Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Hazelnut'

In this study, the pore structures and surface areas of activated carbons produced from hazelnut shell and hazelnut husk by chemical activation technique using phosphoric acid (H3PO4), at relatively low temperatures (300, 400 and 500oC), were investigated. Raw materials were impregnated with different H3PO4 solutions of 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% by weight. To produce activated carbon, acid impregnated samples were heated
at a heating rate of 20 oC/min to the final carbonization temperature and held at that temperature for 2 hours. The volume and surface areas of mesopores (2-50 nm) and BET surface areas of the samples were determined by N2 gas adsorption technique at -195.6oC. The pore volume and the area of the micropores with diameters less than 2 nm were determined by CO2 adsorption measurements at 0oC by the application of Dubinin Radushkevich equation. N2 (BET) surface areas of the hazelnut shell and hazelnut husk based activated carbons were in the range of 242-596 m2/g and 705-1565 m2/g, respectively. CO2 (D-R) surface areas of the hazelnut shell and hazelnut husk based activated carbons were in the range of 433-576 m2/g and 376-724 m2/g, respectively. The highest BET surface area was obtained as 596 m2/g among hazelnut shell based samples (HS 60.4
shell impregnated with 60 wt.% H3PO4, carbonized at 400 º
C) and as 1565 m2/g among hazelnut husk based samples (HH 40.4
husk impregnated with 40 wt.% H3PO4, carbonized at 400 º
C). Hazelnut shell based activated carbons were mainly microporous while hazelnut husk based ones were mesoporous.

Eriophyoid big bud mites are key pests of hazelnuts throughout the world, although little is known of the identity and impact of the species on New Zealand hazelnut crops. The key objectives of this study were to determine the species of mite present on New Zealand crops, explore a method of monitoring mite emergence from overwintering big buds, determine the phenology of mites in relation to tree phenology and weather, and identify the optimum timing for control measures. The presence of both Phytoptus avellanae (Nalepa 1889) (Acari: Phytoptidae) and Cecidophyopsis vermiformis (Nalepa 1889) (Acari: Eriophyidae) was confirmed, the latter species being a new record for New Zealand. Preliminary diagnostic DNA sequences were determined for both species. A sticky band technique was developed to monitor mite emergence from overwintering big buds, and mite emergence was found to occur between early and late spring. Mite emergence and movement occurred when daily temperatures were greater than 15 degrees C and when mean temperatures were greater than 9 degrees C, with mite emergence increasing with temperature. It proved difficult to relate the phenology of hazelnut to mite emergence, however, the development of new buds during mite emergence was a crucial factor in the infestation of new buds. An accumulated heat sum model (DD), started at Julian date 152 and using a lower threshold temperature of 6 degrees C, predicted the onset of emergence on two cultivars and at two sites as occurring at approximately 172 DD. A regression model based on leaf number, bud height, bud width, DD and Julian date provided a more satisfactory prediction of percent accumulated mite emergence. It is recommended both peak mite emergence and the appearance of hazelnut buds should be used to optimise the time to apply control measures. Therefore, a control should be applied before buds measure 0.5 x 0.5 mm (width x height), are enclosed within the axil, and have a rounded tip, or, when 50% accumulated mite emergence has occurred, which ever occurs first. A preliminary field experiment tested the application of sulphur (40 g/10 litres of 800 g/kg No Fungus Super Sulphur) at 2, 50 and 80% accumulated mite emergence. The greatest reduction in mite numbers was achieved with an application at approximately 50% emergence. Considerable variation in mite emergence occurred between years, therefore optimum timing of controls would need to be determined by monitoring mites, new buds and weather conditions each year. Field collection of mites also identified the presence of Typhlodromus doreenae Schicha (Acari: Phytoseiidae) which would warrant further study for inclusion in an integrated mite control programme.

Le principali anomalie evidenziate nelle nocciole avariate riguardano la presenza di macchie necrotiche, imbrunimenti interni rilevati inseguito al taglio dei frutti e la presenza di marciumi parziali o totali su di essi con conseguente riduzione del prodotto disponibile sul mercato e ingenti perdite economiche. Sulla base di quanto premesso, lo scopo principale di questa tesi è stato quello di identificare e caratterizzare l'agente causale/i dei difetti del nocciolo e di definire un protocollo di gestione del problema, secondo i principi IPM. È stata quantificata l'incidenza dei generi fungini isolati da nocciole provenienti da diverse aree geografiche (Caucaso e Turchia), raccolte in diversi anni e in diverse fasi di crescita della coltura. Diaporthe è stato identificato come il principale genere fungino associato ai difetti della nocciola, e la caratterizzazione molecolare ha confermato il ruolo predominante della specie D. eres. Sono state studiate le caratteristiche ecologiche di questo fungo e l'efficacia in vitro di fungicidi chimici e biologici per controllarne la crescita miceliale, lo sviluppo di picnidi e la formazione di cirri. I risultati ottenuti costituiscono una base per definire linee guida per la corretta gestione della coltura al fine di prevenire la comparsa del patogeno identificato e delle difettosità nelle nocciole
Defects on hazelnuts are responsible for a significant reduction in the availability of high-quality hazelnuts with profound economic impacts. A reduction in the occurrence of defects, based on the identification of causal agents and on their control, is critical to improve the quality of raw nut products and reduce yield losses. Based on this background, the main aim of this thesis was to identify and characterize the causal agent/s of kernel defects in hazelnuts and to define a management protocol, according to IPM principles. Defects affecting hazelnuts are cause of brown spots on the kernel surface and darkening/browning inside the kernel, visible after nuts are half-cut. The incidence of fungal genera in hazelnuts coming from different geographical areas (Caucasus and Turkey), collected in different years at different crop growth stages, was quantified. Diaporthe was identified as the main genus involved in hazelnut defects, and the molecular characterization confirmed the predominant role of D. eres. Its ecological needs were investigated, and the in vitro efficacy of chemical and biological fungicide were screened to control D. eres growth, pycnidial conidiomata development and cirrhi occurrence. This would be an essential tool for a sustainable crop protection approach in this economically important crop

During the 1990s, a question posed by new and intending growers of hazelnuts was “What is the best variety to plant when establishing a commercial orchard?” Although existing growers had a range of views on this matter, there had not been any scientific studies to evaluate the range of cultivars available in Australia. Although hazelnut cultivars were introduced to Australia in the mid-Nineteenth Century, there had been very limited industry development compared to other cool climate deciduous tree crops such as pome and stone fruits. In the 1970s many cultivars were imported from overseas, but there was no systematic evaluation of this material. In 1994, the author of this thesis obtained a grant from the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) to undertake an assessment of hazelnut cultivars and their potential for Australian conditions. The evaluation involved planting a range of cultivars at 5 field sites. Two were in New South Wales, 2 in Victoria, and 1 in Tasmania. There was variation between the sites in soil types and climate. A randomised block design was used with cultivars as treatments within blocks. Observations and measurements were recorded for tree growth, floral phenology, nut yields and the characteristics of both nuts and kernels. All sites had supplementary irrigation and common management practices. 1-year old hazelnut whips were planted at a spacing of 3 m x 5 m. Automatic weather stations were located at each site. There were major differences between cultivars, in terms of their vigour of growth, floral phenology, nut yields and kernel characteristics. In addition to the cultivar effects, soil type was a major factor influencing tree growth, as was rainfall. Cultivars with high vigour included ‘Barcelona’ and the Australian selection ‘Tokolyi/Brownfield Cosford’ (‘TBC’). Those of low vigour were ‘Tonda Gentile delle Langhe’ (‘TGDL’), ‘Negret’ and ‘Wanliss Pride’. There were significant interactions between cultivars and the sites in tree growth and nut yields. Timing of male and female anthesis was strongly influenced by cultivar and seasonal conditions. All cultivars were protandrous. The commencement of pollen shed ranged from late-May, for the cultivars ‘TGDL’ and ‘Barcelona’, to early August for ‘Hall’s Giant’. Chill hour requirements appeared to be the main factor influencing timing of pollen shed. Female anthesis was also spread over a period of several weeks with early cultivars being ‘Atlas’ and ‘Tonda di Giffoni’, late cultivars were ‘Ennis’, ‘Casina’ and ‘Hall’s Giant’. Studies with cut branches in controlled temperature environments indicated that catkins had a relatively high post-chill heat requirement compared to female inflorescences. The differences between cultivars in post-chill heat requirements for catkins were small. The relative dates of flowering across cultivars were found to be highly predictable. This, coupled with published data on genetic incompatibility, made it possible to recommend cultivars as pollinisers for the main nut-yielding cultivars. There were significant differences between cultivars in the date of bud break; ‘TGDL’ and ‘Tonda di Giffoni’ were early (late August) whereas ‘Hall’s Giant’ was late (late September). Nut yields were highly influenced by cultivar, vigour of growth, site and seasonal rainfall. Low rainfall in one season greatly reduced nut yields. High growth rates at one site lead to a closed canopy 7 years from planting with peak yields. Soil characteristics were a main factor influencing tree growth and nut yields. The best tree growth and highest levels of production were achieved on a deep, well drained, fertile loam soil. The characteristics of nuts and kernels were strongly influenced by cultivar, although seasonal conditions influenced nut and kernel size and the degree of kernel fill. An overall evaluation of cultivars was based on nut and kernel yields as well as kernel characteristics to meet market requirements. On average, ‘Ennis’ gave the highest yields of the in-shell cultivars. The cultivars ‘Barcelona’ and ‘TBC’ produced the highest average yields, although their relative performance varied between sites. These cultivars were considered best suited for snack foods and catering with 15-17 mm kernels. ‘Tonda di Giffoni’ produced moderately high yields, varying across sites, with kernels suitable for the confectionery market. Under favourable conditions ‘Barcelona’ achieved nut yields of 3 tonnes/ha within 6 years from planting. Potential areas in Australia for hazelnut production were identified, based on a set of recommended climatic parameters and soil characteristics.

This study analyses the dynamics of persistence of the peasantry in a capitalist social formation through a case study of a village (Kayadibi) of hazelnut producers in the Central Black Sea region of Turkey. In the analysis the peasant household is given analytical priority as it is seen to be the single most important social institution through which the peasantry interacts, condition and is conditioned by the wider social, economic and political structures. Within such an analytical framework, this study concentrates on three areas of inquiry concerning the dynamics of survival of peasant modes. This is carried out in the context of the process of rural socio-economic transformation which took place under the impact of capitalism and with the start of hazelnut production for the world market in the early nineteenth century. These are: (1) the historical and contingent factors which contributed to the emergence and decline of big land- ownership and the new forms of development of capitalism in agriculture; (2) the areas of disputes and clashes of interests between the peasantry, the state and the merchants concerning the actual form of organization of the commodity and credit markets and further development or restriction of hazelnut production in the country; and (3) the patterns and mechanisms which enable the peasant households to have continuous access to land, labour and credit. The thesis arrives at the conclusion that the key to the persistence of the peasantry, as a property-owning social category of the society in a capitalist formation, is its strategy of diversifying its sources of income in order to decrease the degree of its dependency on land-bound agricultural production. This is combined with the strategy of consolidating its savings in the means of production in its own possession instead of using them to improve its standards of living and consumption.

The purpose of this dissertation is to examine how the market works on the ground. It analyzes the hazelnut market in Turkey and explores the interaction between the market agents. It reveals how this interaction relates to the presence, production and circulation of forms of uncertainty. It also ascertains what uncertainty means in market settings and what role production, representation, dissemination and limiting of uncertainty play in market relations.

