Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Health ecology'

This thesis explores variation in health-related behaviours from the perspective of evolutionary life history theory (LHT). LHT conceptualises behaviour as the allocation of energy to alternative functions and predicts that allocations will maximise genetic fitness. Past literature on health-related behaviours has suffered from methodological limitations, including a failure to simultaneously consider, and thus differentiate, multiple determinants, explicit consideration of how ecological effects vary between individuals and the use of extrinsic mortality rates. The present analyses overcome these shortcomings, utilising sociodemographic surveys from both low and high-mortality contexts. A series of key LHT hypotheses regarding the effects of e.g. local mortality rates, sex ratios, and maternal and child reproductive value are tested. In Section I, analyses of Northern Irish Census data demonstrate that higher mating effort relative to parenting effort is predictive of higher risk of preventable death (implying lower health effort) among men, and that parenting effort is associated with lower risk of preventable death, with larger effects among women. Over and above individual characteristics, ecological factors (extrinsic mortality rate, crime, adult sex ratio) are associated with preventable death, particularly among men, young individuals and those with low socioeconomic position (SEP), and with earlier reproduction in both sexes. In Section II, data from sub-Saharan Africa are used to test whether health behaviours closely linked to child survival are predicted by the reproductive value of the mother and the child. Maternal age positively predicts investment across all health investment outcomes, and birth order is strongly and negatively associated with investment. Maternal age and birth order effects were largely consistent across countries but several effects varied depending on whether the health behaviour was preventative or curative. Findings are generally consistent with LH predictions, and suggest that the LH framework holds much potential beyond its typical focus on traits characterising reproductive behaviour.

On November 7, 1973, President Nixon asked Americans to lower their home thermostats to a national average temperature of 68 degrees. On February 2, 1974, over half of the gas stations in the New York City area closed after selling out of fuel. These and other restrictions resulted from the Arab oil embargo of 1973-1974, a pivotal event in American history that made residential energy conservation an immediate national imperative. This dissertation situates American housing within the ecologically-oriented 1970s, when energy independence and environmental protection became political and popular priorities. I study two California communities that shared geographical and temporal proximity but responded to the energy crisis with divergent approaches to the ideal of energy-conserving, healthy housing. Part I explores early indoor environmental research at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. In collaboration with utility companies, homebuilders, and homeowners, Berkeley’s researchers studied how residential energy conservation affected indoor air quality (IAQ) in conventional and alternative homes. Their goal was finding the “optimal balance” between equally vital goals: energy conservation, healthy indoor air, and cost-effectiveness. By the early 1980s, IAQ was the leading criterion in national conversations about healthy housing. Part II explores owner-built housing in 1970s California. Owner-builders embraced environmentalism and voluntary simplicity. Like Berkeley’s scientists, they pursued residential energy conservation, but did this either by living in minimalist cabins without heat or electricity,or by using alternative technologies (solar power, earth-building). Their top priority for housing was autonomy, not IAQ. They campaigned for the right to build their own low-cost housing unconstrained by building codes. They prioritized personal and planetary health in designing and building their homes, arguing that a healthy house was an instrument of social and environmental change. In juxtaposing these two approaches -- one academic and quantitative; the other holistic and iconoclastic -- I show that healthy housing has been a flexible ideal shaped by competing priorities: energy, health, affordability, and environmentalism. Housing, the fundamental link between people and the outdoor environment, is an ideal focus for environmental historians and adds another dimension to knowledge of American history since the energy crisis.
History of Science

The Earth’s atmosphere supports microorganisms and they include potential pathogens and microbial allergens. Whilst indoor environments have been well studied, relatively little is known of bio-aerosols in outdoor locations and their potential influence on human health, particularly with regard to urban development. Hong Kong provides an ideal model system for testing hypotheses related to the impact of urbanization on bio-aerosols, with a well-defined gradient of urbanization and large population. This thesis describes work to establish the biodiversity and spatio-temporal dynamics of outdoor bio-aerosols in Hong Kong. A comprehensive study of multi-domain microbial diversity and allergen levels in urban aerosols over a contiguous annual timescale and along a gradient of urbanization was carried out. A comprehensive suite of climatic and pollutant variables were also recorded during the sampling interval. Terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) was employed to investigate variations in bacterial and eukaryal assemblages, followed by phylogenetic assessment using high-throughput sequencing. The results revealed a strong seasonality in both bacterial and eukaryal assemblages, with Archaea forming a negligible part of the urban bio-aerosols. The most abundant bacteria were proteobacteria but community shifts were seen due to increases in algae in summer, and betaproteobacteria and cyanobacteria in winter. This was most parsimoniously explained by considering the backward trajectory analysis of air mass. A greater abundance of marine-associated phylotypes such as Bacillariophyta and Chlorophyta were identified when the dominant air mass arriving in Hong Kong in the summer originated from oceanic sources. In contrast, betaproteobacteria, which indicated soil sources were prevalent when the origin of air mass was from terrestrial sources. A trend in fungal phylotypes was also apparent, with summer samples dominated by basidiomycetous Agaricales, and winter samples by the ascomycete genus Cladosporium. This was likely due to favourable climatic conditions during wetter summer months enhancing release of fungal basidiospores. A range of airborne human pathogens was also detectable at low levels including pathogenic bacteria such as Acinetobacter baumannii, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Ricinus communis, and the pathogenic fungus Aspergillus terreus. Microbial allergens including bacterial endotoxins and fungal glucans were also quantified with immunological assays. These generally followed variations in biomass, and during some months were recorded at levels that may impact human health upon chronic exposure. Carbon dioxide levels were the only climatic or pollutant variable that correlated with allergen levels. Conversely changes in microbial assemblages were strongly correlated to several climatic variables including temperature, rainfall, air pressure and relative humidity, but not with the degree of urbanization or airborne pollutants. This study highlights the importance of including microbial assessments in future bio-surveillance of urban aerosols.
published_or_final_version
Biological Sciences
Doctoral
Doctor of Philosophy

Master of Science
Department of Agronomy
Charles W. Rice
Declining soil health is the underlying cause of decreasing agricultural productivity and environmental degradation. To address this challenge, research was conducted to determine how: (1) cover crops affect soil health in Kansas, USA and (2) direct seeding mulch–based cropping (DMC) systems affect soil health in Nyankpala, Ghana. Soil health indicators assessed include: biomass yield (kg ha[superscript]-1), soil microbial respiration (SMR), soil microbial C and N (MBC & MBN), potentially mineralizable N (PMN), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), soil organic C (SOC), soil total nitrogen (TN), phospholipid fatty acid analysis (PLFA), water stable aggregate (WSA), bulk density, pH, N, P, K, Ca and Mg. DMC systems from Ghana yielded significantly greater biomass compared to the control. High biomass produced by DMC systems did not increase SOC and PMN relative to the control. Fertilizer application had a significant impact on biomass production, which resulted in a significant increase in SOC and PMN in the 0-5 cm soil layer. Soil pH was significantly reduced by cropping systems and fertilizer in the 0-5 cm soil layer. Microbial biomass N, TN, SMR, N, P, Ca and Mg were not affected by the DMC cropping systems. Application of mineral fertilizer increased SMR, MBN, TN, N, and P. Soil K was also significantly affected by cropping systems and mineral fertilizer. The combination of mineral fertilizer and plant residues would be needed to improve soil health and increase crop productivity in the Guinea Savanna Zone of Ghana. Liming would be required to address low soil pH. In the USA, of all the soil health indicators examined, actinomycetes, gram-positive bacteria, fungi-bacteria ratio (F:B), SMR, MBN and WSA, were those significantly influenced by cover crops. The interactive effect of cover cops and N fertilizer also affected gram-positive bacteria, total PLFA, MBN, F:B ratio and WSA. Cover crop residues contributed to the observed differences in these indicators. The low response of soil health indicators suggest further evaluations are needed to determine the effectiveness of the indicators.

