Journal articles on the topic 'Haute stature'

(par Arnaud Hurel) Dans cet article, Paul Broca fixe le type de Cro-Magnon. Le 10 avril 1868, L’Écho de la Dordogne annonce une « découverte scientifique de la plus haute importance » : la mise au jour aux Eyzies-de-Tayac de sept squelettes humains « qui appartiennent évidemment à l’époque dite de l’âge de pierre ». Trois semaines plus tôt, des ouvriers ont mis au jour de façon fortuite des restes humains fossiles. Le 25 mars, à la demande du ministre de l’Instruction publique Victor Duruy (1811-1894), le géologue Louis Lartet (1840-1899) entame une fouille de ce qui va devenir l’illustre abri Cro-Magnon. Il y distingue plusieurs niveaux archéologiques et dégage les ossements de quatre adultes et un enfant associés à des artefacts. Après une première présentation au congrès de sociétés savantes en avril 1868, Lartet expose en mai les hommes de Cro- Magnon à la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris où ils vont être l’objet d’intenses discussions lors de quatre séances (21 mai, 4 et 18 juin, 16 juillet). L’étude princeps des crânes de Cro-Magnon proposée par Paul Broca (1824-1880) va fixer pour plusieurs décennies l’image des hommes de Cro- Magnon et en arrêter le type racial ; ce terme de race étant compris, dans l’esprit de Broca, dans une perspective polygéniste (pluralité d’espèces humaines). Son analyse essentiellement anthropométrique s’insère dans les débats qui l’opposent à Franz Pruner-Bey (1808-1882) sur la classification des populations humaines entre dolichocéphales et brachycéphales. Pour Broca, la population primitive représentée par les hommes de Cro-Magnon n’était ni brachycéphale ni mongoloïde. Ces individus, qui auraient constitué le peuple autochtone français, étaient dolichocéphales, de belle stature, au cerveau volumineux et de moeurs élevées, car ayant la « culture des arts ». Les BMSAP reproduisent ici in extenso cet article à l’occasion des 150 ans de la découverte des « Hommes de Cro-Magnon ». Redécouvrir cette publication de 1868 permet de comprendre comment ces vénérables ossements se trouvèrent alors mobilisés au service d’une anthropologie mêlant hommes fossiles et hommes actuels dans une même perspective classificatoire (raciologique).

La Haute Cour est l’unique juridiction pouvant juger le président de la République “en cas de manquement à ses devoirs incompatible avec l'exercice de son mandat”. C'est le Parlement réuni en Haute Cour qui est appelé à prononcer la destitution du président de la République. La Haute Cour est issue de la révision constitutionnelle du 23 février 2007. La Haute Cour constitue une instance de nature plus politique que judiciaire. Son rôle est défini par l’article 68 de la Constitution et précisé par la loi organique du 24 novembre 2014. En 2007, une révision constitutionnelle prévoit que le président de la République ne peut être destitué qu’en cas de manquement à ses devoirs manifestement incompatible avec l’exercice de son mandat. La destitution est prononcée par le Parlement constitué en Haute Cour. Celle-ci est présidée par le président de l’Assemblée nationale. Le Bureau de la Haute Cour est composé de vingt-deux membres désignés, en leur sein et en nombre égal, par le bureau de l’Assemblée nationale et par celui du Sénat. Il a pour but de préparer les travaux de la Haute Cour. La loi organique, promulguée en 2014, prévoit que la mise en accusation est initiée par une résolution votée à la majorité des deux tiers14 par chacune des deux assemblées. La commission d’instruction(comprenant six vice-présidents de l’Assemblée nationale et de six vice-présidents du Sénat) est chargée de recueillir toute information nécessaire. Elle dispose des prérogatives reconnues aux commissions d’enquête parlementaires. Elle élabore un rapport qui est distribué aux membres de la Haute Cour, communiqué au président de la République et au Premier ministre et rendu public. La Haute Cour est ensuite réunie, et statue sur la destitution dans un délai d’un mois. Les débats sont publics. Le Président de la République est démis de ses fonctions si la Haute Cour vote sa destitution à la majorité des deux tiers.

En vue d’en assurer l’étude architecturale et archéologique, les toits, la cour et les façades de l’Hôtel de Ville de Bruxelles ont été numérisés au moyen d’un relevé scanner 3D, couplé à une prise de photographies. Différents éléments de décor, tels que le tympan du portail principal et le saint Michel, girouette médiévale qui ornait le sommet du bâtiment, ont aussi été numérisés en haute définition. 1 Les relevés présentent différents défauts colorimétriques (variation liée à l’illumination naturelle changeante) et géométriques (points erronés liés aux passages de personnes et véhicules, traînées de points inhérentes au dispositif). Une chaîne de traitement spécifique a donc été appliquée pour les corriger. Au vu de la quantité de données et de leur exploitation pour la création de plans, un logiciel, baptisé LisaCAD, a été développé afin d'exploiter les données sous forme d’une représentation 2D enrichie. Celle-ci est similaire à des orthophotos, complétées par la possibilité de naviguer en profondeur et de varier le mode de rendu (couleurs, intensité, orientation…), afin de mettre en avant certains éléments (surfaces, arêtes…) difficilement perceptibles en couleur. Ses fonctionnalités permettent la réalisation d’élévations très précises et la production d’images de projection en haute définition de l’ensemble des façades de la cour, ainsi que de l’ensemble des toitures.

A la fin du 10e ou dans la première moitié du 11e siècle, un Christ en croix pleure à Orléans, annonçant de la sorte un grand incendie ; d'autres crucifix opèrent des guérisons à Cologne et à Ratisbonne ; on montrait à Autun, là aussi sur un crucifix, une effigie du Christ qui longtemps auparavant s'était inclinée devant un saint moine lui-même élevé au-dessus du sol ; on racontait à Saint-Gall que la Vierge avait jadis guidé la main d'un moine du monastère en train de ciseler son portrait à Metz ; à Châtillonsur- Loire une statue de la Vierge échappe miraculeusement au feu ; et une statue reliquaire comme celle de sainte Foy à Conques multiplie les miracles de toutes sortes.

AbstractWhy are hate crime cases so rarely prosecuted? Most states and the federal government have hate crime laws on their books, yet available data indicate few prosecutions in most jurisdictions. Drawing on case files and interviews with police and prosecutors in one jurisdiction, three institutional impediments to hate crime prosecution are identified: evidentiary inflation, by which law enforcement uses a higher burden of proof than what is required by statute; loose coupling between police departments and prosecutors' offices; and cultural distance between law enforcement and victims. Findings also reveal that advocacy groups and media can successfully increase the visibility of cases and draw the attention of prosecutors. The findings align with aspects of legal endogeneity theory and enhance our understanding of the role of organizations in constructing the meaning of law. The results also help explain why some laws are rarely enforced, even when they have support from key personnel in an organization.

Criminal acts related to hate speech are one of the crimes that occur as a result of the misuse of information technology carried out by a person or group by conveying forms of provocation, seditious actions, or in the form of insults to someone or certain other groups in terms of various indicators, namely race, skin, gender, religion and others. Research problems: how are the efforts to deal with the criminal act of distributing electronic information containing hate speech at POLDA Lampung and why there are obstacles to efforts to overcome the criminal act of distributing electronic information containing hate speech at the Regional Police located in Lampung Province. This type of research is a normative juridical research. The data analysis was done qualitatively. The approach to the problem used is the statute approach. The results of this study indicate that the law enforcement of hate speech using social media is carried out by the Sub-Directorate for Cyber Crime of POLDA Lampung through non-penal and penal means. Non-penal efforts are carried out by carrying out cyber patrols and socializing the prohibition on hate speech using social media. Penal efforts carried out by investigation and investigation. The factors that hinder efforts to overcome criminal acts of hate speech by using social media are in the aspects of legislation, aspects of law enforcement officials, facilities and infrastructure, community conditions and cultural aspects of these factors, there are dominant factors being weaknesses, namely in the aspect of law enforcers who are not yet competent and have mastered the development of types of crimes related to information technology, precisely at the Cyber Police Unit in Lampung Province.

