intake was negatively affected by MI and, and for this reason, different equations are necessary to predict calf SFI according to MI. The second study aimed to evaluate the influence of different levels of rumen undegradable protein (RUP) on intake, performance, carcass characteristics, N balance, mammary gland development and hormonal status of Holstein heifers at different physiological stage (PS). Sixteen prepubertal (PRE) heifers with 106±7.6 kg of initial body weight and aged 4±0.46 months old, as well as, 16 pubertal (PUB) heifers with 224±7.9 kg of initial body weight and aged 12±0.45 months old were used. The experiment was carried out during 84 days following a complete randomized design, in a 4×2 factorial arrangement, with four levels of RUP in dietary protein (38, 44, 51, and 57%), and animals at two PS (prepubertal or pubertal). Between days 36 and 40 and between days 78 and 82 the animals were subjected to digestibility trials with collections of feeds, orts and spot collections of feces and urine. At days 0 (immediately before the beginning of the experiment) and 83 body ultrasound images were taken at the rib area. At days 0, 21, 42, 63 and 84 images of the mammary gland were taken via ultrasound. Finally, at days 0 and 84 blood samples were taken to estimate serum concentration of progesterone, estrogen, IGF-I and insulin. The PS affected the apparent digestibility of DM, and PRE heifers presented lower values. The PRE heifers also presented a preferential consumption for neutral detergent fiber corrected for ash and protein (NDFap) and sorting activity against CP greater than PUB heifers. The average daily gain (ADG) and N retention were affected by PS, and PRE heifers presented an ADG of 505 g/d, while PUB heifers presented an average value of 905 g/d. In addition, these variables were affected by RUP levels, where greater values were obtained for treatments with 51% of RUP. The analysis of pixels in mammary gland images pointed effects of PS, and PRE heifers presented greater pixels values. The initial and final measurements of serum progesterone demonstrated that PRE and PUB heifers kept their PS during the experiment. The IGF-I concentration was only affected by PS, and PUB heifers presented greater values. In addition, insulin was not affected by PS, but presented a tendency to be greater at treatments with 51% of RUP. In conclusion, the dietary level of 51% of RUP is responsible to increase the performance of PRE and PUB Holstein heifers. In addition, PRE heifers have lower sorting ability, what affected, negatively, their digestibility and performance. Finally, these animals are more likely to have greater fat proportion in the mammary gland, even under moderate rates of growth. The third study aimed to evaluate the influence of increasing levels of RUP on intake, total and partial digestibilities, rumen kinetics and characteristics, as well the N use of dairy Holstein heifers. Eight rumen-cannulated Holstein heifers, with an average initial body weight of 276±8.3 were used in a double 4×4 Latin Square design with four levels of RUP in the total dietary protein, as follows: 38% of RUP (38RUP); 44% of RUP (44RUP); 51% of RUP (51RUP) and 57% of RUP (57RUP). The experiment was carried out during 84 days subdivided into 4 experimental periods of 21 d (14 d for adaptation + 7 d for collections). Eight spot collections of feces, urine, ruminal content and omasal digesta were performed with 9 hours interval between each collection, as follows: on 15th d samples were collected at 0600 h and 1500 h; on 16th day samples were collected at 0000 h, 0900 h and 1800 h; on 17th d samples were collected at 0300 h, 1200 h and 2100 h. On 19th d a complete rumen evacuation was performed, 4 hours after the morning feeding and on 21st d immediately before morning feeding. Daily intake of DM, organic matter (OM), CP, NDFap and potential digestible NDFap (pdNDFap) were not affected by RUP levels. In addition, the relative intake (g/kg of body weight) of DM, CP and NDFap, as well as the ruminal outflow of DM, OM, CP, NDFap and pdNDFap were not affected by RUP levels. Total digestibility of DM, OM, CP, NDFap and pdNDFap, as well as ruminal and intestinal digestibilities of DM, OM, NDFap and pdNDFap were not affected by RUP levels. However, ruminal and intestinal digestibilities of CP presented a tendency to decrease according to RUP supply increase. Effects of RUP levels were not observed on the ingestion, passage and digestion rates, as well on the total volatile fatty acid concentration. Treatment 38RUP presented greater concentration of rumen ammonia nitrogen in relation to the other treatments. The urinary N excretion presented a tendency to decrease according to RUP supply increase. In addition, retained N presented a tendency to increase according to RUP levels and greater values were observed for treatments 51RUP and 57RUP. Microbial crude protein (CPmic) synthesis, microbial efficiency and the efficiency of use of N for microbial synthesis, decrease as the supplied RUP increases. Flow of RUP increased, while the amounts of rumen degradable protein decrease according to RUP supply increase. In addition, the flow of metabolizable protein presented a tendency to increase and greater values were observed for treatments 51RUP and 57RUP. In conclusion, the intestinal digestibility of CP is negatively affected by RUPvlevels, what is due to the reduction in the CPmic flow, which, probably, has greater intestinal digestibility than protein of feedstuffs. The urinary N excretion decrease according to RUP supply increase, what is due to the decrease in ruminal N losses as ammonia and the increase in N recycling. The reduction in the urinary N excretion allied to increases in the flow of metabolizable protein, which are promoted by increases in the flow of RUP to the small intestine, are determinant to promote increases in the retained N, which occurred for treatments 51RUP and 57RUP.