In market relations, intentionally or unintentionally, individuals try to forecast, value, prevent and qualify (as risk or loss) uncertainties. They assume that they can perceive, measure and avoid uncertainties on the basis of probabilities, level of knowledge about unknowns or ability to overcome. As such, uncertainty is assumed to be given yet with inadequate attention into its constitutive dynamics, actors of its making and its role in the market creation. The dissertation examines how uncertainties are constructed and what role this construction plays in constituting the market exchange and relations. The conclusions reached are that economizing uncertainty becomes a market device in production, exchange, circulation, pricing and policy making.

The dissertation starts with an analysis of the market reform policies and agricultural transformation in Turkey. Next, it traces the processes of the production and calculation of hazelnuts, examining how hazelnuts are produced and measured under uncertainty, and how uncertainty is created in the calculation of hazelnuts. It then explains exchange relations and price politics created at different spheres and with different expectations. After that, it explores the struggles and controversies among market groups over the production, calculation, exchange and pricing of hazelnuts and policy making. Subsequently, it analyzes what the politics of uncertainty means and how it is produced in the market setting.

Following uncertainties and observing their making in markets require a research program that draws on literatures concerning economics, political science and sociology. The research program includes the discussion of material things, individuals, formal and informal institutions and prices as well as their interactions. The research was based primarily on qualitative interviews, participant observations, case studies and document analysis conducted between 2006 and 2009.

This research has studied the optimisation of activated carbon production from waste hazelnut shells, using both conventional and microwave heating techniques. A comparative study was conducted on the results obtained from both production methods to provide information on the characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of each production technique from a physical and chemical perspective. The study of the conventional production method was carried out using a comprehensive two- stage Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The microwave production method was studied using a combination of RSM and the traditional single-factor-at-a-time experimental design. The comparison of the two production methods showed that at a similar degrees of carbon burn- off, much lower pore volume and internal surface area was achieved for the microwave produced samples. The highest BET surface area produced with the conventional production method was 1777 m2/g, obtained from the activation of carbonised char with 0.67 ml/min water for 4 hours at 900°C. This value was nearly 2.5 times larger than the maximum BET surface area achieved from the microwave production method (715 m2/g) (50 min at 1000W). Similar results were also obtained for the aqueous phase adsorption of phenol and methylene blue; 2.2x and 2.3x larger adsorption capacity for thermal sample, respectively. In general, the microwave production method was found to be less effective in the production of highly microporous carbon. While the rate of micropore development with carbon burn-off in microwave heating was much lower than the conventional method, mesopore volume was found to be close and even comparable with that achieved with the conventional method. Considering that the microwave heating resulted in lower energy consumption per unit carbon burn-off, this heating system can be energy efficient in the production of mesoporous adsorbents. The energy efficiency could be of great importance when a two step carbonisation- activation is to be employed, since it could considerably reduce the heating time to the final activation temperature.

Plants are unquestionably at the basis of human life as they are directly or indirectly a source of food, but the agricultural sector accounts for more than 80% of water consumption. Agricultural production cannot ignore water supply to meet market demands, while it faces growing water shortages, droughts and heat waves. In this sense, it is paramount to manage water resources in a sustainable way by understanding the water responses of species to different climates. The European hazelnut is an expanding orchard tree, which has now established in all continents to answer the increasing demand for nuts from the food industry. Trees face the challenge of acclimating to new areas, while remaining productive. In this situation, still no precise knowledge exits about the average transpiration of hazelnut orchard under standard irrigation and thus about the real irrigation needs respect to its environment. The few studies on hazelnut water use are mainly leaf-based or hardly transferred to growers. This research focuses on three main topics in the perspective of providing useful reference for orchard managers set in different climatic contexts: I) to identify the pattern of transpiration response to different climates, irrigation and cultivars. II) To estimate the transpiration at the tree level and propose a realistic tool for growers to reintegrate water loss. III) Explore the links and limitations of transpiration activity and carbon gain processes. We set a long-term experiment across three growing seasons (from 2016 to 2019) on eight orchards in Chile, Australia, Italy, France and Republic of Georgia, involving two cultivars: Tonda Gentile delle Langhe and Tonda di Giffoni. We monitored in continuous the sap flow with Granier’s thermal dissipation probes (TDPs), the meteorological parameters and the soil water content. Tree biometrics and orchard features were recorded as well. TDPs were calibrated with a liquid flow meter applied to a potometric system. The transpiration responses showed to be linearly correlated to the vapor pressure deficit of the atmosphere (VPD) until 20hPa. The radiation intensity produced different responses in the two hemisphere, but cultivar and doubled irrigation had little impact. The calibration of TDPs lead to the correction of the Granier’s equation with parameters suitable for hazelnut. This, together with the estimation of the tree leaf area, allowed to derive a range of transpiration per unit of leaf (1-2.55 l m-2day-1). This is the basis for a water loss reintegration strategy by knowing the mean daily VPD. The link between transpiration and carbon assimilation was considered to highlight the interval of VPD at which the canopy conductance, and thus the potential carbon assimilation, is maximized. A conclusive ancillary study shows through the manipulation of C sources and sinks that the nut production depends on C previously stored in the stem showing that branches are not fully carbon autonomous.
Le piante sono indiscutibilmente alla base della vita umana poiché sono direttamente o indirettamente fonte alimentare, ma il settore agricolo pesa per più dell’80% sul consumo di acqua. La produzione agricola non può prescindere dall’apporto idrico per raggiungere le richieste del mercato, mentre deve fronteggiare una crescente scarsità di acqua, eventi siccitosi e ondate di calore. In questo senso, diviene fondamentale gestire le risorse idriche in modo sostenibile comprendendo le risposte idriche delle specie ai diversi climi. Il nocciolo è un albero da frutto in grande espansione, che si è oggi affermato in tutti i continenti in risposta alla richiesta di nocciole da parte dell’industria alimentare. I noccioli debbono al contempo acclimatarsi alle nuove aree e rimanere produttivi. In questa situazione non c’è ancora una precisa conoscenza rispetto alla traspirazione media di noccioleti irrigati e quindi alle loro necessità irrigue calate nel contesto climatico. I pochi studi sull’ utilizzo dell’acqua nel nocciolo rimangono relativi alle dinamiche fogliari o sono difficili da trasferire agli agricoltori. Lo scopo di questa ricerca verte su tre scopi principali nella prospettiva di essere un riferimento per i gestori dei corileti che operano in diversi contesti climatici: I) Identificare la risposta traspirativa di piante adulte in diversi climi, irrigazioni e cultivar. II) Stimare la traspirazione al livello di albero e, sulla base di ciò, proporre un approccio realistico per reintegrare le perdite traspirative volto ai corilicoltori. III) Esplorare le connessioni e le limitazioni alla traspirazione e ai processi di acquisizione del carbonio. Si è installato un esperimento a lungo termine attraverso tre stagioni vegetative (2016-2019) in otto diversi corileti in Cile, Australia, Italia, Francia e Repubblica della Georgia, coinvolgendo due cultivar: Tonda Gentile delle Langhe and Tonda di Giffoni. Il flusso di linfa è stato monitorato con delle sonde a dissipazione termica di Granier (TDP). Sono stati misurati parametri meteorologici, contenuto idrico del suolo e parametri biometrici dei corileti. I TDP sono stati calibrati attraverso un misuratore di flusso e un approccio potometrico. Le risposte traspirative si sono dimostrate linearmente correlate con il deficit di pressione di vapore atmosferico (VPD) fino a circa 20 hPa. L’intensità di radiazione si è anche rivelata importante nel diversificare le risposte tra i due emisferi, ma la cultivar e le diverse strategie irrigue hanno avuto un effetto irrilevante nel diversificare le risposte traspirative. La calibrazione dei TDP ha condotto alla correzione dell’equazione di Granier con parametri adatti al nocciolo. Questo, insieme alla stima dell’area fogliare ha permesso di individuare un intervallo di traspirazione per unità di area fogliare (1-2.5 l m-2 giorno-1). Tale risposta è alla base di una strategia di reintegro delle perdite traspirative che utilizza il VPD medio come principale predittore della traspirazione totale giornaliera. Il legame tra traspirazione e assimilazione potenziale di carbonio è stato considerato per far emergere l’intervallo di VPD in cui la conduttanza di chioma è massimizzata, e quindi, anche il potenziale di assimilazione. Uno studio ancillare conclusivo mostra che per il riempimento delle nocciole la specie utilizza anche carboidrati precedentemente immagazzinati nel fusto oltre che a quelli forniti dalle foglie dell’anno.

The main objective of this study was to optimize the roasting conditions of hazelnuts in microwave-infrared and microwave-convective heating combination ovens by using response surface methodology. It was also aimed to construct regression models for the prediction of quality parameters of hazelnuts as a function of processing conditions. The independent variables were microwave power (10, 30, 50, 70 and 90%), upper-lower infrared power (10, 30, 50, 70 and 90%) and roasting time (2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 min) for microwave-infrared combination roasting. Microwave power (70, 140 and 210W), air temperature (90, 150 and 210°
C) and roasting time (5, 15 and 25 min) were the independent variables of microwave-convective heating combination oven. As control, hazelnuts roasted in conventional oven at 150°
C for 20 min were used. The quality parameters were L* value, a* value, fracture force and moisture content of the hazelnuts for both microwave assisted ovens. The optimum roasting conditions of microwave-infrared combination oven were determined as 2.5 min of roasting time at 613.8W microwave power, 1800W upper infrared power, and 300W lower infrared power. Hazelnuts roasted at the optimum condition had comparable quality with the conventionally roasted ones. When micro- wave infrared combination oven was used, conventional roasting time of hazelnuts was reduced by 87.5%. Optimum roasting conditions of microwave-convective heating combination oven were 140 W microwave power, 150°
C air temperature and 20 min roasting time. High regression coefficients were calculated between the experimental data and predicted values showing that RSM is capable in predicting quality parameters of hazelnuts during microwave assisted roasting.

El proyecto de tesis tiene como fin desarrollar y caracterizar productos fermentados a partir de licuados vegetales con una excelente calidad nutricional y sensorial. Para conseguir el propósito mencionado se eligieron licuados de almendra, avellana y avena, cuyas propiedades fisicoquímicas y nutricionales son aptas para el proceso de fermentación. Para ello, se estudió el efecto de los tratamientos térmicos y de homogenización sobre las cualidades fisicoquímicas y de estabilidad de los diferentes licuados, para elegir en base a los resultados obtenidos, las condiciones idóneas de su obtención. Por otra parte, se seleccionaron dos cepas probióticas comerciales (L. rhamnosus GG y L. reuteri ATCC 55730) con el fin de obtener productos fermentados a partir de los licuados elegidos y, de este modo, ofrecer nuevas posibilidades y beneficios al consumidor dentro del sector de productos no-lácteos. Por otra parte, con la adición de microorganismos probióticos se pretende satisfacer la demanda actual de productos funcionales; es decir, ofrecer productos que, además del aporte de nutrientes, tengan un efecto beneficioso para la salud.
Bernat Pérez, N. (2013). Desarrollo, caracterización y optimización de productos fermentados a base de licuados vegetales como alternativa a los yogures convencionales [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/33748
TESIS

This thesis investigates pricing to market behavior in the exports of Turkey, which is a small economy. The investigated sectors are hazelnut, dried grape, dried apricot, dried fig and feldspar. The sectors are selected because Turkey is the leading producer and exporter for these products in the world. We apply pricing to market model for the exports from Turkey to each of the largest importer countries and the world in total for each product to check whether there is monopolistic behavior in the markets. We also check whether there is complete local currency price stability in the investigated markets. The relationship between the import shares of destination markets in the Turkey&
#8217
s exports and the estimated pricing to market elasticities are compared as well. In general, we find that there is pricing to market in the exports of Turkey for the investigated sectors.