ABSTRACT: This research generated a formal method for global ‘situation modelling’ of near-critical and critical phenomena. The new paradigms and the construction of mental reality or social spaces do not explain the damaged world we leave to our children and the degeneration of health. The ‘physical’ was explored experimentally through the reputed imperfection of the body in daily living and the ecology of its health. An ‘integral’ methodology allowed combining this with a study of general perspectives in many fields. This theoretical and empirical study was framed according to a third-order logic: (1) The variety and inconsistency of perspectives on the unclear notion of ‘health’ required a generalist (meta-)classification or organising principle applicable in particular to health. The method of ‘perspectival analysis’ is based on the field- and domain-specific vocabularies, number of categories, and image types used in formulating explanation/ experience in each framework, in both scientific and human domains. This theoretical study was (2) grounded in a ‘radical empirical’ study of the effects of nutrition and healing techniques on a low-grade chronic syndrome (not life threatening but connected to stress, inflammation, swelling, tissues wasting). A ‘local-case’ experimental research design (representative of an aspect of health), and new topographic ‘gauging’ techniques were devised to observe small spatial changes (positioning, distortion, distribution). The results and concrete/ practice models led to the same conclusion as the abstract study: all our perspectives on health, body and space, have some underlying systemic form, and have in common two unifying frames – duality and polarisation –, characteristic also of point-set theory derived frameworks. Using them allows ‘circumnavigating’ the essential of all possible perspectives, without becoming lost in their details. However, they leave non-local effects, anomalies (or ’bad behaviour’) and periodical instability unexplained. (3) These were investigated by studying behaviour (irrespective of whether internal or external), and ‘not well understood’ induced health manifestations, and by mapping their topologic properties of small deformation through (a) a ‘local’ cognitive consideration of experience construction, the research process itself, and the intellectual skill of model-making, (b) etymologic studies to track forward semantic developments and perspectival shifts and inversions, (c) a graphic study of the universal symbolic forms in models, traditions, and dreams, tracing them back to ‘world-origin’ models (appearance/occurrence), and shape-icons (mental, cultural), such as tree, ladder, mountain or vortex-vertex spiral. This thesis examines health disturbance, physical distortions and cultural deformations, their usual descriptions as timed changes, and shows how two fundamental parameters of direction and motion (or movement, energy, 'Wind') define geometries of binding, or directional activation (or active projection). These culturo-mental geometries produce generic images of locally induced phenomena, and represent boundary phenomena globally as 'natural' in the spatial-physical world, and as 'hidden' or latent in the human world. Their downside is to introduce systematic instability in our expressions, models of culture/civilisation, as well as in health manifestations. All these are found to be rooted in modelling styles derived from the 'local' geometry of observing – framing – a field in 'perspective', mostly based on vision, audition, and skin surface (touch). These geo-Metries are used to explain and justify in particular the instability and recurrent crises of health in chronic syndromes and ageing, and the ‘badly behaved’ health of childhood and adult females (eg consequences of pregnancy). The conclusion imposed itself that the ‘physical world of humans’ is shaped through critical response and boundaries, and it appears that physical integrity, including sound health, sanity and even safety, cannot be preserved but by conscious alert attention or voluntary practice or effort (eg ‘workout’). Some experiences recounted in this work (some from the literature) led to an opposite presupposition. Three possible logics rule deployments of perspective into flat, spherical, and hyperbolic geometries (a known basis of mathematics). Which is used depends on the ‘local’ state of criticality (sense of urgency, emergency, pressure) of the observing body-brain-‘system’. It correlates with this universally assumed vertical axis, with the exclusive use [instruments too] of the senses of the head and of ‘skin-encapsulated’ derived systemic definitions of ‘the world’ and ‘the observer’ (self or body). These allow localising and attributing properties to one or the other or their combination. However, they can also be considered as undifferentiated properties, ‘non-local’ but governing, of the ‘physical world of humans’ as it is apprehended in daily living, manifesting in a surface-related sense of swelling and gravity. A simple form of geometric topology ‘without hole’ (without discontinuity), here introduced through two cognitive experiments, animations, and images, can describe this. The method of ‘nexial-topology’ produces an ‘animated imaging’ that can be used to model (but not ‘represent’ in word, number, or realistic/ naturalistic images) the situation reaching ‘critical boundary’. It then shows auto-reinforcing self-organisation and auto-destruction in ‘passing’ it. Yet, it can also be used as a ‘native gauging’ expressed in gesture or body posture, related to intuition, instinct, and the rare ‘thinking in image’. As such, it describes approaching ‘critical boundary’ (versus ‘reaching’) as auto-limiting. A crucial finding is that ‘spontaneous’ behaviours (non-induced, non-intended) can ensure the integrity of health under operation in most conditions, and stop extremes. Yet, they are usually deemed meaningless, random or useless, and are systematically suppressed by enculturation and prevented by civilised lifestyles. ‘Nexial-topology’ gives a clear meaning to them, and can model the ‘ease’ of health and of daily living. It gives access to more basic options, with wider effects, more immediate than all our solutions, often ignored because too obvious. For example, ‘global warming’ could be addressed as a non-local property and a deployment into crises to ‘stop’, rather than separate problems of water, resources, heated behaviour, inflammatory and ‘water diseases’. KEYWORDS: Interdisciplinary research, cross-disciplinary methodologies, modal logic, fundamental problem, general relativity, localisation, physicalism, geometric quantization, occurrence, appearance, extension, projection, attribution, distributed, anthropic principle, anthropomorphism, unified, unbounded, left, right, spiral, viral, genetic drift, natural, life, human nature, human pressure, limit, extreme, threshold, validity, value, critical decision making, apperception, child cognition, sense, semantic drift, Four Elements, symbolic inversion. THIS IS A MULTI-MEDIA THESIS. FOR A SITE MAP OF THE NAMES AND DISPLAY ONLINE OF THE 52 FILES OF THIS THESIS, PLEASE CONSULT THE SECTION: ORGANISATION OF THE MULTI-MEDIA MATERIALS IN THIS THESIS, IN THE FRONT PAGES FILE (SOURCE 2), BEFORE THE TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Western Sydney, 2008.
A thesis submitted to the University of Western Sydney, College of Arts, Centre for Social Ecology Research in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Social ecology). Includes bibliographical references.

Bees are essential for crop pollination services; however, the ecosystem services they provide by pollinating native plants are crucial for maintaining biodiversity in natural systems. This study analyzed bee community changes within, on the edge, and outside of forest fragments. Phenological variation over two seasons and modeling to predict bee abundance associated with forest characteristics was performed. Finally the genetic diversity of two species of Bombus was analyzed. Bowl traps and aerial sweep netting in and near forest patches were used to sample bee communities in northern Delaware between March and August, 2013 and 2014. Bee phenology stayed consistent between field seasons, but fewer bees were collected in 2014 compared to 2013. Abundance modeling (R: unmarked) predicted that bee abundance was negatively impacted primarily by agriculture surrounding the forest patch. Analyses using microsatellites revealed that B. impatiens lacked overt population genetic structure while B. bimaculatus showed two genetically distinct populations. Pesticide analysis revealed 17 pesticides observed on adult bees from seven urban and suburban forest patches. Further studies investigating natural bee fluctuations in response to multiple field seasons, floral diversity, and chronic pesticide exposure are crucial in order to assess native pollinator health.

Riverine fisheries in England are under pressure from a variety of activities, including increasing intensification of land-use, urbanisation, rising demands for water abstraction, pollution, proliferation of exotic species, climate change and recreational activities. As a result, the integrity of English rivers has changed. In this study, an attempt was made to measure the ecological health of 22 English lowland rivers from the Thames, Trent and Yorkshire Ouse catchments using a variety of tools. The objective was to modify the Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI) for use on English lowland rivers and compare it with existing indices. A number of diversity indices, Margalef (DMg), Simpson (Dsm) and ShannonWiener (H') were used to evaluate the status of fisheries in the study rivers. The Abundance / Biomass (ABC) method and computer-based multivariate analyses, UPGMA, TWINS PAN, DECORANA, were also used to evaluate the status of fish communities. In addition to these indices, the ABC method and multivariate analyses, the IBI, a multimetric index was also used to evaluate the ecological health of study rivers. The IBI is based on structural and functional attributes of fish communities and is capable of evaluating health and condition of an aquatic ecosystem. The IBI requires a reference condition with which to compare the output. In English rivers, no pristine (reference) sites were considered available, consequently best available data were used to develop a reference condition. In this study, the IBI was modified from Karr (1981), which was based on 12 metrics (community characteristics) of fish assemblages. For the study rivers, 15 metrics which described the status of the fish communities were selected to calculate the IBI. Each metric was scored on a simple scale from 0 (absence) to 5 (high quality). The sum of all the metrics (range 0 - 75) was used to assign sites to qualitative classes of biotic integrity. Six integrity classes on a continuous scale were chosen with the following class boundaries: Excellent (56 - 75), Good (42 - 55), Fair (28 - 41), Poor (16 - 27), Very Poor (1 - 15) and No Fish (0). In the study rivers, the DMg, Dsm and H' indices were unable to measure anthropogenic impacts on fish communities as all these indices were based on structural properties of fish communities. These indices also failed to take account of the presence of juveniles in the fish community in a river. Moreover, these indices were influenced by dominant species abundance and sampling strategies, giving an inaccurate assessment of the status of the fisheries. The ABC method was better at evaluating fish communities than diversity indices as the method considered fish abundance and biomass. However, the method did not include functional components of the fish community and was over influenced by juvenile fishes. Consequently, the ABC method was not considered a good indicator of ecosystem health based on fish assemblages. The UPGMA, TWINSPAN and DECORANA analyses, successfully grouped and separated river reaches with rich or poor fish stocks. These analyses however, did not take into account the functional attributes of the fish communities and were not sufficient to explain the status of a fishery without support from other indices. The IBI assessed the ecological health of the middle and lower reaches of the study rivers more accurately than the other diversity indices, ABC method and multivariate analyses. The selected IBI metrics were able to evaluate many perturbations and disturbances as the metrics represented both structural and functional attributes of fish communities. The DMg, Dsm, H', ABC, UPGMA, TWINSPAN and DECORANA were designed to highlight a specific attribute and lost information during calculation but the IBI included a greater variety of information and produced an appropriate index. Spearman's rank correlation indicated the IBI outputs were more similar to diversity indices than other measures, as significant relationships were found between the IBI and DMg, the IBI and Dsm, and the IBI and H' at a = 0.01 level. Significant relationships were probably due to the use of fish density and abundance in the models. However, this did not mean that all diversity indices and the IBI were similar in measuring ecological conditions of a river, rather it was probably numerical similarity. No significant relationship was found between the IBI and ABC, as the ABC index was a ratio of abundance and biomass while the IBI used absolute values of biomass and abundance separately. All the diversity indices, ABC method and multivariate analyses mentioned reinforced the view that the IBI developed in this study was an appropriate index at evaluating ecological health of the middle and lower reaches of the study rivers. The IBI, however, failed to predict the quality of the fisheries in headwater streams because of the exclusion of salmonid species, minor species and general low species diversity found in these zones. Consequently, it was identified that reference conditions and metrics chosen for the middle and lower reaches of the study rivers were not appropriate to assess the ecological health of headwaters. The existing monitoring programmes of the Environment Agency (EA) for fishery data collection, were considered appropriate for calculating IBIs. Sampling strategies of the EA, i.e. daytime, electric fishing both in summer and winter periods irrespective of lunar cycle and breeding season were also considered acceptable to calculate the IBI. Further research was recommended to test the IBI on a wide range of rivers to assess whether the IBI is appropriate for assessing ecological health of middle and lower reaches of rivers in all regions of the UK. Separate IBIs for headwaters, still waters and estuaries were proposed as these zones / waterbodies have different fish communities. Investigation should be directed at developing a simplified IBI using other cost-effective data sources if suitable resources are not available. It is also recommended that the possibility of including the IBI in wider aquatic resource monitoring programmes (e.g. WFD) be investigated. It is also recommended that the possibility of using the IBI to detect change in the pre and post implementation periods of any management action or anthropogenic activity be investigated. Research is also needed to integrate the IBI with other bioassessment methods (e.g. Habitat index, Diatom index, Microinvertebrate index, Chemical index and GQA index). For more effective application and understanding, the IBI may be built into a GIS (Geographical Information System) environment. It is suggested that a suitable computer package be developed to simplify calculations of the IBI. The interpretation should however, be carried out by the fishery manager or scientist.