Genetic improvement in cattle has focused in recent years on the large reproductive potential that resides in the ovaries of females at an early age. It is estimated that approximately 150,000 oocytes are present in primordial follicles in foetal ovaries at birth, and recruitment of follicles from the primordial pool has been initiated by the time of birth. Further, follicular growth can be superstimulated in heifer calves from around 4 weeks of age by treatment with gonadotrophins, and oocytes recovered and placed through in vitro maturation and fertilisation procedures to produce viable embryos.

The capacity to use embryos derived from heifer calves has the potential to reduce generation intervals and increase the rates of genetic gain in cattle. Studies on embryo production from heifer calves have reported inconsistent and unpredictable responses to superstimulation of follicle growth with FSH, similar to that observed in sexually mature heifers. Heifer calves that had a relatively large (>10mm) follicle on the ovary at the end of superstimulation, had a smaller number of total follicles compared with heifer calves that did not have a large follicle on the surface of the ovary. This observation led to the suggestion that follicular interrelationships may occur from an early age in heifers, and that a large follicle may suppress the development of other follicles. Nutrition appears to influence ovarian follicle status in peri-pubertal and pubertal heifers and possibly the response to superstimulation of follicular growth in older animals. There may be a role, therefore, for nutrition in ovarian follicle growth and responses to superstimulation in heifer calves.

In a number of studies oocytes obtained from heifer calves were reported to have a reduced developmental competency in vitro compared with oocytes obtained from ovaries of post-pubertal heifers.

In cattle, treatment with agonists of gonadotrophin hormone releasing hormone (GnRH) desensitises the anterior pituitary gland to GnRH which blocks pulsatile secretion of LH but allows continued basal LH secretion. Antagonists of GnRH prevent both pulsatile and basal secretion of LH. It is possible that treatment with GnRH agonists and antagonists might be used to regulate gonadotrophin secretion in heifer calves and prevent the development of large (functionally dominant) follicles. Subsequent initiation of superstimulation when a pool of small gonadotrophinresponsive follicles are present on the ovaries, and maturing these follicles in synchrony in vivo, may allow a pool of oocytes at similar stages of maturation to be collected for in vitro procedures.

The first two experiments in this thesis examined the requirement of LH for oocyte maturation by treating calves with gonadotrophin hormone releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist and antagonist before and during superstimulation with FSH. Simultaneous treatment with a GnRH agonist during superstimulation of ovarian follicle growth with FSH tended to increase the number of follicles stimulated to grow and significantly increased the number of Grade A and Grade B oocytes collected. In a second experiment, treatment with a GnRH antagonist tended to increase blastocyst development rate after in vitro fertilisation. It was concluded from these findings that exposure of oocytes to pulsatile secretion of LH, and/or a 'pre-ovulatory like' surge release of LH, is not an obligatory requirement for oocyte growth and development in heifer calves.