Risk management plays a critical role in agriculture, which is particularly exposed to multiple and heterogeneous risk factors. In addition to the traditional basic risks that generally characterize any business venture, agriculture faces external factors, generally difficult to control and with a strong impact on farm profitability. These are firstly environmental (pests and diseases) and climatic conditions that affect the quantity and quality of agricultural production, but also the structural constraints of the agricultural market, which is characterised by a high degree of supply rigidity, price volatility and inelasticity of demand. This leads to the need to implement risk management tools, some of which aimed at income stabilization (already in place by many years in other countries, i.e. the USA and Canada) and requiring the active participation of the farmer on the one hand and of the institutional system on the other. In order to suggest risk management solutions to Italian farmers, this thesis makes efforts in simulating the feasibility of a risk management tool introduced in the EU with Regulation (EU) No 2017/2393 but not yet implemented: the sector-specific Income Stabilization Tool. This is based on a public-private partnership and is managed by a mutual fund steered by associated farmers. These latter pay an annual contribution to become eligible for receiving indemnities when experiencing a severe income drop. Unlike others that are limited to covering specific types of risk, this tool makes it possible to look at the farmer's entire income risk considering the correlation among several sources of risk (particularly between production level and prices). This thesis provides first a theoretical background on risk analysis and risk management in agriculture (concepts, classification, literature and methodology). Second, the role of policies within the European Union framework and, Italy, in particular, has been viewed by analysing the normative framework and the reference context of insurance instruments in agriculture. Subsequently, since assessing farm profitability and economic risk is important to support farmers’ decisions about investments and whether or not to join the insurance instruments, an explorative analysis on profitability and riskiness of a perennial crop in Italy, such as hazelnut, has been done. Finally, the implementation of a sector-specific 3 Income Stabilization Tool for the crop investigated has been suggested by following this structure: - assessment of the profitability and risk of hazelnut production, in the four main production areas in Italy; - assessment of the most important parameters generating risk; - simulation of the feasibility of using an income risk management tool to make supply and demand able to interact and its impact on the level and riskiness of farm income; - assessment of the geographical scale at which the Income Stabilization Tool scheme could be implemented. Using data from the Italian Farm Accountancy Data Network on hazelnut producing farms, a downside risk analysis showed that riskiness is distributed in different ways on the entire country with sensitivity on yield risk affecting farmers' income level and economic risk. The simulation implemented in this study demonstrates the tool could reduce substantially the risk faced by hazelnut farmers in Italy. The additional public support is essential in case of joining the tool. In addition, in view of the differences within the Italian territory, the farmers’ payments should be differentiated based on the requisites and the specific climatic and environmental characteristics of each region. Concurrently, recourse to a national mutual fund would make it possible to benefit from the principle of risk pooling.

Fruit breeding is mainly based on both conventional (hybridization, mutation and selection) or biotechnological methods (somatic hybridization, genetic transformation and haploid production). The genetic improvement through the conventional methods is limited by many factors such as fruit trees long juvenile period, high heterozygosity, large size and sexual incompatibility. Haploids and doubled haploids, obtained through gametic embryogenesis have a potential use in fruit crops genetic improvement. The change of the microspores fate from the normal gametopytic pathway towards the sporophytic induction is affected by numerous factors. Genotype, medium composition and stress were considered the most important factors required to switch the pollen embryogenic development. During this doctoral course, researches have been carried out on gametic embryogenesis in different fruit crops via anther and isolated microspore culture. Particularly, for the first time, embryos were obtained by isolated microspore culture technique in Citrus spp. Morover, somatic embryogenesis callus and regeneration of plantlets were achieved via anther culture in blood sweet oranges, C. sinensis L. Osbeck, cvs. Moro, Tarocco Meli, Tarocco TDV and Tarocco S. Alfio, homozygous callus, embryos and plantlets were instead obtained from Citrus clementina Hort. ex Tan. cvs. Hernandina and Corsica. These results represent an advancement of plant breeding and propagation techniques in Citrus spp. Research has been also carried out on Olea europaea L. gametic embryogenesis, multicellular structures have been obtained from anther and isolated microspore culture, as the first step towards haploid olive embryos production. Furthermore, a preliminary experiment has been carried out on of several hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) cultivars to obtain regeneration through anther and isolated microspore culture.

Il rapido aumento dell’incidenza delle malattie cronico-degenerative è probabilmente uno dei maggiori problemi di sanità pubblica attuali. Sono numerosi gli studi che supportano il ruolo che determinati modelli alimentari ricchi in specifici alimenti o composti bioattivi hanno nella riduzione del rischio di sviluppare malattie. L’intervento di tipo nutrizionale è sempre più considerato una strategia di prevenzione primaria che risulta tra le più efficaci, convenienti e facilmente perseguibili. Recentemente, un interesse crescente si sta sempre più focalizzando su interventi dietetici personalizzati accuratamente studiati per soddisfare le specifiche esigenze nutrizionali di gruppi di popolazione target. Infatti, un approccio nutrizionale personalizzato sembra essere molto più efficace nell’ottenimento di uno specifico risultato, soprattutto in quei gruppi di popolazione target considerati più a rischio di sviluppare malattie croniche. Sulla base di queste premesse, lo scopo della presente tesi di dottorato è stato quello di valutare, attraverso approcci in vivo ed ex vivo, l'effetto del consumo di specifici alimenti e dei loro composti bioattivi nella modulazione di alcuni fattori di rischio per le malattie cronico-degenerative, in gruppi di popolazione “a rischio”. La prima parte della tesi (approccio in vivo) ha avuto l’obiettivo di valutare l’impatto di due diversi interventi dietetici in una popolazione di bambini ed adolescenti italiani affetti da iperlipidemia primaria, e quindi considerati a maggior rischio di possibili eventi cardiovascolari futuri. In primo luogo, la popolazione pediatrica in studio è stata caratterizzata per il profilo lipidico sierico e per la composizione degli acidi grassi dei fosfolipidi delle membrane eritrocitarie, mostrando delle differenze in base al sesso e al tipo specifico di iperlipidemia. Inoltre, in questi soggetti è stata osservato un basso indice omega 3 (acido eicosapentaenoico, EPA + acido docosaesaenoico, DHA: <4%), un marker che è stato suggerito essere associato a un elevato rischio di sviluppare malattie cardiovascolari. In secondo luogo, nella stessa popolazione di pazienti pediatrici iperlipidemici è stato studiato l’effetto del consumo regolare di uno specifico alimento (nocciole, HZN) o un supplemento alimentare (olio di semi di canapa, HSO), entrambi ricchi in acidi grassi insaturi e altri bioattivi, nella modulazione di diversi biomarker di rischio cardiovascolare collegati all’iperlipidemia. Entrambi gli interventi dietetici sono risultati efficaci nella gestione dell’iperlipidemia pediatrica. In particolare, abbiamo dimostrato che l’assunzione per 8 settimane di nocciole, consumate con la cuticola (HZN+S) oppure pelate (HZN-S), migliorava significativamente il profilo lipidico sierico e aveva un impatto favorevole anche sulla composizione degli acidi grassi delle membrane eritrocitarie. Inoltre, i trattamenti dietetici con le nocciole sono stati in grado di ridurre i livelli di danno al DNA, un marker di stress ossidativo. Tuttavia, le concentazioni plasmatiche di LDL ossidate (ox-LDL) non hanno subito alcun cambiamento in seguito all’intervento con le nocciole. L’effetto della supplementazione con olio di semi di canapa nella modulazione del profilo lipidico in bambini iperlipidemici è stato valutato attraverso uno studio pilota. Anche se preliminari, i risultati di questo studio hanno mostrato un miglioramento dell’indice omega 3 e della composizione degli acidi grassi delle membrane eritrocitarie in seguito all’assunzione dell’olio di semi di canapa per 8 settimane. La seconda parte della tesi di dottorato è stata svolta su modelli ex vivo presso il Dipartimento di Fisiologia e Biochimica della Nutrizione del Max Rubner-Institut (Karlsruhe, Germania). Considerando che le malattie cronico-degenerative sono spesso associate ad una risposta immunitaria compromessa, l’obiettivo di questa parte di ricerca è stato quello di studiare il potenziale effetto immunomodulatorio di diverse concentrazioni di acidi grassi polinsaturi a lunga catena (LC-PUFA), in combinazione con dosi standard di vitamina D3, in cellule immunitarie ex vivo prelevate da volontari sani. L’effetto di questi composti bioattivi è stato valutato su due meccanismi implicati nella risposta immunitaria innata, che agiscono specificatamente contro le cellule tumorali e gli agenti patogeni: l’attivita delle cellule natural killer (NK) e la fagocitosi. I risultati ottenuti hanno mostrato che gli LC-PUFA ad elevate dosi, indipendentemente dalla presenza o meno della vitamina D, interferiscono negativamente sulla capacità delle cellule NK di lisare e contrastare le cellule tumorali target, mostrando una risposta dose-dipendente. Al contrario, è stato osservato un miglioramento dell’attività fagocitaria dei monociti quando gli LC-PUFA erano coincubati con la vitamina D, suggerendo un potenziale effetto sinergico e immunomodulatorio della vitamina D. In conclusione, attraverso questa tesi di dottorato è stato possibile aumentare le conoscenze sul potenziale effetto di diete ricche in composti bioattivi nella modulazione di alcuni fattori di rischio per le malattie cronico-degenerative. Questo aspetto risulta particolarmente importante soprattutto nelle popolazioni target considerate più a rischio e per le quali un intervento nutrizionale appropriato e personalizzato viene considerato l’approccio di prevenzione primario. Studi futuri su gruppi di popolazione più ampi e volti a valutare i meccanismi d’azione specifici sono necessari al fine di fornire delle dimostrazioni aggiuntive che confermino i nostri risultati.
The rapid increase in prevalence of chronic-degenerative diseases is probably the major global health problem nowadays. Several studies have emphasized the role that dietary patterns rich in specific foods or their bioactive compounds may play in the reduction of disease risk. In fact, nutritional intervention is considered one of the most significant, easily achieved and affordable primary prevention strategy. Recently, increasing interest has been focused on personalized dietary interventions accurately designed to meet specific nutritional needs of target groups of population. The personalized approach seems to be more effective to achieve a defined outcome, especially in targeted subgroups of population considered “at higher risk” to develop chronic diseases. Based on these premises, the aim of the present Ph.D. thesis was to evaluate the effect of specific foods and their bioactives in the modulation of risk factors for chronic-degenerative diseases in “at risk” groups of population, thorough both in vivo and ex vivo approaches. The first part (in vivo approach) was focused on the impact of two different dietary interventions in a population of Italian children and adolescents affected by primary hyperlipidemia and thus considered at “higher risk” to develop cardiovascular (CV) events later in life. Firstly, the study population was characterized for serum lipid profile and fatty acid (FA) composition of red blood cell (RBC) phospholipids, showing differences according to sex and diagnosis of hyperlipidemia. Moreover, in the hyperlipidemic pediatric patients we observed an overall low omega 3 index (eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA + docosahexaenoic acid, DHA: <4%), an emerging risk factor for cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Secondly, in the same population of hyperlipidemic pediatric patients, it was investigated the effect of regular intake of a specific food (hazelnuts, HZN) or food supplement (hempseed oil, HSO) rich in unsaturated fats and other bioactives, in the modulation of different CVD biomarkers related to hyperlipidemia. We documented that both dietary treatments were effective in the management of primary hyperlipidemia at pediatric age. In particular, we showed that 8-week of hazelnuts intake, consumed with skin (HZN+S) or without skin (peeled, HZN-S), significantly improve the serum lipid profile and had a favorable impact on FAs composition of RBC membranes. In addition, HZN treatments were able to reduce the levels of DNA damage, a marker of oxidative stress, even if the concentrations of plasma oxidized LDL (ox-LDL) did not change following the HZN intervention. The effect of HSO supplementation on lipid profile of hyperlipidemic children was evaluated through a pilot study. Even if preliminary, the results from this study showed an enhancement of the omega-3 index and the RBC phospholipid composition following the intake of HSO for 8 weeks. The second part of the Ph.D thesis was performed at the Department of Physiology and Biochemistry of Nutrition of Max Rubner-Institut (Karlsruhe, Germany) and devoted to ex vivo approaches. Considering that chronic diseases are often associated to a compromised immune response, the objective of this part of research was to investigate the potential immunomodulatory properties of different concentrations of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) in conjunction with standard dose of vitamin D3 on ex vivo immune cells from healthy volunteers. The effect of these bioactives was evaluated on two mechanisms crucially involved in the innate immune response that specifically act against cancer cells as well as infectious agents: the natural killer (NK) cell activity and the phagocytosis. The findings showed that high dose of LC-PUFA, independently by the presence of the vitamin D, negatively affect the lytic activity of NK cell of target cancer cells, with a dose-dependent response. On the contrary, an enhancement of phagocytic activity of monocytes was observed only when LC-PUFA were combined with vitamin D, suggesting a potential synergic and immunomodulatory role of vitamin D. In conclusion, through this Ph.D thesis it was possible to increase knowledge on the potential benefits of bioactives rich-diet in the modulation of different risk factors for chronic-degenerative diseases. This aspect is particulary important in at risk target groups of population for whom appropriate and personalized nutritional interventions are considered the primary prevention approach. Future studies on largest population groups aimed to clarify the specific mechanisms of action involved are needed to provide additional demonstration that confirm our results.