Two aspects of ecosystem health in the Colorado River delta were investigated as part of the present dissertation. The following is a summary of the most important findings: Contaminants of natural origin (e.g. selenium) and anthropogenic activities (e.g. pesticides) represent a potential threat for humans and wildlife in the Colorado River delta. Fourteen locations were sampled for bottom material and biota from March 1998 to April 2000. Concentrations of selenium in bottom material ranged from 0.6-5.0 μg/g. Concentrations of selenium in biota ranged from 0.5-18.3 μg/g, 23% of these samples exceeded the toxic threshold where reproductive impairment in birds from dietary exposure is reported. Concentrations of DDE exceeded the lower critical dietary level for sensitive species in 30% of biota samples. No clear relationship could be found between the concentration of Se in bottom material and the concentration of Se in fish. Nevertheless, smaller Se concentrations in biota were found at sites that had an outflow and exposure or physical disturbance of the bottom material was uncommon. Greater concentrations of Se in biota were found at sites with strongly reducing conditions, no output, and subsequent periods of drying and flooding or dredging activities, and at sites that received water directly from the Colorado River. The southwestern willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii extimus ) is an endangered neotropical migrant with only 300-500 breeding pairs. The objective of the second study was to determine the presence/absence of this bird in the Colorado River delta. Surveys were conducted from June to July, 1999 and from May to June, 2000 using an audio tape of this subspecies' songs to elicit responses. We detected a total of 50 willow flycatchers in the Colorado River delta in the months of May to June. None were detected in July, thus, the birds were most likely migrants. Restoration of the intensively used stopover sites of the Colorado River delta appears to be essential for the overall recovery of this subspecies. Additionally, we propose a possible willow flycatcher summer migratory route throughout the series of coastal estuaries found adjacent to the coast of Sonora.

Tourism is the world's largest industry. The fastest growing segment of the travel and tourist trade is ecotourism. The concept of sustainable development insists that humans cooperate with nature in the search for an ecological economy which can support present and future populations. Ecotourism attempts to attain this elusive goal by preserving ecosystems while generating revenue for local communities. In this study, the researcher examines the positive and negative effects of ecotourism on people, culture, and landscape. An analysis of tourism data seems to suggest that developing countries, which are popular ecotour destinations, are benefitting economically and ecologically from properly planned ecotourism.

An investigation of ecosystem functioning of sandy beaches in the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality (NMBM) was carried out with the aim of describing their type and pollution status. Water salinity, temperature, pH, beach slope, water inorganic nutrient concentrations, urea, and chlorophyll-a concentration as well as the composition of zooplankton, phytoplankton, meiofauna, benthic microalgae and bacteria were examined at thirteen beaches. The beaches were classified into three types: short beaches; long beaches with surf diatoms; and long beaches that import biomass (without surf diatoms). Of the thirteen beaches, five were non-polluted and eight polluted with polluting human activities in and around them. Most beaches were dominated by fine sand except for St. Georges Strand where the particles were medium to fine sand and Maitland’s River Beach, Bluewater Bay and Sardinia Bay that had coarse sand. Nutrient concentrations ranged from 1.98 ± 0.10 μM to 19.30 ± 3.02 μM nitrate; 4.88 ± 1.00 μM to 11.97 ± 1.00 μM ammonium; 0.67 ± 0.00 μM to 2.31 ±1.00 μM soluble reactive phosphorus; and 0.00 to 0.03 ± 0.00 μg l-1 urea-N. Chlorophyll-a concentrations ranged from 0.04 ± 0.02 to 1.57 ± 0.11 μg l-1. Chlorophyll-a concentrations were negatively correlated to ammonium for all beach types (short beaches: r = 0.94; long importing beaches: r = 0.95 and surf diatom beaches: 0.94) and to nitrate for short and long importing beaches (short: r = 0.97 and long importing: r = 0.85). By contrast, a positive correlation was found between observed between chlorophyll-a concentrations and urea for surf diatom beaches (r = 0.93) and for long importing beaches (r = 0.73). Chlorophyll-a concentrations were negatively correlated to short beaches (r = 0.99) and long importing beaches (r = 0.76). The E. coli and total coliforms in all the sampled beaches were within the recommended South African water quality guidelines for contact recreation as specified by DWAF (1995) except at New Brighton Beach (2 419 total coliforms/100 ml and 1 853 E. coli cells/100 ml) and St. Georges Strand (274 total coliforms/100 ml). Diatoms dominated the phytoplankton and benthic microflora; calanoid copepods dominated the zooplankton and deposit-feeding nematodes dominated the meiofauna in all the beaches with no changes found at polluted beaches.

In 2008, El Salvador registered the world's highest mortality rate from kidney failure, with more than 2500 deaths annually in Central America's smallest country. El Salvador is the ground zero of a new form of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) that has become an epidemic among otherwise healthy agricultural workers and rural residents in lowland Central America in the past three decades. While the epidemic is believed to stem from some combination of agro- chemical exposure and/or dehydration, research on the disease remains embroiled in controversy, policy changes few, and medical support for affected individuals challenging. Foucaultian theorizations of 'discursive materiality' provide insights into the ways in which–even as the science remains inconclusive–understandings, discussions, and research on CKD in El Salvador are having material effects on individuals' bodies and health statuses. Based on fieldwork in El Salvador in summer 2014, this thesis uses the lens of Salvadorian CKD to explore the workings of biopower in settings of industrial agricultural production. Focusing on the Bajo Lempa region of El Salvador, in particular, the thesis examines the discourses, materialities, and practices through which CKD has "come to matter" as a medical and political phenomenon in relation to the agriculture through which affected Salvadorians make their living. Thinking through the discursive materialities of CKD alongside the production of spaces of health and agriculture, this thesis provides insights for the growing field of the political ecology of health by investigating the wider socio-political and environmental processes that make CKD management such a challenge in a Central America.

Animal and human wastes introduce pathogens into rivers and streams, creating human health and economic burdens. While direct monitoring for pathogens is possible, it is impractical due to the sporadic distribution of pathogens, cost to identify, and health risks to laboratory workers. To overcome these issues, fecal indicator organisms are used to estimate the presence of pathogens. Although fecal indicators generally protect public health, they fall short in their utility because of difficulties in public health risk characterization, inconsistent correlations with pathogens, weak source identification, and their potential to persist in environments with no point sources of fecal pollution. This research focuses on characterizing the ecology of fecal indicators using both modeling and metabolic indicators to better understand the processes that drive fecal pollution. Fecal indicator impairment was modeled in Sinking Creek, a 303 (d) listed stream in Northeast Tennessee, using the ecological niche model, Maxent, for two different fecal indicators. While the use of Maxent has been well demonstrated at the macroscale, this study introduces its application to ecological niches at the microscale. Stream impairment seasonality was exhibited in two different indicators over multiple years and different resolutions (quarterly versus monthly sampling programs). This stresses the need for multiple year and month sampling to capture heterogeneity in fecal indicator concentrations. Although discharge is strongly associated with dissolved solutes, fecal indicator impairment was governed by other ecological factors such as populations of heterotrophic bacteria, enzyme activity, nutrient conditions, and other metabolic indicators. This research also incorporated metabolic indicators to characterize spatiotemporal variability in microbial community function, making connections to fecal and other pollution gradients. Communities differed in their ability to use a wide variety of substrates, and metabolic inhibition in sediments captured most of the interaction of aquatic and benthic communities. Sediment substrate activity was also indicative of degrees of pollution, suggesting that sediment is a potential reservoir for Escherichia coli in this stream, and there is possibility for resuspension, extended residence times, and increased duration for exposure. This research highlights the benefit of using models and other microbial indicators to better understand how environment shapes the niche of fecal indicators.