A third experiment examined the effects of nutrition and growth rate on maturation of the reproductive endocrine axis and the response of calves to superstimulation of ovarian follicle growth with FSH. Heifer calves were raised on two planes of nutrition (relatively low and high) and subsequently superstimulated with FSH. The nutritional treatments resulted in a significant difference in growth rate between the two groups of heifers. However, there were no apparent differences in ovarian follicular responses to stimulation with FSH, oocytes recovered, or in vitro developmental competency of oocytes, between the two groups of heifers.

In the fourth experiment, in vitro developmental competency was compared between oocytes obtained from heifer calves superstimulated with FSH, heifer calves that had not undergone superstimulation and post-pubertal heifers and cows that had not been stimulated with FSH. There were no differences in developmental competency between Grade A and Grade B oocytes derived from the three groups of animals. This finding demonstrated that oocytes obtained from pre -pubertal heifers do not have an intrinsic reduced capacity for in vitro development compared with oocytes obtained from post -pubertal heifers.

The ultimate test of viability of embryos derived from heifer calves is the transfer to recipients and the birth of calves. The aim of the fifth experiment therefore was to test the viability of embryos derived from 10 week-old heifer calves in which ovarian follicular growth was superstimulated with FSH. Transfer of blastocysts produced from oocytes obtained from heifer calves to recipient sexually mature heifers resulted in the birth of normal calves.

In summary, the competency of oocytes collected from heifer calves from an early age has been well established in the series of experiments undertaken in this thesis. The use of superstimulation protocols with heifer calves pre-treated with a GnRH agonist or antagonists increased the number of Grade A and Grade B oocytes, and tended to increase the development to blastocyst post-fertilisation. Grade A and Grade B oocytes collected from heifer calves form blastocysts at rates comparable to oocytes collected from mature cows, and establish pregnancies which result in the birth of calves.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of M. elsdenii (Me) dosing on dairy heifer performance. A secondary set of data (feed intake, heifers birth weights, age and Weight at insemination, and first lactation milk performance) of heifers (dosed and not dosed with Me) was obtained from the dairy herd of the Agricultural Research Council – Animal Production. Data were arranged in a complete randomised design and analysed as repeated measures. Milk, pre-weaning starter and metabolised energy intake did not differ between the control and the Me groups. Post-weaning starter feed intake was higher (p=0.03) for Me fed heifers than control heifers. The post-weaning metabolisable energy intake was also higher (p=0.03) for heifer fed Me than control heifers. The average daily weight gain of heifers dosed with Me was higher during the pre-weaning period (0.66 kg/day; p=0.04) and after weaning (1.12 kg/day; p=0.03) compared to control (0.60 and 0.65 kg/day, respectively). At 42 and 70 days old, the BW of Me-heifers was greater (75.8 ± 2.6 and 91.2 ± 4.6 kg) than control heifers (61.9 ± 2.6 and 77.2 ± 4.6 kg) (p<0.05). There was no difference (P>0.05) in BW at insemination, number of insemination and milk yield between the two groups of cows (p>0.05). Early feeding of Me to heifers in the present study positively affect heifer growth during and early after milk feeding period, confirming previous report. Animal weight at puberty and the subsequent milk production were not influenced by feeding Me. It is possible that Me did not survive long after weaning to continue to express its influence on animal performance.
Agriculture and  Animal Health
M. Sc. (Agriculture)