Hazelnuts are mostly non-dormant at harvest but develop seed dormancy after a few days of storage. The seeds have been classified as recalcitrant since they cannot be stored for more than one year under ambient conditions. Cryopreservation has not been satisfactory so an alternative protocol is required. To test for recalcitrance, chilled non-dormant seeds (control) were compared with gibberellic acid (GA3) treated seeds during 6 weeks storage at 5°C or at ambient temperature. Control seed moisture content (MC) was 14-15% compared with 20% for GA3 treated seeds. No change in viability was noted until the end of 6 weeks at ambient temperature, when infection proliferated. Reduced germinability, associated with increased leachate conductivity, was noted on all treatments and controls, with ambient temperature storage most harmful for seed viability. This supports classification of hazel seeds as recalcitrant. However, orthodox behaviour could be induced by reducing seed moisture to <6%, showing survival for more than 3 years at -20°C with acceptable germinability and producing healthy seedlings. Pathogen tests show that 6 weeks chilling to break seed dormancy may activate the seeds’ internal protective mechanisms, thereby reducing infection and enabling germination and healthy seedling establishment. The link between seed viability and protection from free radicals and pathogens was examined. Antioxidant activity in hazelnut seed associates (such as endocarp, funiculus and testa) was found to be much higher than in the seed embryo, perhaps indicating that hazel seeds have natural protective mechanisms within the pericarp. Antioxidant activity of seed associates increased during chilling, indicating their role in protecting the seed. Nevertheless, TTC test revealed that seeds acclimatised to ii < 6% MC and stored at 5°C for 45 weeks showed viability loss due to damage of the embryonic axes, probably caused by free radicals. Initial tests to stabilise seed moisture content showed that reduction in seed moisture did not impose dormancy and seed moisture content (MC) stabilisation resulted in > 80% germination but many abnormal seedlings. Dormancy reversibility was tested by treatments T1 (one period at 15°C) and T2 (two periods at 15°C), designed following a consideration of the natural environment. Both resulted in reduced germination, delayed seedling emergence, increased abnormal seedlings, reduced seedling height and decreased internode numbers. To test the role of temperature in reduced seed performance, non-dormant hazelnuts were held at either 5°C or at ambient temperature for up to 6 weeks. Seeds from both sets exhibited high viability, but germinability was significantly decreased in the ambient temperature set, associated with increases in leachate conductivity and infection. Work in this thesis has confirmed that dormancy was broken by chilling, with gradually increasing germination as chilling time was increased. Germination increased with increase in chilling and reduction in infection. No infection was recoreded after 6 weeks chilling. It is most likely that protective agents are produced causing suppression of infection. In these experiments it was observed that not all germinated seeds produced healthy seedlings, suggesting that germination tests without observation of seedlings may give an incomplete assessment of germination success. Assessment using the Tetrazolium test (TTC) was found to be much more dependable and it was also possible to detect damage to specific tissues that might result in unhealthy seedlings.

Aquest treball pretenia respondre diverses questions en relació a la producció d’aliments d’origen vegetal al Neolític (5400-2300 cal BC) al NE de la Península Ibèrica. Els objectius es poden resumir en la següent pregunta: era la gestió de les plantes amb valor alimentari de tipus intensiu? Per tal de contribuir a aquesta discussió es feia necessari incrementar el volum de dades arqueobotàniques. Les anàlisis de macrorestes arqueobotàniques (llavors i fruits) procedents de 17 jaciments (34 fases d’ocupació) del NE de la Península Ibèrica datats al període Neolític s’han presentat i discutit. Un total de 107 tàxons han estat identificats i més de 100.000 macrorestes vegetals han estat obtingudes, procedents de 213 contextos arqueològics diferents, després de processar unes 1200 mostres (més de 7000 litres de sediment). La important quantitat de dades obtingudes ha estat suficient per proposar interpretacions sobre l’evolució dels cultius a l’àrea durant el període Neolític. S’han observat diverses tendències per zones dintre de la regió. La costa central presenta un registre abundant de blats vestits durant el VIè i Vè mil·lennis cal ANE, mentre que el blat nu té un domini a les àrees del nord durant els primers segles i és substituït, a partir del Vè mil·lenni per l’ordi nu. Aquest tàxon sembla ser el principal cultiu durant el IV mil·lenni cal ANE, juntament amb el blat nu. Poc més tard, l’ordi vestit sembla que podria començar a substituir l’ordi nu a les àrees del nord. Els dos canvis observats a les àrees del nord podrien haver-se originat a través de contactes amb els territoris del sud de França. Pel que fa a la gestió dels cultius, s’ha conclòs que les evidències per al VIè i Vè mil·lennis cal ANE indiquen que existia una gestió intensiva dels camps de tipus hortícola. Les dades per als dos darrers mil·lennis del Neolític no són concloents. Malgrat tot, l’expansió de l’ordi vestit i l’aparent reducció de la diversitat de lleguminoses cultivades durant el Neolític final suggeriria pràctiques agrícoles menys intensives. Els resultats obtinguts al respecte de la gestió dels fruits silvestres no han permès detectar grans canvis en els tàxons recol·lectats més significatius durant tot el període a la regió en estudi: Quercus sp., Corylus avellana, Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris and Pistacia lentiscus. S’han observat diferències en les tècniques de processat en funció de l’alçada a la qual es troben els assentaments, com ja s’ha esmentat. L’explotació de les formacions vegetals de màquia creix a partir de la segona meitat del Vè mil·lenni cal ANE. Hi ha una important reducció del registre al Neolític final. S’ha interpretat que les pràctiques de recol·lecció es mantindrien estables a escala regional, principalment condicionades per l’oferta ambiental, així com per les seleccions culturals. En contra del que s’havia assumit per part de molts arqueòlegs, l’agricultura sembla ser de caràcter permanent i intensiu durant els primers segles del Neolític. Els grups estableixen xarxes de llarga durada en regions particulars on desenvolupen les seves pròpies tradicions i cultures. Aquestes xarxes serien necessàries per a la supervivència dels sistemes de producció i reproducció d’aquestes comunitats. La inestabilitat de les estructures i els territoris d’hàbitat que molts autors proposen per a aquestes fases inicials no està, doncs, confirmat per les dades arqueològiques disponibles.
This dissertation aimed to answer several questions concerning plant food production in the Neolithic (5400-2300 cal BC) in the NE of the Iberian Peninsula. The aims can be summarized in the following question: was plant food economy of the intensive type? In order to contribute to such a discussion, an increase of the available archaeobotanical database was necessary. The analyses of the archaeobotanical macroremains (seeds and fruits) from 17 archaeological sites (34 settlement phases) from the NE of the Iberian Peninsula dating to the Neolithic period were presented and discussed. A total of 107 new taxa were identified and more than 100.000 plant macroremains were retrieved from 213 different contexts, after taking and processing around 1200 samples (over 7000 litres of sediment). The important amount of data obtained was enough to put forward some interpretations of the evolution of agriculture in the area during the Neolithic period. Several regional trends were observed. The central coast region presented larger amounts and ubiquities of glume wheats during the VIth and Vth millennia cal BC, while naked wheat prevailed in the northern areas during the first centuries and was later replaced, in the Vth millennium cal BC, by naked barley. This taxon appears as a main crop in the central coast in the IVth millennium cal BC, along with naked wheat. Shortly after, hulled barley seems to replace naked barley in the northern areas of the region. Both shifts observed in the northern areas could have originated through contacts with southern France. Concerning crop husbandry strategies, it was concluded that the evidence for the VIth and Vth millennia cal BC support an intensive gardening type of management of the plots. The data for the last two millennia of the Neolithic are not conclusive. Nevertheless, the expansion of hulled barley and the apparent reduction in the diversity of cultivated legumes during the Late Neolithic would suggest less intensive management practices. No major changes in wild fruit management in the most important gathered taxa during the Neolithic period in the region: Quercus sp., Corylus avellana, Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris and Pistacia lentiscus were the most commonly gathered taxa. Differences in their processing techniques according to altitude were observed. The exploitation of maquis vegetation increases from the second half of the Vth millennium cal BC onwards. An important decrease in the number of remains recovered for the Late Neolithic period was observed. It was interpreted that gathering practices were rather stable at a regional scale, largely conditioned by the environmental availability but also by cultural choices. Against what was assumed by many archaeologists, agriculture during the first centuries of the Neolithic seems to be of permanent and intensive character. Groups established long-lasting networks in particular regions where they developed their own traditions and cultures. These networks would be necessary for the subsistence of the production and reproduction practices of these populations. The semi-nomadism that is assumed by most authors for these early phases is, thus, not confirmed by the archaeological data.