Understanding the health of rare and at-risk plant species is crucial for the conservation of biodiversity. Rare and at-risk species are often specialists with very specific requirements for growth and reproductive success. Some parameters associated with growth and reproductive success of rare aquatic species may include biotic and abiotic factors such as herbivory, competition, water depth, pH, and other factors associated with habitat quality. In this thesis, the population health of the rare and at-risk aquatic species Plantago cordata in Southern Illinois streams is assessed in relation to stream quality of sites containing Plantago cordata and sites without Plantago cordata.The objectives of this study were to (1) Determine if there is a relationship between population size structure and biotic habitat factors among populations and sites, and (2) Determine if there is a relationship between population size structure and abiotic habitat factors among populations and sites. Hypotheses were constructed using the hierarchy-of hypotheses method and most narrow alternative hypotheses are as follows: (1) There will be significant relationships between biotic and abiotic factors and Plantago cordata growth and reproductive success. (2) Levels of herbivory will have significant relationships with growth and reproductive success of Plantago cordata. (3) The abundance of co-occurring species individually and considered in functional groups (graminoid, herb, woody) will have significant relationships with growth and reproductive success of Plantago cordata. (4) Stream depth will have a unimodal relationship with growth and reproductive success of Plantago cordata, with maximum performance at an intermediate stream depth. (5) Stream pH will have a unimodal relationship with growth and reproductive success of Plantago cordata. (6) Stream quality (as outlined by the QHEI assessment) will have significant relationships with growth and reproductive success of Plantago cordata. General trends in herbivory suggest that Plantago cordata could be at greatest risk of herbivory during warmest average temperatures of the study season. There is evidence to suggest that flowering individuals could have a greater threat of herbivory than other growth stages based on Kendal correlation results. A Wilcox test determined that there were no statistical differences in species richness for plots with versus without Plantago cordata. There were relatively low values for percent cover of co-occurring species when considered in functional groups and there was overall relatively low species richness across all communities. Despite this, non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) of community data provided evidence to suggest that there were statistical differences in the species composition of co-occurring individual riparian species among P. cordata populations. A significant negative correlation for water depth and flowering individuals and a significant positive correlation with water depth and pH occurred. A significant positive correlation for stream pH with the numbers of seedlings and dehiscing individuals was also found. One-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) showed that some populations containing Plantago cordata were found to have stream pH values statistically different from nearby IEPA control streams without Plantago cordata. One population of Plantago cordata was found to be significantly different than two other populations in regards to stream pH using a linear mixed model. A principal components analysis (PCA) of stream Qualitative Habitat Evaluation Index (QHEI) assessments demonstrated distinct clustering of Plantago cordata streams and control IEPA streams without Plantago cordata. These findings provide partial evidence to suggest that growth and reproductive success of Plantago cordata could potentially be impacted by the abiotic and biotic parameters explored in this thesis.

Goal. To improve the ecological health of an existing golf course by applying principles of landscape ecology. To take advantage of ecological enhancements to improve the challenge and aesthetics of the course while maintaining its integrity. To evaluate the environmental and economic benefits of such improvements. Objective. (1) To critically consider the design of an existing golf course to determine opportunities for improving its ecological health through the application of landscape ecological principles. (2) To determine appropriate landscape elements for the study area and the appropriate methods fo their introduction. (3) To apply principles of landscape ecology in the synthesis of an alternative golf course design that will utilize appropriate landscape elements and enhance the challenge and aesthetics of the course. (4) To evaluate the expected environmental and economic benefits of the proposed design. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Business Administration
Ph.D.
This dissertation examines the proliferation of specialty hospitals in the United States. Since the 1990s specialty hospitals increased in number and stirred much controversy, given that most are for-profit and physician-owned. They are examined here according to the Organizational Ecology Theory, a theoretical framework used in many industries to explain the founding of new organizational forms. Given that general hospitals have been the dominant organizational form in the hospital industry, the emergence of specialty hospitals is explained in this dissertation by applying organizational ecology theories: resource partitioning, density dependence and niche formation. Moreover, I examine the effect environmental and institutional variables have on the variations in specialty hospital proliferation between different states in the United States. The data used in this dissertation are mainly derived from the American Hospital Association Annual Database and the Area Resource File. The Negative Binomial Generalized Estimating Equations method is used to test the models in Stata 9. The findings from this dissertation provide support to both the density dependence, niche formation, and resource partitioning theories. The volume of surgical procedures seems to have a positive effect on the number of new specialty hospitals in a state. Specialty hospitals founding rates also seems to be positively related to the closure rate of general hospitals. Moreover, specialty hospitals founding rate was significantly affected by the intra-population density of specialty hospitals in the area they were founded. As for environmental and institutional factors, the presence of a Certificate of Need program negatively affects the founding rate of specialty hospitals in a state when specialty hospital density is not accounted for in the model. Economical variables, on the other hand, were significant in all the models. Specialty hospitals were positively related to state per capita income and negatively related to unemployment rate. One of the interesting findings of this study is that specialty hospitals founding rate is negatively related to physician expenditures. Thus, less income might be inducing physicians to open their hospitals to recoup financial losses. This dissertation is not just important due to its contribution to organizational ecology, it is also important because it explains to policy makers the reasons that lead to the proliferation of specialty hospitals and the future of these new entrants into the health care arena.
Temple University--Theses

Background: Access to food is an issue that not only deals with the safety of food that people consume, but also entails the availability and access of food in certain areas or neighborhoods. Eating behavior is highly complex and results from the interplay of multiple influences across different contexts. An ecological approach is useful to guide research efforts related to eating behavior because of the emphasis on multilevel links. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to analyze the access to, availability, and price of food in various food outlets of two zip codes in Atlanta, Georgia, which differ in socioeconomic status (SES) and racial background. It is hypothesized that low SES communities have a lower availability and higher price of healthy foods, and also have a higher number of small grocery stores, convenience stores and gas station food markets. Methodology: Primary data were collected for this study. Two zip codes were selected in the Metropolitan Atlanta area, 30318 and 30329. Frequencies and independent sample t-test for small sample sizes was used to determine whether the items of the market basket was significantly different for the two zip codes. Results: The Market Basket Survey showed significant disparities in areas with convenience stores. People who may have access to convenience stores before will pay more for healthy food items, if they are available at all. Fruit and vegetables were least likely to be available in convenience stores. In terms of small food stores, items were available in national brands, which are more costly than chain grocery stores or supermarkets. The hypothesis was rejected. Conclusion: Maintaining a nutritious diet is impossible if healthy foods are not available; and it is not realistic to expect food retailers to address the problem without community support and investment. Local Governments and communities should assess needs to improve access to healthy foods and develop action plans to address deficiencies identified in their assessments.

Marine ecosystems are one of the world’s most heavily used and valuable natural systems. However, over the past decades, they have seen changes in the oceans’ pH, temperature, salinity, and other abiotic factors - all of which appear to have impacted the health of these systems, and there seems to be a global trend indicating that diseases in marine environments are emerging at an increased rate. Infection by a disease can result in a variety of negative effects on the health of a host, all of which are especially relevant in instances where commercially important hosts are infected. Disease can lead to changes in growth, longevity, reproduction, embryo survival, and marketability of a host. One ecologically and commercially important species that appears to have been impacted by this trend of increased disease emergence is the Caribbean spiny lobster, Panulirus argus. Panulirus argus plays host to a number of previously described and newly emergent pathogens. However, here, a new species of nemertean worm belonging to the genus Carcinonemertes is described from egg masses of P. argus from the Florida Keys, Florida, USA. Though P. argus ranges throughout the Caribbean, this worm has thus far only been observed infecting gravid female lobsters in the Florida Keys. This is the first species of Carcinonemertes reported to infect P. argus or any other lobster species in the greater Caribbean and western Atlantic Ocean. To determine the host use, infection prevalence, and infection intensity of this new parasite on P. argus , male, non-gravid female, and gravid female lobsters were captured along the Florida Key reef tract from and examined for infection. Furthermore, infected gravid females were also used in estimating the impact that infection by this nemertean had on three levels of reproductive performance (reproductive output, fecundity, and brood mortality).

Lyme disease (LD) has become the most prevalent vector-borne disease in the United States and the sixth Nationally Notifiable disease. Surveillance of Lyme disease from the 1992-2016 has shown a sustained documented expansion of LD moving south into the border of Virginia and North Carolina, west into West Virginia, Tennessee, northwest into North Dakota, and North into Canada. This expansion of LD seems to be associated with expansion of the disease vector Ixodes scapularis, with newly established populations in the southwestern Appalachian and Piedmont regions of Virginia. The goal of the study was to characterize the entomological risk of the spread of LD from VA into NC. To determine the distribution and infection prevalence of I. scapularis along a northeastern-to-southwestern gradient from VA to NC, tick-flagging and hunter-harvested deer tick collecting approaches were used with samples tested by the CDC for infection. Flagging was comprised of periodic sampling sessions from October 2015 to July 2017, conducted at Fairy Stone, Mayo River, Hanging Rock, Pilot Mountain, Yadkin Island Park, and Lake Norman State Parks. Hunted deer processing stations Hilltop Farms (Walnut Cove, NC) and Game Butchers (Troutman, NC), were used for collecting ticks from hunter-harvested deer covering counties for the northern, central and southern North Carolina Piedmont regions.