AbstractAll observers of our legal system recognize that criminal statutes can be complex and obscure. But statutory obscurity often takes a particular form that most observers have overlooked: uncertainty about the identity of the wrong a statute aims to punish. It is not uncommon for parties to disagree about the identity of the underlying wrong even as they agree on the statute's elements. Hidden in plain sight, these unexamined disagreements underlie or exacerbate an assortment of familiar disputes—about venue, vagueness, and mens rea; about DUI and statutory rape; about hate crimes, child pornography, and counterterrorism laws; about proportionality in punishment; and about the proper ambit of the criminal law. Each of these disputes may hinge on deeper disagreements about the identity of the wrong a statute aims to punish, and these deeper disagreements can be surprisingly hard to resolve, fueled as they are by the complex inner structure of our penal laws and the discretionary mechanisms of their administration.

In der Ausgabe Bilderbuch des Kursbuchs hat der Kunsthistoriker Martin Warnke bereits vor 35 Jahren eine Bildtafel veröffentlicht, die kommentarlos Pressefotografien Franz Josef Strauß’ mit einer Abbildung einer spätantiken Statue konfrontierte. In derselben Ausgabe hatte er zudem mit dem Herausgeber der Zeitschrift, Karl Markus Michel, «Schicksale» politischer Gesten verfolgt, die später zum Bestand des Bildindex zur politischen Ikonographie werden sollten. Der Index, den Martin Warnke zunächst am Kulturwissenschaftlichen Institut Essen aus einem privaten «Urkasten» aufbaute, wurde in den 1990er Jahren im Warburg-Haus Hamburg unter Mitarbeit der Nutzer zu einem um eine Bibliothek ergänzten ikonographischen Zettelkasten mit fast einer halben Million Einträgen.

Zusammenfassung Am Ende des 2. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. hatte die gens Fabia – eine der ältesten und prominentesten patrizischen gentes – ein ganzes Spektrum von Strategien der Selbstdarstellung vor ihren Standesgenossen und dem Volk entwickelt, die besonders dicht miteinander vernetzt waren: Dazu gehörten einerseits die ambivalenten Mythen wie die Abstammung der gens von Herakles, der Untergang der Fabii am Cremera-Bach und ihre Verwicklung in das Desaster an der Allia; die diversen, von prominenten Mitgliedern geweihten Tempel wie diejenigen für Venus und Honos; Monumente wie die Herakles-Statue des berühmten Lysippos, die der später als ‚Cunctator‘ gefeierte Q. Fabius Maximus nach seiner Eroberung von Tarent hatte nach Rom bringen und auf dem Capitol aufstellen lassen, und zwar in unmittelbarer Nachbarschaft mit seiner eigenen Reiterstatue, sowie weitere visuelle Medien und andererseits die performativen Strategien wie spektakuläre Triumphe und andere pompae. Diese wurden durch ein neues Medium ergänzt und erweitert: Vor allem Fabius Pictors bahnbrechende Geschichte Roms sowie die schriftlich verbreitete laudatio funebris des erwähnten Cunctator auf seinen Sohn wurden ein integraler Teil des komplexen Repertoires der multimedialen Strategien der fabischen Selbstdarstellung.

The United States does not comply with the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), which is the United Nations’ core binding anti-racism human rights convention. One hundred and seventy seven states, including the US, have ratified the anti-racism multilateral agreement. The nation entered into the pact in 1994 yet still has not implemented its obligations to the statute. This study focuses on the protections ICERD provides Latino immigrants who are not United States citizens as this group is often ignored in advocacy for implementation strategies. Areas where the United States does not comply with ICERD include discriminatory immigration policies and practices, violent and discriminatory policing, gendered violence, and inequalities in the criminal justice system. It is critical to examine ICERD’s protections for Latino non-citizens because it reveals how the group experiences racism differently than other people because they endure intersectional forms of systematic and institutional discrimination due to their race, ethnicity, citizenship status, gender, and other identity traits. Methodologies used in this study include analysis of ICERD’s monitoring body’s General Recommendations, and the monitoring body’s reports about the United States’ lack of compliance with the statute. These are the most powerful regulatory forces of the treaty due to the monitoring body’s positionality as experts about the pact appointed through the United Nations system.

Tulisan ini dilatarbelakangi dari efek kasus yang terjadi di Amerika Serikat (AS) yaitu terkait kasus ujaran kebencian kepada orang Asia maupun keturunannya yang dikenal dengan istilah Asian Hate yang mendapat kecaman dari berbagai pihak internasional. Diharapkan tulisan ini mampu menambah wawasan dan pemahaman setiap kita terkait isu persoalan sosial di Amerika Serikat menurut hukum internasional. Studi ini nantinya akan menggunakan metode penelitian normatif dengan pendekatan peraturan perundang-undangan (statute approach), pendekatan kasus (case approach), dan pendekatan historis (historical approach). Hasil tulisan ini menunjukkan berdasarkan International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimintion (ICERD) dan Universal Decrlaration on Human Rights (UDHR) sendiri sudah lebih dulu menyatakan bahwa setiap manusia harus diperlakukan tanpa diskriminasi. This paper is based on the effect of cases that occurred in the United States (US), namely related to cases of hate speech to Asians and their descendants known as Asian Hate which received criticism from various international parties. This paper will bring more knowledge and awareness that occurred in the United States (US), namely related to cases of hate speech to Asians and their descendants are known as Asian Hate which received criticism from various international parties. This paper will give us further insight into the social and legal issues occurring in the United States according to international law. The paper will eventually adopt a normative-law study method with a constitutional approach, case approach, and historical approach. The results of the paper have shown that based on International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimintion (ICERD) and Universal Decrlaration on Human Rights (UDHR) itself, it has been stated that every human being must be treated without discrimination.

With a picture of a minaret superimposed on the Statue of Liberty, thisbook's cover is a striking introduction to what is inside. Like the Statue ofLiberty that has acted as a beacon of freedom for wave after wave ofrefugees and immigrants, Khan argues that Muslims in America are beaconsfor the Muslim world, calling the ummah to an Islam of moderation, tolerance,and excellence; helping to bring the ummah out of its current malaiseby engaging in itjthad; and, the same time, bringing Islam to an ailing UnitedStates. And as the minaret and the Statue of Liberty also can represent polesof tension for Muslims (the love/hate relationship and the spilt personalitysyndrome that Muslims have toward the United States), Khan's book investigatesthe Muslim experience of living in the United States. He criticizes theUnited States for failing to live up to its promises of liberty for its Muslimcitizens and inhabitants, as well as for Muslims around the globe.American Muslims has eight chapters, each presenting a different angleof the relationship between being Muslim and being American. Khan setsthe scene by discussing "Islam in America" ( chapter l ), moves to "AmericanMuslims and American Politics" (chapter 2), "American Foreign Policy"(chapter 3), and "American Muslims and American Society" (chapter 4). Hethen introduces the notion of an American Muslim perspective (chapter 5)and has a chapter on the compatibility between Islam and democracy ( chai:rter 6). The 9/11 attack and its impact upon Muslims is discussed next (chai:rter 7), and the book ends with his perspective as an American Muslim onpolitics in the Muslim world (chapter 8).Khan presents forceful and consistent arguments that are both thoughtprovokingand often refreshing in their honesty. He is not afraid to say out ...