Avhandlingen rymmer en ”stor” och en ”liten” berättelse. Den lilla berättelsen börjar omkring 1870 och handlar om Nordiska museet och dess grundläggare Artur Hazelius. Den stora berättelsen tar sin början i 1800-talets första decennier och förankrar det kulturhistoriska museiväsendets framväxt och formering i en mera vidsträckt och kronologiskt utsträckt historie- och museipolitisk kontext. 1800-talet har karaktäriserats som en period av stark statlig mobilisering på det musei- och historiepolitiska fältet. Avhandlingen visar att det var osäkert vilken roll staten skulle spela. Det var osäkert vilket slags offentlighet som museerna tillhörde, vilka syften museer fyllde och hur de skulle utformas. Det var omtvistat vem som ägde fornminnena. Två rörelser kan urskiljas. Den ena rörelsen ville åstadkomma ett långtgående statligt ansvar för historiebevarandet. Den andra rörelsen var framväxten av ett civilsamhälleligt associationsväsende på historiebevarandets område. Historie- och museipolitikens grunddrag kännetecknades av spänningarna mellan dessa rörelser. Den stora berättelsen överlappar den lilla berättelsen om Nordiska museet och Artur Hazelius. Avhandlingen belyser det spelrum som de övergripande osäkerheterna om historiebevarandets mål och organisering lämnade åt Artur Hazelius och hur Nordiska museets utveckling efter hand kom att ge återverkningar på hela det historie- och museipolitiska området. Den belyser också hur Nordiska museets stegvisa etablering som kulturhistoriskt centralmuseum påverkades av det kulturhistoriska museiväsendets professionalisering. I avhandlingen är det historiografiska perspektivet centralt. Ett utmärkande drag för den dubbla historia som avhandlingen berättar är den betydelse som historieskrivningen har haft, både för formeringen av det kulturhistoriska museiväsendet och för efterhandsförståelsen av detsamma.
This thesis traces and analyses important changes in cultural heritage and museum politics during the 19th century. It tells two overlapping narratives. One is about the museum founder Artur Hazelius and the creation and expansion of The Nordic Museum (Nordiska museet). The other concerns the indecisive construction of meaning and organisational forms for state responsibility for the cultural heritage. The latter story begins in 1810 and the former in 1872. The 19th century is commonly described as the breakthrough for a new era, a time when the cultural heritage became a matter of the state and a part of state promoted nationalism. This thesis instead sheds light on the uncertainties, hesitations and conflicts involved in the construction of national cultural heritage politics and practices. It emphasises the alternatives to state administration that were launched and the crucial role played by associations and voluntary organisation in the preservation of the cultural heritage. It observes the significance of histories and of counter-histories in the controversies over the ownership of and responsibility for the cultural heritage. The way different political positions grow out of conflicting stories of institutional origin is considered. The thesis also focuses on the gradual emergence of a museum profession and its implications for the development of the Nordic Museum and for museum politics in general.

An efficient micropropagation protocol for large scale production of hazelnut plants is required for consistent supply of elite germplasm to support the growing industry in Ontario. The main focus of current research was to develop a bioreactor based micropropagation protocol for hazelnut multiplication. An integrated approach was developed to increase the multiplication rate by optimizing the nutrient medium supplements and culture technology using a temporary immersion bioreactor system (TIS). As compared to conventional semi-solid and liquid based culture system, the Liquid LabTM temporary immersion bioreactor system (LIS) showed a significant enhancement in the number of shoots (3.3 shoots/explant), shoot height, leaf area and chlorophyll content in micropropagated plantlets. Antioxidant supplements such as ascorbic acid and melatonin along with iron (460 µM FeEDDHA) significantly increased the shoot proliferation (5.5 shoots/explant). However, a much higher shoot proliferation (10.9 shoots/explant) was observed with the addition of aspirin (10 µM) in the presence of BA (17.6 µM). Among several hazelnut cultivars, HF-16 had the highest multiplication rate followed by Geneva and Epsilon. Medium supplemented with 10 µM IBA was the best for rooting of microshoots of HF-16 and the plantlets acclimatized in the green house with 80% survival rate.
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food and Rural Affairs

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of commodity promotion activities on the United States' hazelnut farmer's economic welfare. Commodity promotion activities, such as generic advertising and research, are the responsibilities of government mandated commodity commissions, such as the Hazelnut Marketing Board (HMB). The HMB is a state mandated cartel, organized under the Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937 (i.e. the Marketing Order) and amended in 1981, 1986, and 1989 (7 CFR Part 982, FR Doc. 81-14045 FR Doc. 86-18438, FR Doc. 89-26187). HMB promotion activities are funded by taxes levied on U.S. hazelnut farmers. To ensure that promotion provides a net benefit to these farmers this research uses Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) of the assessments under various assumptions about the market's conditions. A non-linear system of equations (SEM) with Monte Carlo simulation was utilized to produce these estimates.
Graduation date: 2013

碩士
國立臺灣藝術大學
造形藝術研究所
98
The reason why I want to study this topic is that an impressive idea about the Wolfgang Laib’s work, “Pollen from Hazelnut”, can be easily connected to my idea about the life experience of “Lao Tzu” , which are both simple in forms and without telling stories. I want to discuss those two pieces of work in a simple method how they decompose and correspond to themselves by the ways they are felt, senses and words came from senses, which I can get better understanding of the two. That is , I try to analyze Wolfgang Laib’s work by the more familiar words of Lao Tzu and to experience Lao ‘s words by the feeling of Wolfgang Laib’s work. By exchanging the two forms , I can get more and more messages from each other. However , I’m not to prove the relation between them ,but to understand both of them.

This thesis was expressly elaborated to fulfil the requirements application to the Doctoral Degree in Agricultural Production Chains - From Fork to Farm by the University of Trás-os Montes e Alto Douro
Climate change affects directly several economic sectors, namely agriculture, forestry, energy consumptions, tourism among others. In agriculture, the climate change has a huge impact on crop growth and yield. This takes great importance in perennial fruit crops due to their higher sensitivity to environmental conditions, particularly on floral differentiation, blossom, pollination, fruit setting and growth stages. Temperate fruit treesrequire some chilling during the development, however climate change is making climates warmer, which significantly influence the crops growth and yield. Furthermore, the average global temperature will move plant species to new areas with more favourable climate conditions. These difficulties will be transversal to all perennial fruit species being hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) one of them, especially those growing in Mediterranean countries. The main objective of this Doctoral Thesis is to contribute with strategies to mitigate effects of climate change and on the other hand, to enhance the quality and production of hazelnut by different approaches. To achieve these goals, an evaluation of the suitability of preharvest foliar spray treatments was performed, gaining a further insight in the agricultural management strategies by understanding the plant physiological and biochemical response, enhance hazelnut quality, environmental sustainability and economic viability for hazelnut production. In addition, regarding the massive amounts of bio-wastes, namely the hazelnut husks, the determination of the suitability of husks (hazelnut by-product) as a source of bioactive compounds was also studied. In this sense, two experiments were carried out, the first experiment consisted in spraying treatments combined with irrigation: kaolin (K, 4%); natural bioestimulant Ascophyllum nodosum (An, 0.15%); salicylic acid (SA, 0.01 %); K with irrigation (Ki); An with irrigation (Ani); SA with irrigation (SAi); control with irrigation (Ci) and control (C), during 2016 and 2017, in a hazelnut orchard with adult trees in full production using an economically important hazelnut cultivar ‘Grada de Viseu’, located in Moimenta da Beira (Northern Portugal). A positive effect of the spray treatment on ‘Grada de Viseu’ yield, physiological and biochemical responses was shown. Results showed that K and An were effective for reducing hazelnut heat and drought stresses by increasing the relative water content, net CO2 assimilation rate, water use efficiency and by reducing the leaf mass per area and electrolyte leakage. Moreover, concentration of abscisic acid, malondialdehyde, proline, lipid peroxidation and the average content of antioxidant enzymes was lower, suggesting that under K and An treatments, plants have a better physiological performance than control trees. Under K, An and SA with and without irrigation treatments, the content of total sugars decreased and the content of starch, salicylic acid, thiols and the ratio between total chlorophylls and total carotenoids increased, demonstrating that these treatments can be effective against drought. These treatments affected positively the biometric parameters, namely nut and kernel sizes, vitamin E levels, antioxidant activity and some phenolic compound contents. The sensorial attributes were not affected by the treatments, this way the application of K, AN and SA improve the hazelnut tree physiological response to the climate change, without compromising the hazelnut chemical and sensorial quality. Other experiment was carried in a hazelnut orchard with adult trees in full production in Vila Real, Portugal. Hazelnuts husks were obtained from four cultivars: ‘Butler’, ‘Grada de Viseu’, ‘Morell’ and ‘Lansing’, and the bioactive potential of hazelnut husks was determined as a function of their cultivar source and extraction solvent. A total of 11 phenolics were identified. The results showed that cultivar and extraction solvent influenced significantly the extraction yield. Methanolic husk extracts exhibited the greatest antioxidant potentials followed by water and acetone. ‘Grada de Viseu’ husks presented the highest content of individual phenolics and antioxidant activity, while the husks from the cultivar ‘Lansing’ showed the lowest levels. The valorization of hazelnuts husks gives an important contribution for the isolation and purification of bioactive molecules. In conclusion, this thesis contributed to increase knowledge of the use of promising preharvest compounds for the improvement of the hazelnut physiological and biochemical performance as well the nut quality. Nonetheless lower and non-significant differences between treatments with and without irrigation were observed revealing that K, An and SA can be used without irrigation to mitigate summer stress effects being these compounds useful strategies to mitigate climate change effects for sustainable hazelnut production
As alterações climáticas afetam fortemente vários sectores económicos da sociedade, nomeadamente a agricultura, silvicultura, consumo de energia, turismo entre outros. Na agricultura, as alterações climáticas têm um enorme impacto no desenvolvimento e produtividade das culturas, assumindo uma grande importância ao nível das espécies fruteiras perenes, devido à sua sensibilidade relativamente às condições ambientais, em particular durante a diferenciação floral, polinização, frutificação e crescimento. As espécies frutícolas, de clima temperado necessitam de frio no seu desenvolvimento e com o aumento da temperatura resultante das alterações climáticas, estas necessidade poderão ser afectadas. Para além disso, o aumento da temperatura média global, fará com que as espécies encontrem condições favoráveis ao seu crescimento em novas regiões, tornando o seu cultivo mais difícil devido ao stresse estival. Estas dificuldades serão transversais a todas as espécies de fruteiras perenes, como é o caso da aveleira (Corylus avellana L.), especialmente as que crescem nos países mediterrânicos. O principal objetivo desta Tese de Doutoramento é contribuir com estratégias para a mitigação dos efeitos das alterações climáticas e, ao mesmo tempo, aumentar a qualidade e a produção de avelã recorrendo a diversas abordagens. Essas abordagens focam-se na avaliação da aplicação de tratamentos em pré-colheita, de forma a ganhar uma visão mais aprofundada de estratégias agrícolas, nomeadamente na resposta fisiológica e bioquímica das árvores, no aumento da qualidade da avelã, na sustentabilidade ambiental e na viabilidade económica para a produção de avelãs. Para além disso, e tendo em conta as grandes quantidades de bio resíduos, e em particular os invólucros das avelãs (co-produto) desenvolveu-se um estudo com o objetivo de determinar o potencial dos invólucros como fonte de bioatividade. Neste sentido realizaramse dois ensaios experimentais, o primeiro consistiu na aplicação de compostos combinados com e sem rega: Caulino (K, 4%); bioestimulante natural à base de Ascophyllum nodosum (An, 0,15%); ácido salicílico (SA, 0,01%); K com rega (Ki); An com rega (Ani); SA com rega (SAi); controlo com rega (Ci) e controlo (C), durante 2016 e 2017, num avelanal com árvores adultas em plena produção, da cultivar economicamente importante em Portugal, ‘Grada de Viseu’, localizado em Moimenta da Beira (Norte de Portugal). Verificou-se um efeito positivo nas árvores pulverizadas com os compostos ao nível da produção, da resposta fisiológica e bioquímica. Os resultados demonstraram que K e An foram eficazes na redução dos efeitos do stresse estival, aumentando o conteúdo relativo de água, a assimilação líquida de CO2 e a eficiência de uso de água e verificando-se a redução da massa foliar por área e da fuga de eletrólitos. Além disso, a concentração de ácido abscísico, malondialdeído, prolina, peroxidação lipídica e a concentração de enzimas antioxidantes foi menor nos tratamentos, sugerindo que as árvores tratadas com K e An, tiveram um melhor desempenho fisiológico do que as árvores controlo. Nas aveleiras tratadas com K, An, e SA com e sem rega, o conteúdo total de açúcares solúveis diminuiu e o conteúdo em amido, ácido salicílico, tióis e a razão entre as clorofilas totais e os carotenoides totais aumentou, demonstrando assim que os tratamentos são eficientes contra os efeitos da seca. Os tratamentos afetaram positivamente os parâmetros biométricos avaliados, assim como o calibre da avelã e do miolo, o conteúdo em vitamina E, a atividade antioxidante e alguns compostos fenólicos. Os atributos sensoriais avaliados não foram afetados pelos tratamentos demonstrando que a aplicação de K, An e SA melhorou a resposta da árvore sob efeito dos tratamentos às alterações climática sem comprometer a qualidade química e sensorial da avelã. O segundo ensaio experimental realizou-se em Vila Real, Portugal, num avelanal com árvores adultas em plena produção. Os invólucros foram obtidos a partir de quatro cultivares: ‘Butler’, ‘Grada de Viseu’, ‘Morell’ e ‘Lansing’, foi avaliado o potencial bioativo dos invólucros em função da cultivar e do solvente de extração. Os resultados demonstraram que, quer a cultivar quer o solvente de extração influenciaram o rendimento de extração. Os invólucros extraídos com o metanol exibiram maior potencial antioxidante seguindo-se pela água e acetona. No total foram identificados 11 compostos fenólicos sendo que os invólucros da cultivar ‘Grada de Viseu’ apresentaram maiores conteúdos de compostos fenólicos individuais e de atividade antioxidante, enquanto os invólucros da cultivar ‘Lansing’ foram os que apresentaram menores níveis. O isolamento e purificação destas moléculas bioativas contribui de forma significativa para a valorização dos invólucros. Em conclusão, o trabalho realizado contribuiu para o aumento do conhecimento da utilização de compostos promissores em pré-colheita, com o intuito de aumentar o desempenho fisiológico e bioquímico, bem como a qualidade da avelã. As diferenças não significativas ou reduzidas observadas nos tratamentos com e sem rega permitem afirmar que os compostos K, An e SA podem ser usados sem o recurso à rega de forma a mitigar os efeitos do stresse estival assim como uma excelente estratégia para mitigar os efeitos das alterações climáticas.