Ticks collected by flagging were suggestive of a north-to-south trend with no significant difference among the northernmost State Parks and a significant difference in abundance between the northern and southernmost State Parks. The highest number of I. scapularis ticks (0.7 per 100m) was collected from the north-most Virginia’s Fairy Stone and Hanging Rock State Parks, but no I. scapularis were collected from the southernmost Lake Norman location. Infection prevalence of ticks collected by flagging exhibited a general north-to-south declining trend. Though not statistically significant with highest infection rate approximately 25% at the north-most Fairy Stone State Park. For deer collected ticks, there was a significant north-to-south decrease in tick burden per deer, with the northern region located on the VA-NC border having the highest number of I. scapularis (6.0 per deer), followed by the central and the southern regions of NC. Infection prevalence of sampled ticks from deer are suggestive of a declining trend although not significant, with the northern region having the highest (17%), followed by the central region (11%), and no infection present in the southern region. Ixodes scapularis results collected from flagging, and hunter-harvested deer are highly suggestive of a north-to-south gradient in I. scapularis densities with Alexander and Iredell being the south-most I. scapularis positive counties. Borrelia burgdorferi infection results also suggest a north-to-south distribution, with B. burgdorferi appearing to have only made it as far south as the central counties of Yadkin and Forsyth. Entomological risk estimates for density of infected nymphs (DIN) and adults (DIA) of flagging and hunted deer also showed a north-to-south trend with Fairy Stone State Park having the highest (0.033) DIN and northern NC region having the highest (0.808) DIA. The results are consistent with first the spread of the vector followed by the pathogen.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Indiana University, Dept. of Biology, 2005.
Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 67-01, Section: B, page: 0059. Adviser: Curtis Lively. "Title from dissertation home page (viewed Feb. 21, 2007)."

Flame retardants (FRs) are ubiquitous chemicals, some of which may persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in wildlife. Recent laboratory studies on American kestrels (Falco sparverius) have demonstrated that exposure to these chemicals may be linked to reproductive and other health problems in animals, but little is known about these effects in free-ranging avian species. The overall aim of this study was to examine the occurrence and possible reproductive and endocrine effects of historical and current-use FR chemicals in free-ranging birds using the tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) as a model. Breeding colonies of tree swallows were established at one reference site and two wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) sites; with the effluent from one WWTP (i.e., the WWTP near Kitchener, Ontario: KWWTP) being more highly contaminated with FRs than the other (i.e., near Hamilton, Ontario: WAWWTP). From 2007 to 2010, freshly laid eggs (n = 127) were collected from each nest and analyzed for FR concentrations; these same nests were monitored regularly and reproductive measures were recorded, and the occurrence of endocrine disruption was assessed in a sub-sample of adult tree swallows. Across sites, 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47), 2,2'.4,4',5-pentabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-99), 2,2'4,4',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-100), 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-153), and 2,2',4,4',5,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-154) were found at the highest concentrations in the tree swallow eggs, with other polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners and FRs being quantified at much lower levels. Tree swallows at the KWWTP site had significantly smaller clutches than those at the WAWWTP site, and egg volume (cm3) was positively correlated with in ovo levels of decabromodiphenylether (BDE-209), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), and brominated biphenyl (BB)-101. Hatching, fledging and breeding success of the tree swallows were significantly different among sites although there were no statistically significant associations between these measures and in ovo FR concentrations. Clutch initiation date, predation of eggs and nestlings, female age, and ambient temperatures were also found to significantly differ among sites. Nonparametric regression analysis showed that clutch initiation date and egg predation were the best predictors of breeding success across sites, but not flame retardants at currently measured in ovo concentrations. From 2009 to 2010, fecal samples were collected from breeding adult male and female tree swallows during the phases of courtship/nest construction and incubation; these samples were subsequently analyzed for levels of fecal estradiol (E2), testosterone (T), triidothyronine (T3), and thyroxine (T4) metabolites. In 2011, the enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) were biologically validated for the adult tree swallows using nestling tree swallows as negative controls. For adult female tree swallows, there was a moderately significant increase in fecal T4 metabolite levels with in ovo BDE-209 concentrations. For male birds, there were significant and negative associations between fecal T metabolite levels and in ovo BDE-47 and BDE-153 concentrations. The results of this study indicate that free-ranging passerines may be less reproductively sensitive to the effects of FRs at currently measured in ovo concentrations compared to higher trophic level avian species, and that multiple factors may be influencing the reproductive success of the tree swallows at these particular study sites. However, the results of this study also suggest that tree swallows may be sensitive to current environmental concentrations of flame retardants in terms of endocrine function; further research is warranted.
Les ignifugeants sont des produits chimiques omniprésents, dont certains peuvent persister dans l'environnement et peuvent s'accumuler dans la faune sauvage. L'objectif global de cette étude était d'étudier la fréquence et l'effet possible sur la reproduction et sur le système endocrinien de l'utilisation historique et actuelle des produits chimiques ignifugeants dans les oiseaux libres à l'aide de l'hirondelle bicolore (Tachycineta bicolor) en tant que modèle. Des colonies d'élevage de l'hirondelle bicolore ont été installées sur un site de référence et deux sites de stations d'épuration (WWTP); avec l'effluent d'un WWTP (c.-à-d. la WWTP près de Kitchener, Ontario: KWWTP) étant plus fortement contaminée par des ignifugeants que l'autre (c.-à-d. près de Hamilton, Ontario: WAWWTP). De 2007 à 2010, les œufs fraîchement pondus ont été recueillis auprès de chaque nid et analysés pour les concentrations d'ignifugeants; ces mêmes nids ont été surveillés régulièrement et des mesures de reproduction ont été enregistrées, et l'apparition de la perturbation endocrinienne fut évaluée dans un sous échantillon d'hirondelles bicolores adultes. À travers les sites, les éthers suivant: Le BDE-47, le BDE-99, le BDE-100, le BDE-153, et le BDE-154 ont été trouvés à des concentrations les plus élevées dans les œufs hirondelles bicolores, et d'autres PBDE congénères et ignifugeants furent quantifiés à des niveaux beaucoup plus faibles. Les hirondelles bicolores sur le site KWWTP ont eu des couvées significativement plus petites que celles sur le site WAWWTP, et le volume d'œufs a été positivement corrélé avec des niveaux de BDE-209, HBCD, et BB-101 in ovo. Le succès d'éclosion, de naissante et d'élevage des hirondelles bicolores était significativement différent entre les sites bien qu'il n'y avait pas de liens statistiquement significatifs entre ces mesures et les concentrations d'ignifugeants in ovo. On a également noté que la date d'initiation d'une couvée de poussins, la prédation des œufs et les oisillons, l'âge des femelles et des températures ambiantes ont différée sensiblement entre les sites. L'analyse de régression non paramétrique a montré que la date d'initiation d'une couvée de poussins et de la prédation des œufs était les meilleures valeurs prédictives de la réussite de la reproduction à travers les sites, mais pas les ignifugeants mesurés à l'heure actuelle à des concentrations in ovo. De 2009 à 2010, des échantillons fécaux ont été prélevés à partir des hirondelles adultes bicolores nicheuses, mâles et femelles pendant les phases de séduction/nid établissement et d'incubation; ces échantillons ont ensuite été analysés pour les niveaux de métabolites d'estradiol (E2), la testostérone (T), triiodothyronine (T3), et de la thyroxine (T4) dans les matières fécales. En 2011, les dosages immunologiques ont été biologiquement validés pour les hirondelles bicolores adultes en utilisant des hirondelles bicolores nichées comme contrôles négatifs. Pour les adultes hirondelles bicolores femelles, fécales T4 niveaux de métabolites étaient significativement et positivement associée à des concentrations BDE-209 in ovo. Pour les oiseaux mâles, il y avait des associations significatives et négatives entre les taux de T métabolites fécaux et des concentrations de BDE-47 et BDE-153 in ovo. Les résultats de cette étude indiquent que les passerines en liberté peuvent être moins sensible aux effets des ignifugeants à la reproduction à des concentrations actuellement mesurées in ovo par rapport des espèces supérieures de niveau trophique aviaire, et que de multiples facteurs peuvent influencer le succès de la reproduction des hirondelles bicolores à ces sites d'étude particulière. Cependant, les résultats de cette étude suggèrent également que les hirondelles bicolores peuvent être sensibles aux concentrations environnementales actuelles des ignifugeants sur le plan de fonction endocrinienne. Une recherche plus approfondie est justifiée et souhaitable.

Pigs do naturally have a high motivation to explore their environment. In a poor environment pigs still display this motivation and when there is no stimulation in the pen, pigs direct their behavior at pen-mates and pen components. Lack of stimulation can lead to decreased welfare and increased stress. This study investigates if extra stimuli by toys would affect pigs growth, health and welfare. Growing pigs (219) were followed during 7 weeks and divided into twenty two pens, eleven with toys and eleven without toys. I found partly support for the prediction that toys would help in a short time perspective but there was no support for the prediction that in a longer run the toys (used in this experiment) would increase pigs welfare. One explanation to this might be the straw that all the pens had (by law in Sweden), which seemed to be the most importuned component for satisfying pigs behavioral needs.