Legislators have normally exercised one of two options when enacting hate crime legislation. They either provide for punishment of ordinary criminal acts to be enhanced when the offence has been committed by reason of prejudice or hatred towards the victim, or they pass an Act which establishes an entirely new substantive offence. The United Kingdom Parliament adopted the first approach under the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, initially with regard to racially aggravated crimes and later in respect of religiously aggravated offences. In passing the Race and Religious Hatred Acts 2006, Parliament has taken the second approach and created a new substantive law. This paper considers the specific requirements that will need to be satisfied in order to establish the offence and some issues that arise in relation to proof of intention, relevance of motive and the nature of the language required to constitute hatred, in the light of the concession to freedom of speech contained in the statute.

Introduction. En raison de la diminution des ressources en bois d’œuvre tropicaux, il convient d'améliorer les connaissances sur les espèces ligneuses en vue de développer des politiques d'exploitation réellement durables. Reconnu pour la grande qualité de son bois, Cylicodiscus gabunensis Harms (Fabaceae-Caesalpinioideae) est une essence à haute valeur socio-économique. Cet article dresse la synthèse bibliographique des connaissances relatives à cette espèce en vue de mettre en avant l’ensemble des aspects méritant des investigations scientifiques approfondies. Littérature. Commercialisée sous le nom d’okan, C. gabunensis est une espèce ligneuse non grégaire vivant dans les forêts denses humides tropicales sempervirentes et semi-décidues. Arbre fétiche pour certains peuples autochtones, C. gabunensis est utilisé par les communautés rurales pour de multiples usages. C’est une espèce à phénologie régulière avec une dispersion anémochore des graines. Les populations d’arbres affichent un déficit de régénération en forêt dense humide sempervirente, ce qui compromettrait l’exploitation de l’espèce à long terme. Ce risque est accru par le manque évident d’informations écologiques et sylvicoles permettant une gestion durable. Conclusions. Cette revue bibliographique résume l’ensemble des informations disponibles sur C. gabunensis principalement en botanique, anatomie du bois, écologie et ethnobotanique. Elle renseigne sur l’état actuel des connaissances au regard des rythmes d’exploitation et de l’état des populations de l’espèce. Des informations complémentaires sont nécessaires pour (i) statuer sur la conservation des populations de l’espèce et (ii) proposer des stratégies de gestion adaptées.

In this millennial era, sharing and accessing information and news is very easy. This is because technology has increasingly developed among the people. People easily access information and news through social media. The government made a regulation related to the problem, namely the ITE Law. Along with the times, the provocative issue of spreading news containing SARA (Tribe, Religion, Race and Intergroup) also emerged in the use of social media because of the use of free and easy media. If the subject in question is a community as an example of a case for the spread of hate speech containing SARA Saracen. In this thesis will discuss the criminal liability of the SARA news disseminating community, using normative juridical legal research methods and accompanied by a statute approach and conceptual approach. The results of the research conducted by the author show that criminal liability in the community for distributing SARA-charged news is imposed by individuals rather than a community by adhering to the vicarious liability doctrine and that criminal sanctions are subject to article 28 paragraph (2) of the ITE Law.

Les sanctuaires de Déméter dans le Péloponnèse sont le théâtre de rites dont la nature nécessite souvent d’être dissimulés. Ainsi, il est possible de déterminer l’existence de plusieurs niveaux de frontières protégeant ces cérémonies secrètes. L’installation de sanctuaires éloignés des centres urbains constitue une première façon de s’isoler et permet, de surcroît, d’exploiter les caractéristiques naturelles du terrain ; la pente d’une montagne, les bois ou encore les grottes offrent une couverture supplémentaire. Les délimitations peuvent tout autant être architecturées : de hauts murs d’enceinte interviennent parfois pour protéger les lieux de culte en contexte urbain, ces derniers peuvent aussi être agrémentés d’un bois pour encore plus de discrétion. Il existe également des bâtiments conçus pour abriter les rites qui ne doivent pas être vus ou entendus de certaines catégories de personnes (hommes ou non-initiés). Enfin, plusieurs éléments doivent même être cachés des fidèles : il est parfois interdit à quiconque de voir la statue de culte, d’assister au sacrifice ou d’accéder à une certaine partie du lieu de culte. Par conséquent, la frontière revêt divers rôles au sein des cultes de Déméter et divise la population des fidèles en différentes catégories.

Melalui media sosial, individu dapat dengan mudah menyampaikan pendapat, namun kebebasan ini dapat menciptakan konflik jika tidak terkontrol. Kebebasan berekspresi harus dipertanggungjawabkan dan mengikuti norma-norma. Kebebasan yang tidak mengikuti norma bisa jadi mengarah pada suatu Ujaran Kebencian (Hate Speech) atau Ujaran Kebohongan (Hoax). Hoax adalah informasi yang di dalamnya berisi tentang kebohongan, fitnah, rekayasa, dan sejenisnya yang sesungguhnya tidak benar, namun dibuat seolah-olah benar di kalangan masyarakat. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian hukum normatif dengan pendekatan statute, case, dan konseptual. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian pengaturan hukum mengenai penyiaran betita bohong menurut hukum positif di Indonesia ada lima yaitu Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Pidana Pasal 310 ayat (1), Pasal 311 ayat (1), dan Pasal 390, Undang-Undang Nomor Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik Pasal 28 ayat (1) dan ayat (2) Jo. Pasal 45, Undang-Undang 1 tahun 1946 tentang Peraturan Hukum Pidana pada Pasal 14 dan Pasal 15, Peraturan Menteri Kominfo Nomor 19 tahun 2014 tentang Penanganan Situs Internet Bermuatan Negatif, Undang-Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2002 Tentang Penyiaran. Pertanggungjawaban pidana bagi seseorang yang menyebarluaskan berita bohong tanpa diketahuinya bahwa berita tersebut adalah Hoax pada dasarnya harus memenuhi semua unsur pertanggungjawaban pidana yaitu kemampuan bertanggungjawab, adanya kesalahan, dan tidak adanya alasan penghapus pidana.

The Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) spreads radical terror and invites people to commit violence to achieve their goals. ISIS also spreads hatred towards other groups contrary to their views based on their exclusive religious understanding. They consider their group to be the most righteous and others to be apostates or infidels, including the state or the government. Therefore, the Indonesian government must be wary of this group. Thus, the Indonesian government has banned ISIS radicalism in Indonesia because it is not by the values of Pancasila and the constitution. This research examines the imprisoning policy of the perpetrators of spreading ISIS radicalism and the form of policy formulation as a containment effort for terrorism crimes in the future. This normative juridical research method uses a statute approach and a conceptual approach. This research shows that the policy is that criminal responsibility for spreading radicalism can be imposed on individuals and groups, whether civilian, military, or police, who are responsible individually, or corporations. The corporation in question is an institution that is suspected and proven to have spread radicalism which leads to acts of terrorism. This crime originates from the regeneration of terrorist cells, which develop despite the different ways and modes of carrying out their actions. In addition, different perspectives on ideology also encourage the proliferation of terrorist cells that seek to incorporate Islamic law constitutionally and change Pancasila with an exclusive religious ideology.