European hazelnut is a significant crop in the Pacific Northwest, and the US ranks 4th internationally for hazelnut production. Production in the Pacific Northwest is threatened, however, by the disease eastern filbert blight (EFB) caused by the fungus Anisogramma anomala (Peck) E. Müller. To meet the challenges faced by the hazelnut industry in Oregon and Washington, the breeding program at Oregon State University has focused on developing DNA marker technology and producing EFB resistant cultivars. This study focused on developing new microsatellite markers from hazelnut transcriptome sequences and on disease resistance from three accessions ('Culpla,' 'Crvenje,' and OSU 495.072) which showed no disease symptoms following a series of inoculations. DNA markers have been useful in hazelnut breeding for marker-assisted selection, construction of genetic linkage maps, cultivar fingerprinting, and phylogeny studies. Previously developed markers include AFLP, RAPD, ISSR, and microsatellite (SSR) markers developed from enriched libraries and ISSR fragments. This study utilized the transcriptome sequence from 'Jefferson' hazelnut to mine for microsatellites, align with the genomic sequence, design primers, screen for polymorphism, and characterize and map polymorphic markers. A total of 1432 microsatellites were mined from the transcriptome sequence, and the most frequently found motifs were AG (35.8%), AT (13.3%), and AAG (12.7%), and 382 primer pairs were designed. Screening showed that 119 markers were polymorphic, and these were characterized on sets of 50 and 14 accessions. Fifty-three markers that segregated in the mapping population or in three alternate populations were mapped and assigned to linkage groups. A dendrogram showed that accessions clustered mostly according to geographic origin. These results confirm the high level of diversity present in hazelnut, and the markers developed in this study will be useful for further genetics studies in hazelnut. The three EFB resistant parents 'Culpla,' 'Crvenje,' and OSU 495.072 were subjected to two inoculation treatments: greenhouse inoculations and exposure under an inoculation structure. The accessions remained free of disease after both treatments. Progeny segregating for resistance were produced. The progeny were inoculated either in the greenhouse or under the structure, and disease response recorded for each individual. DNA was extracted from seedlings, and sets of 32 seedlings from each resistant parent were screened with previously mapped markers using PCR and capillary electrophoresis. All three resistance sources were correlated with marker A614, allowing the resistance loci to be assigned to linkage group (LG) 6. The progeny were then screened with all known microsatellite markers on LG 6, and linkage maps constructed of the marker loci and resistance loci. Markers KG821, LG628, and LG696 are especially close to the resistance loci and will be useful for marker-assisted selection. Although these resistance loci are located in the same region of LG 6 as the 'Gasaway' resistance gene, they are different from 'Gasaway,' and markers linked to resistance will be useful for introgressing and pyramiding resistance in new cultivars.
Graduation date: 2013

Since Ferrero SpA established a manufacturing plant in Brantford, Ontario, there has been considerable interest in developing a hazelnut industry locally. One of the issues that needs to be overcome is to supply large numbers of suitable plants rapidly. They can be micropropagated, and then grown in the nursery. Usually, it takes two years to grow suitably sized plants in the nursery. This thesis investigated methods to grow suitably sized plants in one year and evaluated the nursery systems from financial aspect. Hazelnut seedlings were planted in ellepots and plastic pots, and then subjected to three treatments: grown in a retractable roof greenhouse, treated with root pruning technology or grown in outdoor environment. Also, two transplant timings were tested: the fall of 2011 and the spring of 2012. The results showed that pot type did not influence the growth of hazelnut seedlings. The retractable roof greenhouse increased growth and the root pruning technology changed the seedlings root structure but not their growth. Transplant timing did not affect the seedlings growth in the first year in the field. The retractable roof greenhouse has the potential to produce two crops of seedlings in one growing season compared to one crop in the outdoor nursery. The estimated cost per seedling under retractable roof greenhouse was $9.31, which was $1.95 cheaper than outdoor.
Ontario Centres of Excellence and Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs

The European hazelnut, Corylus avellana L., was imported into the U.S. in the late 1800's and is now grown throughout the Willamette Valley in Oregon. A native species of hazelnut, C. cornuta Marshall, is a common shrub found in forested areas of the Pacific Northwest. Foliage of both C. avellana and C. cornuta was sampled using beating sheets. The objectives of the study were as follows: 1. To compile a complete list of the Coleoptera and Heteroptera fauna of both species of hazelnut. 2. To determine the amount of overlap across host plants. 3. To measure arthropod abundance and species diversity within functional groups across a forest-edge-orchard gradient. 4. To use ordination techniques to determine where peak abundance of individual taxa occur along the forest-edge-orchard gradient. One hundred and thirty-two species of Coleoptera and forty-nine species of Heteroptera were identified on Hazelnut foliage. The most abundant Heteroptera in the orchards studied is a newly introduced mirid predator, Malacocoris chlorizans (Panzer). There is a great deal of overlap between the two hazelnut species. Most differences are attributed to rare species. Diversity and abundance of predaceous Coleoptera and Heteroptera were severely hindered by IPM management practices, involving insecticide usage, within the orchards. However, the organic orchards retained high levels of diversity and abundance of predaceous Coleoptera and Heteroptera in the centers of the orchards. The organic orchards had higher diversity of phytophagous Coleoptera and Heteroptera as compared to IPM orchards, but the abundance of those insects was not different between the IPM and organic orchards. The ordinations of the Coloeptera data show that the peak abundances of individual species often shift along the forest-edge-orchard gradient over time and that the organic orchards retain peak abundances of predaceous Coleoptera even in late season. The ordinations of the Heteroptera data show that several mirid predators are at their peak abundances within the orchards of both IPM and organic orchards.
Graduation date: 2000