Traditional vineyard floor management in the eastern USA consists of mown resident vegetation in the aisle and herbicide bare driplines, promoting soil erosion and crusting, compaction, lowered water penetration, herbicide resistance, difficult weed management, increased plant parasitic nematode populations and decreased soil biodiversity for pest management. To investigate these issues, four novel vineyard floor management techniques and two N-fertilizer applications were investigated using nematode assemblages as a bioindicator of soil health. Main-plot groundcover treatments include: 1.) grower control, consisting of mown fescue (Festuca arundinacea) in the aisle with herbicide bare vine dripline, 2.) red fescue, creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra L.) established in both the aisle and vine dripline, 3.) successional, annually planted cereal rye (Secale cereale L.), spring oats (Avena sativa L.), and sorghum-sudan grass (Sorgum x drummondii) by planting them in succession with a no-till drill throughout the year, 4.) compost treatment consisted of a 2 to 1 mix of hardwood mulch and composted winery pomace applied across both the vineyard aisle and vine dripline. Split-plot nitrogen treatments include: 1.) no nitrogen fertility applied to grapevines, 2). 20 lb. N/ac applied to grapevine dripline at budbreak, bloom and veraison. The randomized complete block design with four main-plot treatments, two split-plot treatments and five blocks was established in 2013 and 2014 in a commercial mature Norton vineyard, planted in 2003, at 2.44 x 3.66 m spacing, in southern Illinois on a Hosmer silt-loam. The canonical analysis of principle components clearly revealed that compost and successional treatments were particularly effective at shifting nematode assemblages to higher populations of cp-5 nematodes to correlate with increases in soil respiration and organic matter, thus indicating establishment of a stable soil health structure both physically and ecologically. The results of the soil health analysis panel (soil respiration, water extracted organic carbon and water extracted macro-and micro-soil elements), consistently supported the interpretation of nematode community structure analysis. In fall 2015 the compost, red fescue and successional groundcovers combined with P and K soil fertility amendments increased water extractable K (WEK) in the aisle by 85%, 59% and 71%, respectively, compared to control; they similarly increased WEK in the aisle by 46%, 59% and 71%, respectively, in summer 2016. In the dripline WEK was increased 140%, 238% and 249%, respectively, by compost, red fescue and successional treatments that received no-N-prescription, compared to the control. The application of prescription-N increased WEK by 25% and 21%, respectively, in the compost and successional treatments that had a generous mulch layer. Soil P response to groundcover treatment clearly distinguished among each treatment the impact of nutrient turnover levels with water extracted P levels: successional > red fescue > compost > control, unique to each treatment. The water extracted mineral element levels detected with the soil health analysis were one-half to one-ninth the concentration extracted with the Mehlich-III test. Red fescue tripled the population of Pratylenchus spp. (236/100cc soil) in the dripline with prescription-N fertilization compared to no-N. Red fescue and successional treatments increased Helicotylenchus spp. populations by ~657% and ~172%, respectively, compared to compost (92/100cc soil) which closely resembled control response average in the dripline across 2015 and 2016. Prescription-N reduced Longidorus spp. by 78% compared to no-N treatment (23/100cc soil) in the dripline of fall 2015. Additionally, prescription-N added to the red fescue and successional treatments reduced Xiphinema spp. populations by 57% and 92%, respectively, compared to the control (52/100cc soil). Compost and successional groundcover treatments dramatically increased grapevine yield and crop size by 38% and 30%; and 29% and 38%, respectively, compared to grower control. The prescription N-fertilizer increased yield and crop size by 13% and 17%, respectively, compared to no-N. Compost and successional also increased Ravaz index by 33% and 60%, respectively, over control without reducing vine size which indicated their future vineyard sustainability.

Estuaries worldwide are being subjected to various degrees of catchment degradation, which is having severe consequences on the integrity of these aquatic ecosystems and their ability to function properly. This thesis investigated the relationship between catchment land-cover and estuarine health in four temporarily open/closed estuarine systems (TOCEs) in South Africa, namely the Groot Brak, East Kleinemonde, Mdloti and Tongati. GIS techniques were employed to delineate catchments, lower sections of catchments, 1 km and 100 m buffer zones, and to quantify the extent of land-cover classes present within these delineations. Anthropogenic activities outlined by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) Resource Directed Measures (RDM) studies and their associated land-cover classes were described. The possible links between catchment and buffer zone land-cover class composition and health of the estuaries were explored. Results indicated that there was a relationship between catchment and estuarine health within the Coastal Protection Zone (CPZ) (1 km and 100 m) buffers, but not at a broader catchment level. Out of natural, urban built-up and cultivation land-cover classes, natural land was determined to be the best predictor of estuarine health within the CPZs. A method of rapidly assessing South African TOCE condition was applied and could be used to prioritise these estuaries for rehabilitation and/or conservation.

Up to 75 percent of new construction between 2000 and 2030 may â be redirected inward or into more compact, mixed-use suburban developments (Nelson, 2004). If this assertion is even nearly true, and if the goals of the Clean Water Act are to be met in the next generation of American cities, then we must find feasible and effective ways of improving urban watershed health using retrofit and infill development as a primary means. The aim of this study is to evaluate the patterns and approaches of suburban infill developments in order to determine which methods and extents are deemed capable of improving the health, sustainability and natural services of urban streams and watersheds. Water is considered to be foundational to urban and suburban sustainability and is treated as a primary indicator of overall health and sustainability within the context of this study. This thesis presents three pilot studies that examine urban watershed health using a single case as a vehicle. The studies, in the order they are presented, are: 1) Form- analyzing the relationship between landuse patterns and imperviousness, 2) Planning- relating questions of development scale planning and design to natural and cultural systems at the watershed scale and 3) Valuation- illustrating three possibilities for determining the economic value of improving urban watershed health.
Master of Landscape Architecture

The problem of food insecurity among students in higher education, specifically students who belong to historically marginalized populations, is a serious national problem that is under researched. While data are not being collected universally, higher education institutions are beginning to report on this issue. Research reflects that 1 in 5 California State University students is experiencing chronic food insecurity and 1 in 10 is reporting experiences of homelessness. Higher education colleges are beginning to address this problem by casting a net of resources like food pantries, meal donations on student cards from other students, emergency funds through grants, CalFresh outreach and enrollment (federally funded program known as Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program), and other campus-unique programming to serve hard-to-reach, vulnerable students. This study explores such services at a public California State University-Hispanic Serving Institution with the goal of understanding students’ lived experiences related to accessibility of food programming and resources in higher education. By exploring the perceptions of four students that are female who were food insecure related to their utilization of food programs directed at ensuring student food security, this study intends: (1) to explore students’ satisfaction with campus food programming, (2) to describe the participants’ knowledge of campus food programs and healthy food options, and (3) to explore the relationship between food programming and policies and the lived experiences of students. This study is important because oftentimes research is missing the unheard voices of students. By embracing students’ stories, researchers can learn of their real-life experiences. This allows for a greater understanding of the significance of food insecurity and its impact on students using food programs in higher education settings.

Antarctic seabirds including Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae), south polar skuas (Catharacta maccormicki), southern giant petrels (Macronectes gigantus) are high trophic level predators that accumulate persistent organic pollutants (POPs) present in the food webs in which they forage. Little is known about the levels of POPs in some Antarctic organisms (e.g. southern giant petrels), as well as the long-term trends of POPs in the Antarctic ecosystem. Samples from all three seabird species were collected post mortem, including eggs, from the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) and in the Ross Sea throughout the austral summer breeding seasons of 2004--2006. The samples were analyzed for C and N stable isotopes and POPs including organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and brominated diphenyl ethers (BDEs). The objectives of this study were to: (1) evaluate the long-term trends of POP residues in Adelie penguins, (2) compare POP levels within livers of the three seabird species based on migratory patterns and trophic level using stable isotope analysis of delta15N and delta13C, and (3) demonstrate POPs can be used as tracers of Antarctic seabird ecology. POPs in Antarctic biota were first evaluated using Adelie penguin tissues and a long-term analysis including data from the current study showed SigmaDDT has not declined in WAP penguins for more than 30 years. Indeed, the presence of p,p'-DDT in these birds indicates that there is a current source of DDT to the WAP marine food web, and both measurements and calculations suggest that this source of DDT is related to climate driven environmental change in the region. A more broad analysis including all three seabird species showed SigmaPCBs, SigmaDDTs, Sigmachlordanes and mirex are 3--100 times higher in migratory seabird livers than the endemic penguins, while hexachlorobenzene (HCB) exhibits no difference in concentration between the three seabird species. Model predictions compared to measured output of delta13C and delta13N indicate a stronger correlation between delta13C and less volatile POP concentrations demonstrating the heavy influence of winter migration on the contaminant loads of seabirds that breed in Antarctica. Finally, discrepancies in POP ratios between migratory and endemic seabird eggs and fat in combination with stable isotope signatures gave insight into seabird evolutionary breeding strategies. For example, the relative abundance of SigmaPCBs was highest in south polar skua eggs and endogenous lipid input into skua eggs was estimated at >79% by examining discrepancies in contaminant ratios. The combined stable isotope and contaminant data indicate that south polar skuas and southern giant petrels employee different combinations of income and capital breeding strategies.