Master of Science
Department of Animal Sciences and Industry
Karol Fike
The United States beef cattle industry is continuously evolving and changing to meet buyer demands while considering environment factors for production. Cow-calf producers make decisions within their herds that impact their profitability. Previous research shows producers can add value to beef calves through management and marketing decisions in areas such as genetics, herd health, and nutrition. It is well documented that there are numerous factors that influence the sale price of beef calves, no matter the venue through which they are sold. Historically, steer calves sold for a greater price compared to heifer calves. Apparent breed composition also influences value of lots of beef calves. Black-hided calves recently sold for a greater sale price than calves of other hide colors due to perceived differences in potential performance. Calves with Bos indicus influence usually sell for a lower price than other breed types. Marketing of beef calves through video auction allows sellers to market lots of calves to a buyer basis nationwide. A national market provides a basis for buyer preferences and potential national trends for changes in characteristics valued by buyers. Evaluation of national breed composition trends can indicate potential changes in the industry. The opportunity to evaluate if and how breed description as described by producers influenced calf sale price from 1995 through 2016 was available through a livestock video auction service. Chapter 1 is a review of the literature and an overview of the beef industry and factors affecting sale price of lots of beef calves. Chapter 2 is an analysis of breed composition influencing sale price for lots of steer calves and lots of heifer calves. Chapter 3 investigates national and regional breed description and sire breed trends over a 23-year period.

The objectives of this thesis were to investigate 1) the use of behavior and activity monitoring for the identification of heifers at risk of disease, 2) the use of group level management practices to reduce the risk of disease, and 3) the identification of long-term impacts of bovine respiratory disease complex (BRD). For objective 1, lying posture, a decreased willingness to approach an observer and high lethargy scores were associated with diarrhea in calves under 2 weeks of age and a high lethargy score in 4-6 week old calves was associated with decreased average daily gain (ADG) in the first 8 weeks of life (n = 744). In weaned calves (n = 74) increased activity (increase in steps and decrease in lying), standing at the bunk not eating, and lying far from other calves in the first 3 days post-weaning were associated with decreased post-weaning weight gain. For objective 2, separating social mixing from movement to a novel environment, and administering prophylactic antibiotics to calves at high risk of disease, were investigated. Both mixing and movement to a novel environment increased activity levels in newly weaned dairy calves (n = 64). When calves were mixed prior to movement to a novel environment they had a smaller increase in activity compared to calves that were simultaneously mixed and moved. No differences in weight gain or calf starter intake were observed. Administration of a prophylactic antibiotic, tulathromycin, to 3 day old calves upon arrival at a heifer raising facility (n = 788) and 8 week old calves at first movement to group housing (n = 1,392 ) was found to reduce diarrhea and otitis media, and BRD, respectively. Objective 3 was addressed by monitoring calves that received tulathromycin at 8 weeks of age to determine the long-term impacts of BRD. Bovine Respiratory Disease complex was associated with decreased growth to 9 months of age, decreased survival to first calving, increased risk of dystocia and a greater age at first calving.
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada & Pfizer Animal Health