Tese de Doutoramento em Genética Molecular Comparativa e Tecnológica
A aveleira (Corylus avellana L.), pertencente à família Betulaceae e à ordem Fagales. Esta espécie é originária da Europa e Ásia Ocidental e é cultivada há mais de 5000 anos. Ao longo dos últimos séculos, a maioria das variedades cultivadas foram selecionadas a partir de populações silvestres. Em Portugal, a aveleira encontra-se na região norte e centro. Desde a década de 90 que a sua produção está em declínio, podendo conduzir ao desaparecimento das variedades locais (“landraces”). A avaliacao da diversidade genética de espécies silvestres e populações locais revela-se de grande importância para a sua utilização e para a gestão das coleções existentes. Com o objetivo de avaliar a diversidade genética e conhecer as relações filogenéticas das aveleiras portuguesas e variedades comerciais, procedeu-se ao estudo de 58 genótipos, incluindo variedades locais, silvestres e comerciais, ao nível morfológico, molecular e bioquímico. No Capítulo 1 apresenta-se uma revisão bibliográfica sobre a origem e a domesticação da aveleira, os marcadores moleculares, os alelos de incompatibilidade (alelos S) e a composição nutricional dos frutos. A avaliação da diversidade genética ao nível do DNA cloroplastidial (cpDNA) através de microssatélites (cpSSR), encontra-se no Capítulo 2. Quatro dos dez loci estudados revelaram-se polimórficos. Encontraram-se, no total, onze haplótipos, sendo o haplótipo A o mais frequente, quer nas variedades locais quer nas comerciais. Nos genótipos silvestres detetaram-se quatro haplótipos exclusivos (H, I, J e L). Esta diversidade pode indicar o norte de Portugal como um potencial refúgio durante o último período glaciar. A diversidade genética e as relações filogenéticas, avaliadas através de marcadores inter-microssatélites (ISSRs) e Polimorfismo de Comprimento de Fragmentos Amplificados (AFLPs), apresentam-se no Capítulo 3. Foram obtidos um total de 570 marcadores, dos quais 541 (95,03%) se revelaram polimórficos. Os valores dos índices de similaridade variaram entre 0,239 para as variedades comerciais versus genótipos silvestres, e 0,143 para as variedades locais versus genótipos silvestres. As relações filogenéticas distribuíram as aveleiras por três grupos, mostrando uma clara separação dos genótipos silvestres das variedades locais e comerciais. No Capítulo 4 apresentam-se os resultados da análise com microssatélites (SSRs) nucleares, para a avaliação das relações filogenéticas. O nível de polimorfismo encontrado foi elevado, conforme o indicado pela heterozigocidade média esperada (0,74), pela heterozigocidade média observada (0,71) e pelo conteúdo de informação de polimorfismo (0,78). O dendrograma mostrou uma clara separação dos genótipos silvestres, variedades locais e variedades comerciais. Os resultados reforçam a hipótese de que os genótipos silvestres constituem um ‘hotspot’ de diversidade e fornecem pistas sobre a origem de algumas variedades locais. Os resultados obtidos para a identificação dos alelos S encontram-se no Capítulo 5. Para este estudo foram utilizadas variedades locais de aveleira que foram polinizadas no campo, com pólen de genótipos cujos alelos S são conhecidos. Três variedades locais revelaram ter o alelo S2, duas apresentaram o alelo S5, e quatro, um dos quatro alelos S3, S5, S10, S18. Uma variedade local foi compatível com todos os 17 alelos S testados, e em duas foi possível identificar dois alelos, S5 e S9. A variabilidade fenotípica e a composição nutricional dos frutos apresentam-se no Capítulo 6. Nas variedades locais observou-se o valor médio mais elevado para o peso do fruto, peso do miolo e teor em óleo, tendo as variedades comerciais apresentado os valores médios mais baixos. Os genótipos silvestres revelaram o teor médio mais alto em proteína e os valores médios mais baixos para o teor em aminoácidos essenciais. As variedades comerciais demonstraram os valores médios mais elevados para o teor em aminoácidos essenciais e para os minerais fósforo e ferro. Os valores médios mais altos de potássio, cálcio e boro foram encontrados nas variedades locais, enquanto os genótipos silvestres apresentaram as médias mais elevados em magnésio, zinco, manganésio e sódio. Uma análise baseada em componentes principais e outra hierarquizada permitiram identificar os genótipos mais interessantes (oito variedades locais) relativamente aos caracteres morfológicos e à composição nutricional. No Capítulo 7 apresentam-se as conclusões gerais e as perspetivas futuras Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho podem contribuir para a definição dos melhores polinizadores para o planeamento de novos pomares e desenvolvimento de novas variedades. A diversidade genética encontrada nos genótipos silvestres e nas variedades locais pode fornecer informações relevantes para a conservação da diversidade genética ainda existente. O elevado teor em óleo e o reduzido teor em ácido linoleico podem permitir a seleção de progenitores para programas de melhoramento com o objetivo de aumentar a estabilidade do óleo e o valor nutricional dos frutos.
Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.), belongs to the family Betulaceae and to the order Fagales. This species is native from Europe and Eastern Asia, and is cultivated for more than 5,000 years. During the last centuries, most of the cultivars were selected from local wild populations. Hazelnut is found at north and center of Portugal. Since the 90s, the production of hazelnut has declined, and could allow the lost of landraces. The evaluation of genetic diversity in wild genotypes and local populations is highly important for the use and management of the existent collections. With the aim of evaluating the genetic diversity and understanding the phylogenetic relationships among the Portuguese hazelnut landraces and reference cultivars, it were studied 58 genotypes, including landraces, wild genotypes and reference cultivars, at the morphological, molecular and biochemical levels. In Chapter 1 is presented a review of the origin and domestication of hazelnut, molecular markers, self-incompatibility alleles (S-alleles) and nutritional composition of the fruit. The evaluation of genetic diversity at the cloroplastidial DNA (cpDNA) level by microsatellites (cpSSRs), is presented in Chapter 2. Four out of ten studied loci were polymorphic. In total, 11 haplotypes were detected, and haplotype A was the most frequent in both landraces and reference cultivars. In the wild genotypes were found four exclusive haplotypes (H, I, J and L). This diversity could indicate the North of Portugal as a potential refugium during the last glacial period. The genetic diversity and the phylogenetic relationships, evaluated by inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers are presented in Chapter 3. A total of 570 markers was obtained, and 541 (95.03%) revealed to be polymorphic. The similarity indexes ranged from 0.239 for reference cultivars versus wild genotypes, and 0.143 for landraces versus wild genotypes. The phylogenetic relationships distributed the hazelnuts into three groups, showing a clear separation among wild genotypes, landraces and reference cultivars. In Chapter 4 were presented the results achieved with the nuclear microsatellite (SSR) markers for the evaluation of the phylogenetic relationships. The level of polymorphism was high as verified by the mean values of expected heterozygosity (0.74), observed heterozygosity (0.71), and polymorphism information content (0.78). The dendrogram showed a clear separation of the wild genotypes, landraces and reference cultivars. These results reinforce the hypothesis that wild genotypes constitute a hotspot of diversity and provided us clues about the origin of some landraces. The results about the identification of S-alleles are presented in Chapter 5. In this study were used hazelnut landraces that were pollinated in the field with pollens from genotypes with known S-alleles. Three landraces revealed to have the S2 allele, two presented the S5 allele, and four showed one of following alleles S3, S5, S10, or S18. One landrace was compatible with the 17 S-alleles tested, and in two landraces was possible to identify two alleles, S5 and S9. The phenotypic variability and nutritional composition of the fruits are presented in Chapter 6. The landraces showed the highest average for the nut and kernel weight and oil content, while the reference cultivars presented the lowest mean values. The wild genotypes presented the highest amount of protein, and the lowest values in essential amino acids. The reference cultivars demonstrated the highest mean values for essential amino acids and for the minerals phosphorus and iron. The highest average values of potassium, calcium and boron were found in the landraces, whereas the wild genotypes presented the highest averages in magnesium, zinc, manganese, and sodium. An analysis based on the principal components and a dendrogram allowed the identification of the most interesting genotypes (eight landraces) concerning the morphological traits and the nutritional composition. In Chapter 7 are presented the general conclusions and future perspectives. The results obtained in this work, could contribute for the definition of the best pollinators for the planning of new orchards and development of new cultivars. The genetic diversity found on wild genotypes and landraces may provide relevant information for the conservation of the genetic diversity that still remains. The high oil content and the reduced amount of linoleic acid could allow the selection of progenitors for breeding programs with the goal of increasing the kernel oil stability and the nutritional value of the fruits.
Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, “Programa Operacional Potencial Humano – POPH”, cofinanciado pelo Fundo Social Europeu (POPH/FSE) e por fundos nacionais (POPH-QREN)

Hazelnuts are commonly consumed raw and are valued for their numerous health benefits and antioxidant properties. Increased foodborne illness outbreaks associated with Salmonella and Escherichia coli O157:H7 contamination of tree nuts and peanuts generate a need for improving agricultural sanitation procedures. Food-safe chemical sanitizers have shown promise for reducing pathogenic organisms on fresh produce, but minimal research has been conducted for in-shell nuts. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of water and three food-safe sanitizers on a) the natural microbial load of postharvest in-shell hazelnuts and b) populations of pathogenic Salmonella (S. enterica subsp. enterica ser. Panama) inoculated and dried onto the surfaces of in-shell hazelnuts. The first phase of the study investigated the effectiveness of water, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl; 25 ppm, 50 ppm), peroxyacetic acid (PAA; 80 ppm, 120 ppm), and acidified sodium chlorite (ASC; 990 ppm) as sanitizers for use on postharvest in-shell hazelnuts. Treatments were applied to two groups of freshly harvested hazelnut samples to examine their effects on total aerobic microorganism populations during different times of harvest (Group 1 = early season, dry weather; Group 2 = late season, rainy weather). Treatments within each group included hazelnuts that underwent a tap water rinse, a tap water rinse followed by a water spray, and a tap water rinse followed by a chemical spray. Due to excess soil attached to shell surface, hazelnuts harvested later in the season (Group 2) had an initial population mean 2.24 log CFU/hazelnut greater than hazelnuts harvested earlier in the season (Group 1). All treatments, including water, resulted in significant population reductions compared to untreated controls (P���0.05). Rinsing with tap water produced reductions of 0.38 log units in both groups, and additional water spraying resulted in reductions of 0.83 and 0.73 log units in Group 1 and Group 2, respectively. None of the chemical treatments were significantly more effective than the water spray treatment in Group 1; however, several chemical treatments in Group 2 were significantly more effective than water spraying. Tight adherence to shell surfaces during dry weather may have increased the chemical resistance of microorganisms on hazelnuts. Treatment with ASC produced the greatest reduction in Group 1 and Group 2 compared to the control (1.22 and 2.08 log units, respectively) and water spray treatments (0.39 and 1.39 log units, respectively), but the efficacies varied between treatment groups. Wide variation between Group 1 and Group 2 treatment results made determination of chemical efficacy difficult. The second phase of the study analyzed the effectiveness of water, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl; 25 ppm, 50 ppm), peroxyacetic acid (PAA; 80 ppm, 120 ppm), and acidified sodium chlorite (ASC; 450 ppm, 830 ppm, 1013 ppm) as sanitizers for reducing Salmonella on in-shell hazelnuts. Hazelnut samples were soaked in pure cultures of S. Panama for 24 h, air dried for 66 h, and then sprayed with water and chemical treatments. Surviving S. Panama populations were evaluated using a non-selective medium (tryptic soy agar), followed by a selective overlay (xylose lysine deoxycholate agar) after a 3 h incubation period. Tight adhesion prevented significant population decreases from physical removal by water, which allowed for clear demonstration of chemical effectiveness. All of the chemical treatments significantly reduced the S. Panama population (P���0.05) compare to untreated and water-sprayed samples. The most effective concentrations of ASC, PAA, and NaOCl treatments resulted in mean microbial population reductions of 2.65, 1.46, and 0.66 log units, respectively. Overall, physical removal of excess dirt appeared to have the greatest effect on the microbial population reductions of postharvest in-shell hazelnuts, and adherence to shells during dry weather appeared to increase the chemical resistance of microorganisms. Future sanitation experiments should consider weather and levels of excess soil on hazelnuts as factors in the apparent efficacy of chemical sanitizers. Testing chemical sanitizers against tightly-adhered Salmonella cells provided consistent results with clear demonstration of chemical efficacies. Acidified sodium chlorite at 1013 ppm was significantly more effective at reducing Salmonella populations than other treatments and shows the greatest potential for use as a postharvest sanitation treatment. Thorough rinsing of hazelnuts in clean tap water, followed by spraying with high concentrations of acidified sodium chlorite could help increase the efficacy of current hazelnut processing.
Graduation date: 2013

Viability and dispersal of ascospores of Anisogramma anomala, the cause of eastern filbert blight (EFB) on European hazelnut, from diseased branches pruned from trees were measured. In each of two years, branches bearing stromata of A. anomala were cut in mid-December and compared to branches cut near budbreak in March, when trees became susceptible to infection. The experiment was replicated three times at separated locations. At each location, 125 diseased branches (source) were piled loosely in a 1 x 1 m area. From March to June, spore traps (rain sampling-type) as well as 2-year-old potted hazelnut trees were placed next to each source, 6.4 m upwind and downwind, and 20 m downwind from each source. During seven significant major rain events over the two seasons, hazelnut seedlings (3-month-old) were placed adjacent to the spore traps. Near sources significantly higher (P. < 0.01) ascospores counts were obtained for branches cut near budbreak compared to those pruned in December in the first season; no significant difference in counts of ascospores were observed in the second season between pruning treatments. For both seasons significantly higher (P < 0.05) counts of ascospores were observed at 6.4 m downwind compared to 6.4 m upwind or 20 m downwind of a source. Ascospore viability, as assessed by staining with trypan blue, was similar for both pruning times at all distances and averaged 50%. At least one infected seedling was obtained for 5 of 7 major rain events regardless of pruning time at sources and 3 of 7 major rain events 6.4 m downwind of a source. All of the 2-year-old potted trees for both pruning treatments at the source and 6.4 m downwind became diseased and > 50% of trees at 20 m downwind became diseased in the 2010 season. Similar to ascospores counts, disease incidence was significantly higher (P < 0.01) in 2-year-old potted trees observed 6.4 m downwind compared to 6.4 m upwind or 20 m downwind in the 2010 season. Significantly higher (P < 0.01) disease incidence in 2-year-old potted trees was observed 20 m downwind compared to 6.4 m upwind in the 2010 season. Downwind disease gradients for both pruning treatments were shallow with slopes that were not significantly different than zero (p > 0.05) for the 2010 season. Based on these results, ascospores from diseased branches pruned from trees in both pruning treatments remained viable, infectious and were dispersed downwind of each treatment.
Graduation date: 2012