Between 2019 and early 2022 more than 15 human rights NGOs have brought accusations against Israel regarding the presence of signs of apartheid both in the territory of the State of Israel and in the occupied territories. Based on documents of international law (the International Convention against the Crime of Apartheid and the Rome Statute), NGOs (national and international) have presented in a number of reports why the reality in which the Palestinian people live should be called apartheid. Although the term ‘apartheid’ has no geographic reference, its use for systems established outside of South Africa is very rare and highly controversial. However, accusations against Israel, which have been going on for a long time, are gaining popularity and are also reflected in the reports of the Special Rapporteurs on the situation of human rights in the occupied Palestinian territories, which are mainly based on data provided by NGOs. Israel contends that these accusations are false and have nothing to do with reality. Thus, the Israeli authorities have repeatedly stated that in this way human rights organizations promote hate, incitement, violence, and terror. Despite the tendentious nature of the information, NGOs have a significant impact on the image of the Jewish state and on public opinion in the context of supporting the Palestinian people’s right to self-determination, although they will not make changes to Israel’s policy.

Konsep hukum yang menafikkan adanya konsep HAM yang berkeadilan justru dapat menciptakan efektivitas penegakan hukum yang buruk. Jika ditinjau dari teori efektivitas hukum Lawrence M. Friedman terdapat 3 (tiga) aspek yang menjadi dasar suatu sistem hukum dapat efektif, diantaranya: 1) Legal Structure; 2) Legal Substance; 3) Legal Culture. Ketiga poin tersebut haruslah saling berkesinambungan untuk mencapai suatu penanganan hukum yang efektif. Namun, pada realitas hari ini Legal Culture yang berada di dalam kondisi sosial masyarakat. Masyarakat lebih cenderung memiliki Legal Culture yang berbasis Crime Control Model dengan merujuk konsep Retributive Justice. Paradigma ini semata-mata ditujukan hanya untuk menindas perilaku kriminal (criminal conduct) atas tindak pidana yang dilakukan, hal ini dikarenakan yang diutamakan adalah ketertiban umum (public order) dan pembalasan atas apa yang dilakukan. Sehingga diperlukan adanya reformasi sistem peradilan pidana dengan pendekatan Due Process Model. Di dalam Due Process Model ini muncul nilai-nilai baru yang sebelumnya kurang diperhatikan, yaitu konsep perlindungan hak-hak individual dan pembatasan kekuasaan dalam penyelengaraan peradilan pidana. Sehingga, mampu menciptakan persamaan hak-hak dan menjamin nilai-nilai keadilan yang mampu mengembalikan keadaan (restorative justice). Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini berfokus pada implementasi mediasi penal terhadap penanganan kejahatan ujaran kebencian (hate speech) yang mengedepankan pendekatan Due Process Model guna menciptakan keadilan restoratif (restorative justice). Penelitian ini bersifat deskriptif dengan jenis penelitian yuridis normatif. Jenis pendekatan yang digunakan adalah pendekatan peraturan perundang-undangan (statue approach) dan pendekatan konseptual (conseptual approach).

Abstrak This article is intended to find out how the legal problems of implementing the Law on Information and Electronic Transactions in Indonesia after the revision in 2016. This research is normative legal research conducted using statutory and conceptual approaches. In addition, a case study approach is also used to deepen the analysis. The study results found that various problems still surround the implementation of Electronic Information and Transactions Law (UU ITE). The most crucial issue that has become a reporting trend is the articles regulating defamation or hate speech, namely Article 27 paragraph 3 and Article 28 paragraph (2). These articles are vulnerable to being used to silence criticism and freedom of opinion. So it is important to revise the ITE Law to guard the course of democracy and justice so that legal order can be achieved. Abstrak Artikel ini ditujukan untuk mengetahui bagaimana problematika hukum penerapan Undang-Undang Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik di Indonesia pasca revisi pada tahun 2016. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian hukum normatif yang dilakukan dengan menggunakan pendekatan peraturan perundang-undangan (statute approach) dan pendekatan konseptual (conseptual approach), selain itu pendekatan kasus (case study) juga digunakan untuk memperdalam analisis. Hasil penelitian ditemukan bahwa terdapat berbagai persoalan yang masih menyelimuti Undang-Undang Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik (UU ITE) dalam pengimplementasiannya. Persoalan paling krusial yang menjadi tren pelaporan adalah pasal-pasal yang mengatur tentang defamasi atau pencemaran nama baik dan ujaran kebencian yaitu Pasal 27 ayat 3 dan Pasal 28 ayat (2). Pasal-pasal tersebut rentan digunakan untuk membungkam kritik dan kebebasan berpendapat. Maka revisi kembali terhadap UU ITE penting dilakukan untuk mengawal jalannya demokrasi dan keadilan sehingga tertib hukum dapat tercapai.

L’inscription sanscrite dite de Lovek, lieu présumé de son origine, a pour objet de relater la donation d’une statue et d’un palanquin à un temple dans Dviradapura au Cambodge par Śaṃkara Paṇḍita, chapelain des trois grands rois du royaume khmer qui ont rempli presque tout le xie siècle de notre ère, Sūryavarman Ier (1002-1050), Udayā-dityavarman II (1050-1066), Harṣavarman III (1066-1080). L’acte de donation est formulé dans la dernière strophe du texte en sanscrit, puis en khmer dans un appendice énumérant toutes les donations pieuses faites par le donateur au cours de sa longue carrière de chapelain royal. Cela est précédé d’un long panégyrique du personnage et de sa famille, dont plusieurs membres de génération en génération au long de trois siècles (du ixe au xie), ont exercé d’importantes fonctions à la cour royale. La charge la plus haute, et la plus influente, parce que la plus proche du pouvoir, a été celle de guru, aussi appelé hotṛ ou purohita, maître dirigeant les rites royaux et conseiller personnel du roi. Il devait avoir une compétence dans trois domaines, pratique du rituel, érudition en langue, littérature et scolastique sanscrites, service du dharma, bon ordre en morale, droit et coutume profane et religieuse. Śaṃkara Paṇḍita fut le guru accompli dans les trois sphères. La conception théologique et l’ordonnan-cement du temple-montagne du Baphuon doivent lui être attribués aux côtés de Sūryavarman Ier et Udayādityavarman II. Il officia lors de la grande cérémonie d’installation d’un Liṅga d’or dans le sanctuaire sommital du Baphuon, qui est le second monument en taille, complexité et prestige après Angkor Vat. Ce texte est composé dans le style de la poésie savante sanscrite. Il est manifeste qu’une inscription sanscrite est composée au Cambodge, comme en Inde, avec égalité de méthode et d’esprit. Mais l’application des con-naissances issues des sources indiennes dans la pratique religieuse et dans les arts au Cambodge est manifestement khmère. Il n’en reste pas moins que la grandeur et la beauté de la conception, comme de la réalisation, sont également partagées entre la stèle inscrite et le monument. Une bonne approche des inscriptions sanscrites du pays khmer est sans conteste la confrontation du texte avec la discipline sanscrite de l’ornementation poétique (alaṃkāraśāstra) et la littérature religieuse tantrique de l’école du Śaivasiddhānta.