Thesis (MSc. Agriculture (Animal Production)) -- University of Limpopo, 2015
A series of experiments were carried out to investigate the effect of replacing calf starter feed with lucerne leaf-meal (LLM) on diet intake, rumen degradation and growth of Holstein heifer calves. The treatments were calf starter pellets (PEL), a mixture of 65% calf starter concentrate pellets and 35% LLM (P65L35), and a mixture of 50% calf starter concentrate pellets and 50% LLM (P50L50). The first part of the study determined nutrient composition of lucerne leaf-meal (LLM), calf starter pellets and lucerne leaf-meal substituted diets. The experimental design was a completely randomised design (CRD). Lucerne leaf-meal had high protein (25% DM) and gross energy (GE) (16.2 MJ/kg DM) levels; low starch (0.2% DM) and fibre fractions. All diets had similar (P>0.05) crude protein (CP) and GE values. The concentrate diet was higher (P<0.05) in starch, ether extracts and fibre bound CP (neutral detergent insoluble crude protein). The second part of the study estimated the supply of energy and protein fractions and carbohydrate composition from LLM and the diets. A CRD was used. Lucerne leaf-meal had high energy density and protein supply with low unavailable fibre and protein contents. All the treatments had TDN above 80%. Non-fibre carbohydrate levels differed (P<0.05) across treatments. The energy fractions were similar (P>0.05) across all dietary treatments. However, Diets P65L35 and P50L50 had higher (P<0.05) soluble and non-fibre carbohydrates than PEL diet. The third part of the study determined in vitro degradation of LLM and the three dietary treatments using the ANKOM DaisyII incubator system. Lucerne leaf-meal had high in vitro dry matter (IVDMD), organic matter (IVOMD), crude protein (IVCPD) and neutral detergent fibre (IVNDFD) degradation. All diets had similar (P>0.05) IVDMD and IVOMD at 0, 4, 10 and 48 hours of incubation. Higher (P<0.05) IVNDFD, IVCPD and effective degradation (ED) were observed in Diets P65L35 and P50L50 than in Diet PEL. No differences (P>0.05) in IVNDFD and IVCPD were observed at 24 and 48 hours of incubation. The rate of degradation (‘c’) was similar (P>0.05) across all the diets. The data demonstrated that LLM diets had higher (P<0.05) degradation values than Diet PEL. vi The fourth part of the study determined the effects of replacing calf starter pellets with lucerne leaf-meal on diet intake, feed conversion ratio and growth of pre-weaned (21 to 42 days old calves) and transition (43 to 56 days old calves) Holstein heifer calves. The experimental design was a completely randomised design, with a total of 24 calves housed in individual pens. This study was divided into two experimental phases, namely, pre-weaning (Experiment 1) and transition (Experiment 2) phases. In each experiment, different calves were used. Body weights were taken weekly. The balance of ruminal nitrogen (% RNB) was predicted using Large Ruminant Nutrition System (LRNS) model. In Experiment 1 calves had free access to clean water and fed 4 litres/calf/day of unpasteurised milk. During the pre-weaning phase, differences (P<0.05) were observed in solid feed dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and starch intakes with Diet P50L50 having higher (P<0.05) intakes than Diets PEL and P65L35. Similarly, higher (P<0.05) % RNB and daily weight gains (ADG) were observed with calves on Diet P50L50. However, calves had similar (P>0.05) initial and final weights and feed conversion ratio (FCR). Calves in Experiment 2 were fed 2 litres/calf/day of unpasteurised milk. Calves were weaned at the age of 56 days. During the transition phase, calves on Diet HP50L50 had higher (P<0.05) CP intake and % RNB than those on HPEL and HP65L35 diets. However, higher (P<0.05) solid feed starch intake was observed with calves on Diet HPEL. All dietary treatments had similar (P>0.05) DM intake, initial and final live weights, ADG and FCR. The fifth part of the study predicted diet concentrations of Holstein heifer calves under specific conditions using the level 1 solution of Large Ruminant Nutrition System (LRNS) model. During the pre-weaning phase, P65L35 and P50L50 diets indicated higher (P<0.05) energy density values than Diet PEL. However, all diets had similar (P>0.05) metabolisable energy levels. No differences (P>0.05) in net energy for maintenance (NEm) and gain (NEg) during the transition phase were observed. However, Diet HPEL had higher (P<0.05) apparent TDN and ME levels compared to other dietary treatments. Diets P65L35 and P50L50 had higher (P<0.05) protein, energy density and degradation values than Diet PEL. It is concluded LLM inclusions in the calf diet improved Holstein heifer calves’ performance.
Agricultural Research Council (ARC)

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 2009.
Title from title screen (site viewed June 26, 2009). PDF text: vi, 193 p. : ill. (some col.) ; 1 Mb. UMI publication number: AAT 3350373. Includes bibliographical references. Also available in microfilm and microfiche formats.