Haselnüsse werden als Lebensmittel im Hinblick auf eine ausgewogene und gesunde Ernährung immer beliebter. Sie sind reich an ungesättigten Fettsäuren und Proteinen, enthalten Vitamine, Polyphenole, Antioxidantien und Mineralstoffe sowie weitere bioaktive Substanzen. Regelmäßiger Nusskonsum soll unter anderem koronaren Herzerkrankungen, Gallensteinen und Diabetes (bei Frauen) vorbeugen (Alasalvar und Shahidi, 2009; Ros, 2010). In den Jahren 2006 bis 2014 stieg der Pro-Kopf-Konsum an Nüssen von 3,8 auf 4,6 kg pro Jahr an. Laut der Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (BLE) wurden im Wirtschaftsjahr 2014 (Juli 2014 bis Juni 2015) 345.200 t Nüsse nach Deutschland importiert. Mit 105.000 t wird die Erdnuss in Deutschland am häufigsten verzehrt, doch auch die Haselnuss stellt mit 53.600 t ein sehr beliebtes Nahrungsmittel dar. (BLE, 2015; Ros, 2010) Haselnüsse werden roh oder geröstet, pur oder als Zutat für andere Lebensmittel und Backwaren, verzehrt. Durch die Röstung wird unter anderem die Haltbarkeit durch die Abtötung von Mikroorganismen und der Enzyminaktivierung verlängert (Durmaz und Gökmen, 2010), aber auch Farb- und Aromastoffe gebildet, welche das Aussehen und den Geschmack der Nüsse verbessern. Hierbei spielen vor allem die Maillard-Reaktion, welche eine Vielzahl von Einzelreaktionen von reduzierenden Zuckern mit freien oder proteingebundenen Aminosäureseitenketten, bevorzugt die des Lysins, beschreibt, sowie die Lipierung, welche analog die Reaktion von Protein- bzw. Lysinseitenketten mit Sekundärprodukten der Lipidperoxidation bezeichnet, eine Rolle. Die gewählten Röstbedingungen (Temperatur und Dauer) sind ausschlaggebend für die Bildung von Maillard- und Lipierungsprodukten in Nüssen. Es stellt sich die Frage, in welchem Maße diese Produkte bereits in den rohen Nüssen vorhanden sind und wie sich ihre Gehalte während der Erhitzung in Abhängigkeit von Rösttemperatur und -dauer verändern. Hierfür wurden sechs Maillard-Produkte und drei Lipierungsprodukte ausgewählt und deren Gehalte während der Haselnussröstung verfolgt. Lipierungsprodukte wurden im Rahmen der Arbeit erstmals in Haselnüssen untersucht. Aufgrund des hohen Fettgehalts von Haselnüssen wurden mögliche Einflussfaktoren auf die Bildung von Lipierungsprodukten genauer untersucht und zwischen verschiedenen Nusssorten verglichen. Im Anschluss erfolgte eine Abschätzung der Beeinflussung der Lipierungsproduktbildung in Abhängigkeit der Nusszusammensetzung. Hierbei spielen vor allem Faktoren wie der Fett- und Proteingehalt sowie die Fettsäure- oder Aminosäurezusammensetzung eine Rolle. Ein alternatives Verfahren zur Haltbarmachung, was bereits bei Fleischprodukten und Fruchtsäften Anwendung findet, stellt die Hochdruckbehandlung dar (Henle und Schwarzenbolz, 2015). Bisher wurde dieses Verfahren noch nicht auf Haselnüsse oder Nüsse im Allgemeinen angewandt und es gibt keinerlei Untersuchungen zu strukturellen Veränderungen der Proteine bzw. zu den Auswirkungen auf die Maillard- und Lipierungsproduktbildung im Zuge einer anschließenden Röstung. Aufgrund langer Transportwege und einer möglichweise verbesserten Lagerstabilität roher Nüsse wäre eine Hochdruckbehandlung auch für Haselnüsse relevant. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden erstmals Untersuchungen zum Einfluss einer Hochdruckbehandlung auf die Bildung von Maillard- und Lipierungsprodukten in Haselnüssen durchgeführt. Die Haselnussallergie stellt, mit etwa 2,2 % Betroffenen in Europa (EFSA, 2014), eine der Hauptnahrungsmittelallergien dar. Schon 10 mg einer rohen Haselnuss können ausreichen, um eine allergische Reaktion hervorzurufen (Worm et al., 2009). Innerhalb Europas lassen sich regionale Unterschiede hinsichtlich des auslösenden Allergens sowie der Schwere der Symptome feststellen. Im Norden Europas stellt das Birkenpollenhomologon Cor a 1 das Hauptallergen dar, welches oft mit einer Kreuzallergie zu anderen birkenpollenassoziierten Lebensmitteln einhergeht und meist eine milde Symptomatik, wie das orale Allergiesyndrom auslöst. Im Südeuropäischen Raum hingegen sind Patienten vor allem gegen das Lipid-Transfer-Protein Cor a 8 sensibilisiert, welches schwere Symptome bis hin zur Anaphylaxie auslösen kann. (Pastorello et al., 2002; Datema et al., 2015) Die Erhitzung und Hochdruckbehandlung von Haselnüssen kann die Allergenität beeinflussen. Im Rahmen dieser beiden Verfahren kann es zu Proteinmodifikationen und zu strukturellen Veränderungen der Proteine kommen, wobei Auf- und Umfaltungsreaktionen Epitope der Allergene maskieren oder freilegen können. Die Allergenität kann somit verringert oder verstärkt werden. In dieser Arbeit wurden die Auswirkungen einer Röstung mit und ohne vorhergehender Hochdruckbehandlung auf das Haselnussallergen Cor a 8 analysiert. Hierbei wurde das allergene Potential anhand des IgE-Bindungsvermögens von Humanseren mittels Western Blots abgeschätzt. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es Proteinmodifikationen, die im Rahmen der Röstung und Haltbarmachung von Haselnüssen entstehen, näher zu charakterisieren und deren Einfluss auf das allergene Potential zu beschreiben.

Almond and hazelnut production in Portugal are of great importance for the economy of their main producing areas. However, the contamination of these nut fruits with fungi and mycotoxins poses a significant risk to food security. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that frequently contaminate these commodities. This work intended to evaluate the influence of storage conditions on the microbial and mycotoxin stability and safety of nuts throughout long-term storage. For that, almond and hazelnut samples were stored under different relative humidity (RH) conditions (60, 70 and 80%) at 25°C for up to 6 months. The storage of two almond varieties – Lauranne and Guara - under 60% and 70% RH at 25°C were further compared with storage at 4 ºC for 9 months. Microbial loads (aerobic mesophiles and yeasts and molds) were determined at post-harvest stage and after being submitted to preservation, and molds were identified morphologically and molecularly. Nuts were also subjected to multi- mycotoxin analysis by LC-MS/MS to determine their mycotoxin contamination level and profile. For hazelnuts, five fungal species were identified belonging to four fungal genera commonly associated with mycotoxin production: Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium. For hazelnuts, an important range of mycotoxin was detected after 6 months of storage with a remarkable cumulative amount in 80% RH at 25°C, when compared to 60% and 70% RH at 25°C. For almonds, 26 species were identified belonging to seven genera: Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Penicillium, Paecilomyces, Talaromyces. For the variety Guara, mycotoxins related to Aspergillus sect. Flavi such as Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, Averufin, Versicolorin C, Norsolorinic acid were detected only after nine months of storage at 70 and 60% RH at 25°C. Penicillium sp. mycotoxins as Quinolactacin A, Roquefortine C and Flavoglaucin were also detected. Flavoglaucin was present in all time-points and conditions of storage in important amounts. For the variety Lauranne, Penicillium sp. mycotoxins were detected such as Citrinin, Quinolactacins A and B, Roquefortines Cand D, Cyclopenin, Cyclopenol, Penitrem A, Viridicatin and Viridicatol. Mycotoxins related to Aspergillus sp. such as Aspulvinone E, Flavoglaucin, Paspalin, Asperglaucide, Asperphenamate, cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr) and cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val) were also detected.
A produção de amêndoa e avelã em Portugal é de grande importância para a economia das regiões produtoras. No entanto, a contaminação destes frutos com fungos e micotoxinas apresenta um elevado risco para a segurança alimentar. Micotoxinas são metabolitos secundários dos fungos frequentemente produzidos nestes frutos. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a influência das condições de armazenamento de longo prazo na sua estabilidade e segurança microbiana. Para o efeito, amostras de amêndoas e de avelãs foram armazenadas sob diferentes condições de humidade relativa (HR) – 60, 70 e 80%, a 25 ºC durante 6 meses. O armazenamento de duas variedades de amêndoa – Lauranne and Guara – a 60% e 70% HR (25 ºC) foi também comparado com o armazenamento a 4 ºC durante 9 meses. A carga microbiana (aeróbios mesófilos) e fúngica (bolores e leveduras) foi determinada após a colheita e após preservação. Os bolores foram identificados morfológica e molecularmente. Os frutos foram também submetidos a análise multi-micotoxina por LC-MS/MS para determinação do nível e perfil de contaminação com micotoxinas. Nas avelãs foram identificados quatro géneros de fungos potencialmente produtores de toxinas: Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium e Penicillium. Várias micotoxinas foram detetadas após 6 meses de armazenamento, com níveis cumulativos elevados a 80% HR. No caso das amêndoas, foram identificadas 26 espécies pertencentes a sete géneros: Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Penicillium, Paecilomyces, Talaromyces. Para a variedade Guara, foram detetadas várias toxinas relacionadas com Aspergillus sect. Flavi como Aflatoxinas B1, B2, G1, G2, averufina, versicolorina C e ácido norsolorinico após nove meses de armazenamento a 70 e 60% HR. Foram ainda detetadas várias micotoxinas de Penicillium sp. (quinolactacina A, roquefortina C e flavoglaucina). Para a variedade Lauranne, foram detetadas as micotoxinas de Penicillium sp. citrinina, quinolactacinas, roquefortinas, ciclopenina, ciclopenol, penitrem A, viridicatina e viridicatol, e as micotoxinas de Aspergillus sp. aspulvinona E, flavoglaucina, paspalina, asperglaucide, asperfenamate, ciclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr) e ciclo(L- Pro-L-Val).
Work financed by ValNuts Project (PDR2020-101-030756), as part of a community initiative promoted by PDR2020 and co-financed by FEADER, within the Portugal 2020. This work was also partially financed by CIMO (UID/AGR/00690/2019) through the FEDER under PT2020.