The article reveals the concept of gender-based crimes (GBCs), which should be understood as illegal, intentional violent actions directed against a person due to their gender. Forms of sexual violence are highlighted, including: sexual violence, human trafficking, gender-based murders – femicide/ feminicide, infanticide. The provisions of international legal acts, which contain norms regarding the prohibition of violence and combating domestic violence, are highlighted, in particular: the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women of 1979, General Recommendation No. 19 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, General Comment No. 38 (2020) of the Human Rights Committee, the Statute of the International Criminal Court of 1998, the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime of 2000, the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime of 2000 (Palermo protocol), Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence of 2011, Decisions No. 15/05 and No. 7/14 of the Council of Ministers of the OSCE, Directive of the European Parliament and the Council on combating violence against women and domestic violence of 2022 etc. It is summarized that the specified norms have developed from guaranteeing human rights (a fundamental principle regarding the prohibition of discrimination) to a strict prohibition regarding their violation (recognition as criminally punishable acts). The characteristic contextual circumstances of GBCs are highlighted, in particular: the committed act must constitute an offense according to criminal law (presence of the main crime); the main object is encroachment on human personality, basic inalienable rights and freedoms guaranteed by international standards and national legislation; an integral component of the illegal act is a certain motive or motives of prejudice, in particular with regard to the specific gender context and the circumstances in which it is committed; the selection of victims may be based solely on gender or on the basis of multiple signs of identity such as gender and religion. Any person or group of persons, regardless of their gender, can become victims of gender-based hate crimes (men, women, representatives of LGBT communities, etc.); a component of the objective side is the use of various forms of violence, including cyber violence; enslavement, including acquisition, sale, provision for use, exchange of a person or persons; rape; forced pregnancy, forced sterilization; sexual violence; murder and other illegal actions. The subject of the commission of an illegal act is a physically reprehensible, guilty person who has reached the age of criminal responsibility provided for by the legislation of the relevant state or international agreements. The act may be committed in complicity or as part of an organized group. A legal entity can also be recognized as the subject of responsibility. GBCs can have the character of general criminal crimes, transnational crimes, the definition of which is contained in the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime of 2000, especially in the form of gender-based human trafficking. And they can also be components of international crimes, which are recognized as the most serious and dangerous offenses, the components of which are provided by international agreements, statutes of international bodies of criminal jurisdiction (the International Criminal Court, ad hoc tribunals, specialized courts, etc.). Appropriate conclusions and recommendations were made.

During 1991, the security services of Bosnia and Herzegovina began to monitor the telephone conversations of high-ranking officials of the Serbian Democratic Party (SDS). These recorded conversations reveal part of the truth to the preparations for the war and the genocide that followed. Intercepted conversations also show the connections that Serbian officials in Bosnia and Herzegovina had with Belgrade, that is, with Slobodan Milošević and other officials of the Yugoslav leadership. These conversations were recorded until the beginning of the aggression, that is, until they left the territory of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in March and April 1992, by persons whose phones were tapped. This paper will deal with conversations that were recorded in the period from May 1991 to March 1992. One of the most common topics of these conversations was the issue of Islam, that is, the thematization of terms such as „Islamic Republic“, „Islamic Declaration“, „Islamic way of life“, „Islamic fundamentalism“, etc. The paper shows how the Serbian political elite used this terminology to instill fear in public opinion, but to a certain extent they also believed that an increased birth rate would lead to the establishment of a Muslim-majority state. For the purposes of writing this paper, research was done on primary sources, i.e. transcripts of intercepted conversations. The transcripts were used as evidence by the Prosecutor's Office of the Hague Tribunal during the trial of high-ranking Serbian officials. In addition to the research, sorting and analysis of the transcripts, this paper will also identify the most prominent participants in the conversation of the Serbian leadership. Also, given the aforementioned specificity of telephone conversations through their private nature, it is possible to dissect important topics in the conversations, which are often not military and political, and will contribute to finding additional answers. This makes these conversations even more important because they show a more intimate side of the genocidal strategist. Participants such as high-ranking officials Slobodan Milošević, Radovan Karadžić, Biljana Plavšić, Nikola Koljević, Momčilo Krajišnik, Dobrica Čosić and others, shows what and how those at the top thought in their private telephone conversations in those days in 1991 and 1992. On the other hand, through the conversations, one can see how well the SDS leadership managed the situation on the ground. Low-ranking figures who performed various political and social tasks such as Todor Dutin, director of the SRNA, Rajko Dukić, president of the SDS Executive Committee and a local strongman in Milići appear in the conversations; Vojo Kuprešanin, member of the Main Board of SDS and a key man in Krajina; Vitomir Žepinić, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina; Radoslav Brđanin, head of the Autonomous Region of Krajina, Zvonko Bajagić, a prominent member of the SDS in Vlasenica, Gojko Đogo, writer and essayist, a close friend of Karadžić, Momčilo Momo Mandić, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina and later wartime Minister of Justice of the so-called „Republic Serbian“,; Trifko Komad, head of Radovan Karadžić's Cabinet and member of the SDS Main Board and many others. Also, what is important to mention is the visible 'radicalization' of the participants in the talks. As the political situation on the ground worsened, hate speech and threats became more frequent and serious. This paper aims to further approach this important topic of intercepted conversations and to popularize its greater use in scientific research works. With the advancement of technology and means of communication, the primary sources for research are slowly shifting and taking on a new look. Thus, this paper also tries to analyze these intercepted conversations to give some insight into the complexity of understanding the genocidal intentions of the Bosnian Serb leadership.