The U.S. healthcare system is a complex segment of our society that is constantly evolving with changes to various areas such as education, financing, safety, and health. There continues to be a critical examination of how healthcare professionals are trained and utilized as healthcare demands increase. One category of healthcare professionals that has evolved over time to address societal needs is pharmacists. Pharmacists have kept their traditional function of dispensing medications while expanding into multiple areas of expertise and training from patient counseling and drug therapy, to being part of multidisciplinary teams treating acute care patients. According to the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP) in 2009 there were approximately 265,000 licensed pharmacists in the U.S. (NABP, 2010). The Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) reported the settings with the largest number of positions are chain pharmacies (77,300), hospitals (49,200), and independent pharmacies (36,200) (DHHS, 2008). The ratio of pharmacists per 100,000 population is expected to increase from 68.9 pharmacists per 100,000 population to 76.7 per 100,000 between 1995 and 2020 (Gershon, Cultice, & Knapp, 2000). This increase in the pharmacist to population ratio is consistent with a growth rate of 13% during this time period of time. Until 1998, the supply of pharmacists in the U.S. appeared to be in reasonable balance with demand. Market forces gradually upset the delicate balance between the supply of pharmacists and the demand for their services between 1998 and 2009. In particular, a precipitous increase in the volume of prescription written and filled during this time period contributed to upsetting this delicate balance between the supply of pharmacists and demand (Cooksey, Walton, Stankewicz, & Knapp, 2003). Researchers have noted a number of environmental factors affecting the pharmacist supply in the U. S. This inquiry explores these factors within the context of the population ecology theoretical framework. In addition to the volume of prescriptions, additional environmental factors believed to have a discernible impact on the pharmacist supply include, the number of physicians, size of the business industry and insurance coverage. Previous studies on pharmacists supply have pointed to income, physician population, and population among other variables that predict the demand for pharmacists (Walton, Cooksey, Knapp, Quist, & Miller, 2004; Cherry, D.K., Woodwell, D.A., & Rechtsteiner 2007; Walton, Knapp, Miller, & Schumock 2007). U. S. physicians wrote over 4 billion prescriptions in 2007 (Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, 2008). Physicians are the primary healthcare providers that generate prescriptions to be filled. Consequently, the number of physicians is believed to be a significant environmental factor affecting the supply of pharmacists. There were approximately 940,000 physicians in the U. S. in 2008. Projections call for continuous growth of the number of physicians well into the future (Smart, 2010). Another important environmental factor potentially impacting the demand for pharmacists is the size of the business industry. In 2006, the health plan offer rate for large or medium organizations (50 or more employees) was 96.7% compared to 61.2% for small organizations (50 or less employees) (Sommers & Crimmel, 2008; Crimmel & Sommers, 2008). Insurance cov¬erage has the potential to have a positive impact on the demand for pharmacists because it provides the opportunity to obtain required prescriptions (Ranji, Wyn, Salganicoff, & Yu, 2007; Weinick, Byron, & Bierman, 2005). The population ecology theoretical framework has been used in the study of restaurants, newspapers, and physicians and their interactions with their surrounding environments. The theoretical framework proved to be beneficial in the exploration of the pharmacist supply vis-á-vis the environment. The primary constructs in the population ecology theory are carrying capacity and density. Carrying capacity consists of two sub-constructs: munificence and concentration. Density points to the current pharmacists supply and its impact on the future pharmacist supply. Numerous variables have been used in previous empirical studies of the pharmacist supply. Among the indicators of munificence in previous studies in the extant literature on pharmacist supply are total population, elderly population, hospitals, and median household income. In the present inquiry, total population was found to be a statistically significant environmental factor affecting the pharmacist supply. This was hypothesized that there is a positive linear relationship between total population and the pharmacist supply. The number of hospitals with pharmacies was also found to be a statistically significant environmental factor affecting the pharmacist supply. Hospital pharmacies are important venues wherein pharmacists can demonstrate their unique expertise and make discernible contributions to desirable health care outcomes when pharmaceutical interventions are required. In light of this empirical finding, it seems reasonable that a growth in hospital pharmacies corresponds with an increased demand for pharmacists (Kaboli, Hoth, McClimon, & Schnipper, 2006). Measures of the concentration dimension included the number of hospital beds per 100,000 population, employer volume and size and the number of insured. The only putative indicator of concentration that was found to be statistically significant in this inquiry was the number of employers with 20 or more employees. Previous pharmacist supply was found to be a significant environmental factor affecting the pharmacist supply in the future. Thus, density is a significant environmental factor affecting the pharmacist supply. Five of the 13 hypotheses tested in this inquiry were accepted. These findings are consistent with related findings in the extant literature on the pharmacist supply. Empirical findings from this inquiry are believed to make significant contributions to the literature on the pharmacist supply. The population ecology theoretical framework appears to be a suitable tool for exploring environmental factors affecting the pharmacist supply. Recommendations for future research are presented in the final chapter.

Emerging infectious diseases continue to represent serious threats to global human health. Novel zoonotic pathogens are continually being recognised, and some ultimately cause significant disease burdens and extensive epidemics. Research and public health initiatives often face emerging pathogens with limited knowledge and resources. Inferences from empirical modelling have begun to uncover the factors determining cross-species transmission and emergence in humans, and subsequently guide risk assessments. However, the dynamics of virulence and transmissibility during the process of emergence are not well understood. Here, I focus on RNA viruses, a priority pathogen type because of their potential for rapid evolution. I use comparative trait-based analyses to investigate how aspects of both host and virus ecology contribute to the risk of virulence and transmissibility within human RNA viruses. To explore these questions, data were collected via systematic literature search protocols. In the first half of this thesis, I focus on viral determinants of virulence and transmissibility. I ask whether virulence can be predicted by viral traits of tissue tropism, transmission route, transmissibility and taxonomic classification. Using a machine learning approach, the most prominent predictors of severe virulence were breadth of tissue tropism, and nonvector-borne transmission routes. When applied to newly reported viruses as test set, the final model predicted disease severity with 87% accuracy. Next, I assess support for hypothesised routes of adaptation during emergence using phylogenetic state-switching models. Propensity for adaptation in small ‘stepwise’ movements versus large ‘off-the-shelf’ jumps differed between virus taxa, though no single route dominated, suggesting multiple independent trajectories of adaptation to human hosts. In addition, phylogenetic regressions showed vector and respiratory-transmitted viruses to be more likely to progress through early stages of emergence. In the second half of this thesis, I focus on how dynamics of virulence and transmissibility differ with respect to nonhuman host diversity, identity, and ecology. Using a regression framework, I observe that viruses with a broader mammalian host range exhibited higher risk of severe virulence, but lower risk of transmissibility, which may reflect potential trade-offs of host specificity. Furthermore, viruses with artiodactyl hosts exhibited lower risk of severe virulence and viruses with bat or nonhuman primate hosts exhibited higher risk of transmissibility. Next, I test hypotheses that mammal species with faster-paced life history may be predisposed to host viruses with greater virulence and transmissibility. Mammal body mass was used as an established proxy for pace of life history. In regression analyses, mammals with faster-paced life history hosted more viruses with severe virulence, though evidence for a relationship with transmissibility was limited. The broad-scale associations presented in this thesis suggest the evolution of virulence and human-to-human transmissibility during zoonotic emergence is a multifactorial, highly dynamic process influenced by both virus and host ecology. Despite this, general characteristics of high-risk emerging viruses are evident. For example, severe virulence was associated with broad niche diversity of both tissue tropisms at the within-host scale, and host species at the macroecological scale. However, risk factors for virulence and human-to-human transmissibility often did not coincide, which may imply an overarching trade-off between these traits. These analyses can contribute to preparedness and direction within public health strategies by identifying likely candidates for high-impact emergence events among previously known and newly discovered human viruses. The inherent connectivity between RNA viruses, their nonhuman hosts and the resulting implications for human health emphasise the holistic nature of emerging diseases and supports the One Health perspective for infectious disease research.

Predicting impact of oil spills on aquatic life requires a better understanding of effects on aquatic organisms, both for single hydrocarbons and for their interactions. In this study, the individual and combined effects of petroleum hydrocarbons phenanthrene (Phen) and dibenzothiophene (DBT) were assessed on the reproductive behavior of the freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca. Following a 24-h exposure to single PAHs, or an equimolar mixture of Phen-DBT, mate-guarding behavior was assessed at the end of the exposure and during a subsequent 10 min behavioral observation period with the animals in clean water. The endpoints of the study during the behavior observation period were—time taken to initiate mate-guarding (TIMG), and proportion of time spent in amplexus (PTA). The study demonstrated that the exposure to Phen and DBT reduced the incidence of mate-guarding during the actual exposure period, but not during the observation period. However, whether or not pairs were involved in mate-guarding at the end of the exposure period did affect both TIMG and PTA during the observation period. Thus, the effects of Phen and DBT on amplexus status at the end of the exposure period indirectly affected TIMG and PTA during the observation period. The interaction between Phen and DBT with respect to their effects on mate-guarding varied among the mate-guarding measures. For the amplexus status at the end of the exposure period and for the effect on TIMG, the interaction did not deviate statistically from an additive effect. For PTA, the overall interaction was a synergistic one. This study's findings point out that assessments of hydrocarbon toxicity need to take into account that subtle reproductive behaviors (that may play an important role in population persistence) may be negatively affected. The results also show that the general assumption of additive effects among different PAHs may be an oversimplification.