Degradation kinetics of carbohydrate fraction of commercial concentrate feeds for weaned calves, heifers, lactating and dry dairy cattle
Variations in composition and disappearance of nutrients in dairy cattle feeds are dictated by ingredients, methods of processing, storage while milk production levels depend on the animal, environmental factors and largely on pools of available carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals in the concentrate feeds. There is a wide variety of concentrates for dairy cattle on the formal and informal markets and dairy farmers need to be astute in selecting feeds appropriate for specific production periods and animals to sustain their businesses. Composition of nutrients displayed on concentrate containers is however inadequate for in-depth assessment of products. This study determined nutrient composition, rumen dry matter disappearance and microbial colonization on residual substrate on commercial concentrate feeds and simulated total mixed rations for dairy calves, heifers, lactating and dry cows based on common feeding guidelines. Equivalent feeds for each herd group were obtained from three suppliers in the formal markets in Gauteng province of South Africa, making a total of twelve. An analysis of the data on container labels for the herd groups displayed similar feed values, as also reflected on the recommendation Tables of Act 36: Feeds and Fertilizer bill 1947 of South Africa.
Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology
M.Sc. (Agriculture)

Variations in composition and disappearance of nutrients in dairy cattle feeds are dictated by ingredients, methods of processing, storage while milk production levels depend on the animal, environmental factors and largely on pools of available carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals in the concentrate feeds. There is a wide variety of concentrates for dairy cattle on the formal and informal markets and dairy farmers need to be astute in selecting feeds appropriate for specific production periods and animals to sustain their businesses. Composition of nutrients displayed on concentrate containers is however inadequate for in-depth assessment of products. This study determined nutrient composition, rumen dry matter disappearance and microbial colonization on residual substrate on commercial concentrate feeds and simulated total mixed rations for dairy calves, heifers, lactating and dry cows based on common feeding guidelines. Equivalent feeds for each herd group were obtained from three suppliers in the formal markets in Gauteng province of South Africa, making a total of twelve. An analysis of the data on container labels for the herd groups displayed similar feed values, as also reflected on the recommendation Tables of Act 36: Feeds and Fertilizer bill 1947 of South Africa.
Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology
M.Sc. (Agriculture)

Thesis (M.A. Agricultural Management (Animal Production)) -- University of Limpopo, 2020
The Nguni is indigenous multi-purpose cattle breed that plays an important role in both commercial and communal farming systems in South Africa (SA). Unfortunately, the breed is currently under threat of diminishing due to farmers’ preference for exotic breeds and cross breeding. In recognition of the above, the Industrial Development Corporation, the Mpumalanga Department of Agriculture, Rural Development, Land and Environmental Affairs and the University of Limpopo established the Nguni cattle breed preservation project. In this project, a herd of 30 Nguni heifers and 1 bull were allocated to 34 Communal Property Associations (CPA) and 40 private farming enterprises each. With its three distinct ecological zones (High, Mid and Low-veld), the Mpumalanga province poses a challenge to the Nguni preservation project since cattle have to adapt to different ecological zones in order to grow and reproduce efficiently. Knowledge of cattle herd productivity improves the understanding of the functional attributes and is useful in determining the constraints and the potential of communal beef cattle production systems. Significant differences between ecological zones were observed for age at first calving, weaning rate, calves’ birth weight and calves’ weaning weight (p < 0.05). Calving of heifers in the Mid-veld zone occurred earlier (24 months) on both ownership types compared to Highveld (28.09 months for private and 26.00 for CPA) and the Lowveld (28.35 months for both ownerships). Nguni cattle on the Highveld performed better in terms of weaning rate under both private and CPA ownerships, where the weaning rate were 93% and 80%, respectively. Calves birth weight was lower in both ownership types in the Midveld zone (22.17 kg), whereas in the CPA, the Lowveld zone had higher calves birth weights (26.80 kg). In the private ownership, the highest calves’ birth weight (25.35 kg) was on the Highveld. The calves weaning weight were significantly higher (p < 0.05) on Highveld in private ownership (190.16 kg) and lowest (160.39 kg) in the Midveld zone. For the CPA, the highest calves weaning weight was also on the Highveld (187.55) and lowest on Midveld (167.50 kg). A full range of backup services that are offered to the communities by stakeholders in the form of a beef package that includes veld and pasture management, nutrition management, beef performance, animal recording keeping, genetic evaluation and animal health management program needs thorough attention.