AbstractBishop Stephen Neill's name elicits polarized perspectives. On the one hand he was one of the great Christian scholars of the twentieth century; on the other hand, his personal life was an enigma. This paper intends to explore some of the various responses to Bishop Neill's legacy since his death in 1984, giving special attention to the case study of how he lost his bishopric in India in 1945. It was a devastating event for Neill; he was forced to leave against his wishes. India was his true love, and the loss was tremendous for him. How could a bishop the stature of Stephen Neill have been forced from his see? After his death in 1984 a flurry of articles appeared in various publications. Some of these praised him, essentially arguing that whatever failings Neill may have had, his reputation should not be soiled by a few indiscretions in his younger years. Others, however, questioned how a clergyman, a bishop no less, could essentially get away with bizarre habits that created lasting wounds in some of the people in his care. Neill was never publicly chastised for what he did; he was quietly moved into a new role in the Anglican Church and eventually moved to Geneva where he worked with the World Council of Churches. Why Neill lost the prestigious see of Tinnevelly in South India was a matter of intense questioning until recently. This article uncovers what happened in South India in 1944 and 1945 that led to such drastic action. Neill did manage to recover, becoming one of the great historians of the world Christian movement. Today, his legacy is profound, evinced in the dozens of fine books he published. However, there are others who are still pained by him. This was an enigmatic man, deeply committed to his Christian faith, yet deeply flawed. Le nom de l'évêque Stephen Neill évoque des controverses. D'un côté, il fut l'un des grands penseurs chrétiens du vingtième siècle; de l'autre, sa vie personnelle fut une énigme. Cet article tente d'explorer quelques traces de son œuvre depuis sa mort en 1984, en portant une attention spéciale à la façon dont il perdit sa charge épiscopale en Inde, en 1945. Ce fut un événement accablant pour Neill; il fut forcé de partir à son corps défendant. L'Inde était son véritable amour et la perte fut pour lui considérable. Comment un évêque de la stature de Stephen Neill a-t-il pu être expulsé de son siège? Après sa mort en 1984, toute une série d'articles parurent dans des publications diverses. Quelques-uns louangeurs, arguant que, quelles que soient ses fautes, sa réputation ne devrait pas être ternie par quelques indiscrétions sur ses années de jeunesse. D'autres, cependant, se demandaient comment un homme d'Eglise, et qui plus est un évêque, pouvait s'accommoder d'habitudes bizarres qui avaient occasionné des blessures durables chez certains de ses fidèles. Neill ne fut jamais châtié publiquement pour ce qu'il avait fait. On lui donna discrètement un nouveau poste dans l'Eglise anglicane puis un poste à Genève, au Conseil œcuménique des Eglises. La raison pour laquelle il perdit le prestigieux siège de Tinnevelly en Inde du Sud a posé encore récemment beaucoup de questions. Cet article dévoile ce qui s'est passé en Inde du Sud en 1944 et 1945 et qui entraîna une mesure aussi radicale. Neill réussit à reprendre le dessus, devenant l'un des grands historiens du mouvement chrétien oecuménique. Aujourd'hui son héritage est marquant, en témoigne la douzaine de très bons livres qu'il a publiés. Pourtant d'autres personnes restent en souffrance à cause de lui. Il a été un homme énigmatique, profondément engagé dans sa foi chrétienne, mais avec une faille profonde. Der Name Bischof Stephen Neill ruft gegensätzliche Perspektiven hervor. Einerseits war er einer der großen christlichen Gelehrten des 20. Jahrhunderts; andererseits war sein persönliches Leben ein Rätsel. Dieser Artikel möchte einige der verschiedenen Antworten auf das Vermächtnis Bischof Neills seit seinem Tod 1984 untersuchen und spezielle Aufmerksamkeit auf den Fall richten, wie er 1945 sein Bischofsamt in Indien verlor. Das war für Neill ein furchtbares Ereignis; er musste gegen seinen Willen gehen. Indien war seine wahre Liebe und der Verlust war für ihn schrecklich. Wie konnte ein Bischof von der Größe Stephen Neills gezwungen werden, seinen Bischofssitz aufzugeben? Nach seinem Tod erschien eine Reihe von Artikeln in verschiedenen Veröffentlichungen. Einige lobten ihn und argumentierten im Wesentlichen, dass trotz aller Fehler, die Neill vielleicht hatte, man seinen Ruf nicht durch einige Indiskretionen aus seinen jüngeren Jahren schädigen sollte. Andere fragten an, wie ein Kleriker, und besonders ein Bischof, mit bizarren Gewohnheiten eigentlich durchkommen konnte, die einigen Menschen in seiner Obhut bleibende Wunden verursachten. Niell wurde nie öffentlich für seine Taten bestraft; er wurde in Stille zu einer neuen Aufgabe in der Anglikanischen Kirche befördert und übersiedelte bei Gelegenheit nach Genf, wo er mit dem Weltkirchenrat arbeitete. Warum Neill seinen angesehenen Sitz von Tinnevelly in Südindien verlor, war eine Angelegenheit intensiven Nachfragens bis vor kurzem. Dieser Artikel enthüllt, was in Südindien 1944 und 1945 geschah und zu so einer drastischen Aktion führte. Neill schaffte es sich zu erholen und wurde einer der größten Historiker der christlichen Weltbewegung. Heute ist sein Erbe groß und liegt in einem Dutzend hervorragender Bücher zutage, die er veröffentliche. Allerdings gibt es immer noch Menschen, die auch heute noch unter ihm leiden. Er war ein rätselhafter Mann, seinem christlichen Glauben tief hingegeben, allerdings auch mit großen Defekten. El nombre del obispo Stephen Neill provoca opiniones polarizadas. Por un lado, fue uno de los grandes eruditos cristianos del siglo XX, y por el otro, su vida personal fue un enigma. Este trabajo se propone explorar algunas de las diversas respuestas al legado del obispo Neill luego de su muerte en 1984; se prestará especial atención al hecho de cómo perdió su obispado en la India en 1945. Fue un acontecimiento devastador para Neill, ya que se vio obligado a salir en contra de su voluntad. India fue su verdadero amor, y la pérdida fue enorme para él. ¿Cómo pudo un obispo de la talla de Stephen Neill haber sido expulsados de su sede? Luego de su muerte en 1984 una serie de artículos aparecieron en diversas publicaciones. Algunos de estos lo elogiaron, alegando fundamentalmente que cualquier falta que Neill pudo haber cometido, no debería manchar su reputación por indiscreciones cometidas en su juventud. Otros, sin embargo, cuestionaban cómo un sacerdote, nada menos que un obispo, pudo tener conductas extrañas que dejaron marcas profundas en algunas de las personas bajo su cuidado. Neill nunca fue reprendido públicamente por lo que hizo, silenciosamente fue trasladado a un nuevo cargo dentro de la Iglesia Anglicana y eventualmente fue enviado a Ginebra, donde trabajó con el Consejo Mundial de Iglesias. El porqué Neill perdió la prestigiosa sede de Tinnevelly en el sur de la India fue una cuestión de intenso debate hasta recientemente. Este artículo describe lo que pasó en el sur de la India en 1944 y 1945 que dio lugar a medidas tan drásticas. Neill logró recuperarse, convirtiéndose en uno de los grandes historiadores del movimiento cristiano en el mundo. Hoy en día su gran legado se manifiesta en decenas de excelentes obras publicadas. Sin embargo, hay otros que aún se siente dolidos por sus acciones. Este fue un hombre enigmático, genuinamente comprometido con su fe cristiana, pero aún así genuinamente imperfecto.

This article's overall research objective will be to critically analyze the foundational theory of hate crimes. The research question asks to what extent hate crimes are grounded in a foundational commonplace style of elaboration of statutory rules, as propounded by Nicolaus the Sophist, on the bases of the so-called ‘final headings’. The argument seeks to sustain the view that the so-called hate crimes are cognate to final headings elaborations in order to ground commonplace judicial denunciation. The research paradigm identifies underlying norms; therefore, the research methodology is doctrinal, establishing a legal narrative analysis.In extended synthesis, a statute might not proscribe fighting words of racial animus any more than those of hatred of the victim’s family. Regulation of the words’ subject inferred elaboration by the heading of the just and the appropriate. The enigma of the ‘something more’ criterion is ostensibly an elaboration of the possible and the beneficial. Hate crime laws apply to conduct motivated by hate, instead of hate speech. Hate suggests a consequential vitiation of reputation, so that hate crime laws are impliedly elaborated based on the final heading of the appropriate. Online symbolic rhetoric is arguably the enigmatic ‘something more’ and elaborated by the final headings of the possible and the beneficial. Hate crime laws require extraordinary police inquiries into offenders' motives. This conflation of duty and avoiding turning a blind eye implies final headings elaboration by the appropriate and the just. A measurement of victim vulnerability by association with a suffering group is the primary indicium of commonplace, elaborated by the final heading of the beneficial. The key to a hate crimes prosecution for social media actions would be hostility as a vicious error, as already elaborated as being equivalent to hatred, susceptible to elaboration by the final heading of appropriateness.

Having received a noticeable stature in the contemporary Hebrew children’s literature, Ronette Gettleman is one of the most renowned authors who have addressed the issue of hate speech and the culture of peace in contemporary Hebrew children’s literature. Hate speech is considered part of Zionist literature. Gettleman’s story On Her Way is a prominent piece of prose that depicts the Arabs and their image in Israeli children's minds. Hence, the story On Her Way was chosen as an attempt to identify, through selected excerpts from the story, how the Arab person is negatively portrayed in contemporary Hebrew children’s literature. The author, through some Israeli children, expresses the concepts of hostility and hatred in their conscience towards the Arab character. Like other Israeli authors, Gettleman shows that the image of Arabs in Hebrew literature raises fear, anxiety and terror whenever Israeli children hear the word "Arab". It also makes the culture of hatred and hostility a headline for the Israeli child. In contrast, the author highlights the culture of coexistence and peace among some Israeli children towards the Arab character. The story demonstrates that there are some Israeli children who are willing to coexist and live peacefully with Arabs. This story with its focus on both hatred and hostility on the one hand and coexistence and peace, on the other, shows the dual attitude of Israeli children towards Arabs. This is a new trend in contemporary Hebrew children's literature towards the Arab character and its positive outlook. Keywords: Contemporary Hebrew Children’s Literature, Hate speech, Culture of peace, Ronette Gettleman, On Her Way.