This thesis employs participatory research in community urban food projects to understand not only what these projects can contribute towards environmental justice but also how the issues they raise influence the way that environmental justice is conceptualised. Following protests in 1970s USA, environmental justice has developed into a protest movement and an area of policy and research that appears to be reconceptualising sustainable development discourses around notions of social justice. In particular, concern has been raised about the inequitable distribution of exposure to environmental pollution and access to environmental resources, exclusion from democratic decision making, and lack of recognition of particular understandings of an experiences of the environment, not only in planning but in the environmental movement itself. Where food has been discussed, it has been almost exclusively in terms of food accessibility, yet the intimate relationship between food, health and the environment and social impacts of the food sector globally, means that it is an important theme in understanding environmental justice. The two main case studies are understood through four conceptual lenses: involvement, access, protection and recognition. Interviews with supplementary cases and representatives of the policy community in Greater Manchester put the case studies into context. The discussion that follows addresses crosscutting themes including the dilemma of relying on volunteers, the importance of recognising cultural differences, and the tensions between pursuing democratic involvement at the same time as adopting health promotion and sustainable development as normative frameworks. In doing so, the food sector is found to pose particular challenges to the development and operationalisation of the environmental just concept. The thesis therefore not only raises important issues and tensions in environmental justice, but also shows how urban food projects can contribute to addressing these.

The purpose of this study is to explore the concept of ‘Healthy Ageing’ in Hong Kong. The research attempts to explore the historical base from which ‘Healthy Ageing’ has been conceptualized in both Western and Chinese societies. This study also tries to provide an overview of literature that relevant to the ‘Healthy Ageing’ concept, and to provide an initial theoretical framework of ‘Healthy Ageing’ in a Hong Kong Chinese context. This study mainly adopts a qualitative approach in exploring the meaning of the concept. Since that ‘Healthy Ageing’ is likely to be conceptualized from the concept of health and ageing, which have been here since the early days, a method of documentary analysis on the origin of the concept and the paths leading to what it is at present has been employed. To re-construct the concept in Hong Kong, this thesis works towards an explanation of the historical base of the concept of ‘Healthy Ageing’ in both Chinese and Western societies since Hong Kong has evolved from a mixture of both cultures. Comparative cultural analysis and research’s own interpretation act as important roles in the present study to consolidate those raw documents in particular of the Chinese literature and construct a new model for the concept. Having constructed a model of ‘Healthy Ageing’, an expert in cultural studies was then interviewed at the end of May 2002 for verifying the model. Adopting a comparative cultural analysis, this study found that the fundamental elements, say physical and psychosocial well-being, in conceptualization of health in both East and West are almost the same, but manifestations and interpretations show some variations. Chinese people are apt to manifest and interpret their concept of health by an holistic approach, while the concept of health in Western societies is more likely to be manifested in a “compartmental” approach. These variations are basically derived from the differences of geo-cultural adaptations and the differences in individual lifestyles. As to the concept of ageing, this study revealed that ageing subject as a process instead of an end-stage of life-span. According to one view of human beings, life-spans can be divided into eight periods: Prenatal (pregnancy), Infancy (0-3), Early Childhood (3-6), Middle Childhood (6-12), Adolescence (12-20), Young Adulthood (20-40), Midlife (40-65) and Old Age (65+). It is a natural and integral process of growing old starting from birth and ending at death, in which a continuous process of biological, psychological and social changes will be experienced in a person’s life-course. After reconstructing health and ageing concepts, a tentative model of healthy ageing was developed in this study. In this study, healthy ageing is an holistic and dynamic concept. It is a state of interactions and adaptations between people and the environment in attaining optimal health in one’s life-span. It is a three-dimensional concept that encompasses health, health-ageing and health-ageing-environment dimensions. For the health dimension, there are six interrelated cross-life domains in achieving healthy ageing, which involve physical, psychological, social, economic, spiritual and environmental well-being. For the health-ageing dimension, people can achieve healthy ageing by attaining health in each stage of life. In this process, the health at younger stage influences the health at older stage. Thus, keeping healthy in early stage benefits the health conditions in later stages, although it cannot be said that what happens in early stage might not be unchangeable for later stages. Adopting health-promoting strategies in later stage can also provide opportunities for individuals to achieve healthy ageing. The health-ageing-environment dimension refers to the people-environment adaptation for attaining optimal health in their life-spans. Basically, people can ideally achieve healthy ageing by adopting health-promoting strategy at every stage of life. However, those favourable and unfavourable external environments will limit and change the opportunities for a person to achieve healthy ageing. To achieve optimal health in their life-spans, people are required to adjust themselves, adapting to their environment and also helping to shape the environment. Therefore, an individual-community approach is crucial for attaining healthy ageing.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a very common chronic disease, as well as being a major public health issue internationally. Hyperglycaemia is the most important clinical manifestation of diabetes. It develops through a multifactorial aetiology which includes genetic, environmental, and behavioural factors. It is estimated that 171 million people in the world currently have diabetes mellitus. This figure is expected to increase to 366 million by the year 2030. The distribution of DM varies around the world. The country with the greatest number of people with DM is India, with 31.7 million in 2000 and estimated to increase to 79.4 by 2030, though this is a low prevalence rate of 3% of the population. The USA has 18.8 million cases in 2011, representing 8% of the population, and this figure is estimated to rise to 30.3 million cases by 2030. The UK has 2.8 million cases in 2010, representing 4.2% of the population, and estimated to reach 4 million cases by 2025. The prevalence of DM has reached epidemic status in Saudi Arabia, where it affected 8.3 million people, or 23.7% of the population, in 2007. It is clear from these figures that there is variance in rates of diabetes prevalence in different countries. Moreover, researchers reported that this high rate of diabetes occur at lower average adiposity levels in some ethnic groups, such as South Asians, than in European populations, suggesting that South Asians are more susceptible to the effects of obesity. Several studies have investigated these differences in specific ethnic populations, but other populations, such as Saudi Arabs, have received less attention in these studies. The impending global pandemic of obesity, type 2 diabetes and vascular disease suggests an urgent need for both prevention strategies and effective treatment, which need to account for these ethnic differences. Physical activity has been shown to improve glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity in men and women of all ages and ethnicities. Diabetes UK and the American College of Sport Medicine (ACSM) recommend that adults take at least 30 minutes of moderately intense physical activity on most days. They also recommend walking 10,000 steps most days. This is supported by the work of Tudor-Locke, Bassett, Le Massurier et al. (2007). These recommendations are aimed at European and American populations. However, to date there has been no study of the benefits of accumulation of 10,000 steps daily on glycaemic control or insulin sensitivity. Despite the benefits of physical activity being well-known, previous findings have reported that more than 43% of Saudis do not take any moderately intense physical activity. Moreover, the current evidence emphasises the importance of creating a programme to increase physical activity, encompassing multiple levels of the social environment. The aims of this thesis are to investigate if a walking programme can be conducted successfully among Saudi Arabian and, if so, whether it can deliver improved glycaemic control. In addition, the second study evaluated the efficacy of a social ecological intervention to increase walking among sedentary Saudi men. First Study: The first study was a 12-week randomised controlled trial. It recruited 39 overweight men with a family history of type 2 diabetes. After two weeks of baseline activity, participants were randomised into two groups: control and active. The control group (n = 17, 45±9 yr) was instructed to continue with their baseline activity for 12 weeks. The active group (n = 22, 47±7 yr) was instructed to walk at least 10,000 steps per day, 5 or more days per week, for 12 weeks. Steps were measured using a Yamax SW-200 pedometer. All subjects participated in a pre-test and a post-test. Each session consisted of a metabolic and anthropometric test. The baseline physical activity was not significantly different in the active and control groups (3781 ± 344 and 3298± 516 steps/day; P = 0.57). Subjects in both groups significantly increased physical activity during the intervention phase of the study. The active group increased to 9199 ± 1084 steps per day (P = 0.002) and the control group increased to 4863 ± 787 (P = 0.03). In the active group, glucose concentration reduced from 6.33 ± 0.4 at pre-test to 5.73 ± 0.3 at post-test (P = 0.008), which was a significant decrease. Fasting insulin reduced from 14.0 ± 2.5 to 13.4 ± 2.3 (P =0.046). Body mass also significantly decreased in the active group (P = 0.01). There was no significant change in these figures in the control group. Second Study In the second study, overweight male volunteers were recruited. They were randomised into two groups: a social ecology group (SE) of 35 volunteers and a self-monitoring group (SM) of 28 volunteers completed the study. Both groups monitored their steps/day during a one-week control period and over the 10-week study. In addition, the men in the active group attended four weekly sessions designed to target intrapersonal (self-efficacy, and self-regulation), and interpersonal (social support functions: attachment, social integration, reassurance of worth, reliable alliance, guidance and opportunity of nurturance) levels of the social environment. During the study period, data was collected at three time points: pre-test (baseline), post-test (at 4 weeks), and follow-up (at 11 weeks). Steps were measured using a Yamax SW-200 pedometer. Both groups significantly increased their steps/day at each time point (P < 0.001). This increase was significantly greater in the SE group (baseline 3321 ± 950 to post-test 7294 ± 338 to follow-up 5514 ± 394) compared to the SM comparison (baseline 3305 ± 720 to post-test 4865 ± 263 to follow-up 3540 ± 217). The intervention had a significant impact on self-regulatory self-efficacy, task self efficacy, self regulation for walking and some of the social support functions (attachment, reassurance of worth and reliable alliance) in SE participants only. In conclusion, the results presented in this thesis are the first to show that it is feasible to conduct a 10,000 step/day walking programme for overweight men. In addition, this programme was effective in producing statistically significant improvements in glycaemic control. The thesis also describes the first social ecology study to be conducted with overweight men. Such comparatively simple methods as social support and advice also significantly increased physical activity. In this pilot project, the use of pedometers has proved to be an effective tool for promoting healthy lifestyle changes that include daily physical activity and self-monitoring of therapeutic goals.