Cases of hate speech in various post-election countries show the strengthening of community polarization that leads to horizontal conflicts that have the potential to threaten the disintegration of a country. This potential is even greater because of the public's distrust of law enforcement that has been carried out by the government so far. This paper is a type of normative research using a statute approach and a comparative approach. The results of the study show that the government must take prevention as early as possible and carry out law enforcement objectively so as to reduce the potential for social conflicts that lead to violence and state disintegration

After protestors clashed in Charlottesville, Virginia over the planned removal of a statue of a Confederate general, President Trump refused to condemn white nationalists. Over the following days, numerous news stories were written about the protests, allowing the public to discuss white nationalism through online comments. Using theories on ideology, discourse, and framing, this study considers how white nationalist discourse emerged in those comments. The findings show broad support for white nationalism, including complaints about threats to white culture, reinterpretation of American history to support white nationalist ideas, and rejection of the idea that marginalized people face oppression. However, the study also shows a burgeoning force of critical commenters struggling to challenge white nationalism’s emergence in public spaces.

ABSTRACT Status systems bring social order to markets, but they are non-meritocratic arrangements that benefit those of a higher status and penalize those of a lower status. Paradoxically, these systems are also maintained by those who suffer the most from their inequalities. The literature tends to explain the persistence of these systems through macro-oriented or micro-oriented mechanisms. We propose an alternative path by investigating relational mechanisms that might explain the persistence of this paradox. In an haute cuisine market, we used the social network analysis perspective to identify relational mechanisms that maintain this collective system. The results revealed a three-role structure of symbolic deference/appreciation (diffuse, selective, and egocentric). To conclude, we highlight the social order as a continuous tension between normality and chaos in the relationships between roles and the procedural aspect of structuring market roles, which we call authorizing the representation of a market category.

Zu der kleinen Zahl der bis heute aus Thessaloniki bekannt gewordenen spätantiken Porträts (Abb. 5-6, 7-8) kommt ein überlebensgroßer Kopf aus der näheren Umgebung der antiken Stadt hinzu, der im Archäologischen Museum von Thessaloniki aufbewahrt wird (Abb. 1-4). Es handelt sich um einen umgearbeiteten Kopf ursprünglich aus dem 2. Jh. n. Chr., der in eine Statue eingesetzt war. Hingewiesen wird auf die betonten Charakteristika des Gesichts und die harte Wiedergabe der Hautfalten. Der Kopf ist wahrscheinlich in der 1. Hälfte des 5. Jhs. n. Chr. umgearbeitet worden und kann mit Köpfen dieser Zeit aus Kleinasien, aber auch aus Griechenland selbst verglichen werden. Die prägnanten, strengen Charakteristika der realistischen Physiognomie, die bei zahlreichen Privatporträts dieser Zeit Parallelen finden, die herausragende Persönlichkeiten, staatliche Würdenträger oder Mitglieder der lokalen Elite, darstellen.Zum Schluss wird auf eine etwa zur selben Zeit entstandene Büste aus Thessaloniki (Abb. 7-8) eingegangen, die einen älteren Mann mit langem Bart, tiefen Falten und einem Gesichtsausdruck darstellt, der auf eine eher geistige als mondäne Welt weist. Der Typus unterscheidet sich deutlich von dem zuerst besprochenen Typus des Würdenträgers und steht Philosophenporträts dieser Zeit nahe. Der sanfte Ausdruck des Gesichts, der die Wiederverwendung der Büste durch die Christen erklärt, die sie als Darstellung eines christlichen Heiligen umdeuteten und sie in einem Kultraum innerhalb der Cryptoporticus der Agora aufstellten.

IntroductionCulinary education in Ireland has long been influenced by culinary education being delivered in catering colleges in the United Kingdom (UK). Institutionalised culinary education started in Britain through the sponsorship of guild conglomerates (Lawson and Silver). The City & Guilds of London Institute for the Advancement of Technical Education opened its central institution in 1884. Culinary education in Ireland began in Kevin Street Technical School in the late 1880s. This consisted of evening courses in plain cookery. Dublin’s leading chefs and waiters of the time participated in developing courses in French culinary classics and these courses ran in Parnell Square Vocational School from 1926 (Mac Con Iomaire “The Changing”). St Mary’s College of Domestic Science was purpose built and opened in 1941 in Cathal Brugha Street. This was renamed the Dublin College of Catering in the 1950s. The Council for Education, Recruitment and Training for the Hotel Industry (CERT) was set up in 1963 and ran cookery courses using the City & Guilds of London examinations as its benchmark. In 1982, when the National Craft Curriculum Certification Board (NCCCB) was established, CERT began carrying out their own examinations. This allowed Irish catering education to set its own standards, establish its own criteria and award its own certificates, roles which were previously carried out by City & Guilds of London (Corr). CERT awarded its first certificates in professional cookery in 1989. The training role of CERT was taken over by Fáilte Ireland, the State tourism board, in 2003. Changing Trends in Cookery and Culinary Textbooks at DIT The Dublin College of Catering which became part of the Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT) is the flagship of catering education in Ireland (Mac Con Iomaire “The Changing”). The first DIT culinary award, was introduced in 1984 Certificate in Diet Cookery, later renamed Higher Certificate in Health and Nutrition for the Culinary Arts. On the 19th of July 1992 the Dublin Institute of Technology Act was enacted into law. This Act enabled DIT to provide vocational and technical education and training for the economic, technological, scientific, commercial, industrial, social and cultural development of the State (Ireland 1992). In 1998, DIT was granted degree awarding powers by the Irish state, enabling it to make major awards at Higher Certificate, Ordinary Bachelor Degree, Honors Bachelor Degree, Masters and PhD levels (Levels six to ten in the National Framework of Qualifications), as well as a range of minor, special purpose and supplemental awards (National NQAI). It was not until 1999, when a primary degree in Culinary Arts was sanctioned by the Department of Education in Ireland (Duff, The Story), that a more diverse range of textbooks was recommended based on a new liberal/vocational educational philosophy. DITs School of Culinary Arts currently offers: Higher Certificates Health and Nutrition for the Culinary Arts; Higher Certificate in Culinary Arts (Professional Culinary Practice); BSc (Ord) in Baking and Pastry Arts Management; BA (Hons) in Culinary Arts; BSc (Hons) Bar Management and Entrepreneurship; BSc (Hons) in Culinary Entrepreneurship; and, MSc in Culinary Innovation and Food Product Development. From 1942 to 1970, haute cuisine, or classical French cuisine was the most influential cooking trend in Irish cuisine and this is reflected in the culinary textbooks of that era. Haute cuisine has been influenced by many influential writers/chefs such as Francois La Varenne, Antoine Carême, Auguste Escoffier, Ferand Point, Paul Bocuse, Anton Mosiman, Albert and Michel Roux to name but a few. The period from 1947 to 1974 can be viewed as a “golden age” of haute cuisine in Ireland, as more award-winning world-class restaurants traded in Dublin during this period than at any other time in history (Mac Con Iomaire “The Changing”). Hotels and restaurants were run in the Escoffier partie system style which is a system of hierarchy among kitchen staff and areas of the kitchens specialising in cooking particular parts of the menu i.e sauces (saucier), fish (poissonnier), larder (garde manger), vegetable (legumier) and pastry (patissier). In the late 1960s, Escoffier-styled restaurants were considered overstaffed and were no longer financially viable. Restaurants began to be run by chef-proprietors, using plate rather than silver service. Nouvelle cuisine began in the 1970s and this became a modern form of haute cuisine (Gillespie). The rise in chef-proprietor run restaurants in Ireland reflected the same characteristics of the nouvelle cuisine movement. Culinary textbooks such as Practical Professional Cookery, La Technique, The Complete Guide to Modern Cooking, The Art of the Garde Mange and Patisserie interpreted nouvelle cuisine techniques and plated dishes. In 1977, the DIT began delivering courses in City & Guilds Advanced Kitchen & Larder 706/3 and Pastry 706/3, the only college in Ireland to do so at the time. Many graduates from these courses became the future Irish culinary lecturers, chef-proprietors, and culinary leaders. The next two decades saw a rise in fusion cooking, nouvelle cuisine, and a return to French classical cooking. Numerous Irish chefs were returning to Ireland having worked with Michelin starred chefs and opening new restaurants in the vein of classical French cooking, such as Kevin Thornton (Wine Epergne & Thorntons). These chefs were, in turn, influencing culinary training in DIT with a return to classical French cooking. New Classical French culinary textbooks such as New Classical Cuisine, The Modern Patisserie, The French Professional Pastry Series and Advanced Practical Cookery were being used in DIT In the last 15 years, science in cooking has become the current trend in culinary education in DIT. This is acknowledged by the increased number of culinary science textbooks and modules in molecular gastronomy offered in DIT. This also coincided with the launch of the BA (Hons) in Culinary Arts in DIT moving culinary education from a technical to a liberal education. Books such as The Science of Cooking, On Food and Cooking, The Fat Duck Cookbook and Modern Gastronomy now appear on recommended textbooks for culinary students.For the purpose of this article, practical classes held at DIT will be broken down as follows: hot kitchen class, larder classes, and pastry classes. These classes had recommended textbooks for each area. These can be broken down into three sections: hot kitche, larder, and pastry. This table identifies that the textbooks used in culinary education at DIT reflected the trends in cookery at the time they were being used. Hot Kitchen Larder Pastry Le Guide Culinaire. 1921. Le Guide Culinaire. 1921. The International Confectioner. 1968. Le Repertoire De La Cuisine. 1914. The Larder Chef, Classical Food Preparation and Presentation. 1969. Patisserie. 1971. All in the Cooking, Books 1&2. 1943 The Art of the Garde Manger. 1973. The Modern Patissier. 1986 Larousse Gastronomique. 1961. New Classic Cuisine. 1989. Professional French Pastry Series. 1987. Practical Cookery. 1962. The Curious Cook. 1990. Complete Pastrywork Techniques. 1991. Practical Professional Cookery. 1972. On Food and Cooking. The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 1991. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 1991 La Technique. 1976. Advanced Practical Cookery. 1995. Desserts: A Lifelong Passion. 1994. Escoffier: The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery. 1979. The Science of Cooking. 2000. Culinary Artistry. Dornenburg, 1996. Professional Cookery: The Process Approach. 1985. Garde Manger, The Art and Craft of the Cold Kitchen. 2004. Grande Finales: The Art of the Plated Dessert. 1997. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 1991. The Science of Cooking. 2000. Fat Duck Cookbook. 2009. Modern Gastronomy. 2010. Tab.1. DIT Culinary Textbooks.1942–1960 During the first half of the 20th century, senior staff working in Dublin hotels, restaurants and clubs were predominately foreign born and trained. The two decades following World War II could be viewed as the “golden age” of haute cuisine in Dublin as many award-wining restaurants traded in the city at this time (Mac Con Iomaire “The Emergence”). Culinary education in DIT in 1942 saw the use of Escoffier’s Le Guide Culinaire as the defining textbook (Bowe). This was first published in 1903 and translated into English in 1907. In 1979 Cracknell and Kaufmann published a more comprehensive and update edited version under the title The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery by Escoffier for use in culinary colleges. This demonstrated that Escoffier’s work had withstood the test of the decades and was still relevant. Le Repertoire de La Cuisine by Louis Saulnier, a student of Escoffier, presented the fundamentals of French classical cookery. Le Repertoire was inspired by the work of Escoffier and contains thousands of classical recipes presented in a brief format that can be clearly understood by chefs and cooks. Le Repertoire remains an important part of any DIT culinary student’s textbook list. All in the Cooking by Josephine Marnell, Nora Breathnach, Ann Mairtin and Mor Murnaghan (1946) was one of the first cookbooks to be published in Ireland (Cashmann). This book was a domestic science cooking book written by lecturers in the Cathal Brugha Street College. There is a combination of classical French recipes and Irish recipes throughout the book. 1960s It was not until the 1960s that reference book Larousse Gastronomique and new textbooks such as Practical Cookery, The Larder Chef and International Confectionary made their way into DIT culinary education. These books still focused on classical French cooking but used lighter sauces and reflected more modern cooking equipment and techniques. Also, this period was the first time that specific books for larder and pastry work were introduced into the DIT culinary education system (Bowe). Larousse Gastronomique, which used Le Guide Culinaire as a basis (James), was first published in 1938 and translated into English in 1961. Practical Cookery, which is still used in DIT culinary education, is now in its 12th edition. Each edition has built on the previous, however, there is now criticism that some of the content is dated (Richards). Practical Cookery has established itself as a key textbook in culinary education both in Ireland and England. Practical Cookery recipes were laid out in easy to follow steps and food commodities were discussed briefly. The Larder Chef was first published in 1969 and is currently in its 4th edition. This book focuses on classical French larder techniques, butchery and fishmongery but recognises current trends and fashions in food presentation. The International Confectioner is no longer in print but is still used as a reference for basic recipes in pastry classes (Campbell). The Modern Patissier demonstrated more updated techniques and methods than were used in The International Confectioner. The Modern Patissier is still used as a reference book in DIT. 1970s The 1970s saw the decline in haute cuisine in Ireland, as it was in the process of being replaced by nouvelle cuisine. Irish chefs were being influenced by the works of chefs such as Paul Boucuse, Roger Verge, Michel Guerard, Raymond Olivier, Jean & Pierre Troisgros, Alain Senderens, Jacques Maniere, Jean Delaveine and Michel Guerard who advanced the uncomplicated natural presentation in food. Henri Gault claims that it was his manifesto published in October 1973 in Gault-Millau magazine which unleashed the movement called La Nouvelle Cuisine Française (Gault). In nouvelle cuisine, dishes in Carème and Escoffier’s style were rejected as over-rich and complicated. The principles underpinning this new movement focused on the freshness of ingredients, and lightness and harmony in all components and accompaniments, as well as basic and simple cooking methods and types of presentation. This was not, however, a complete overthrowing of the past, but a moving forward in the long-term process of cuisine development, utilising the very best from each evolution (Cousins). Books such as Practical Professional Cookery, The Art of the Garde Manger and Patisserie reflected this new lighter approach to cookery. Patisserie was first published in 1971, is now in its second edition, and continues to be used in DIT culinary education. This book became an essential textbook in pastrywork, and covers the entire syllabus of City & Guilds and CERT (now Fáilte Ireland). Patisserie covered all basic pastry recipes and techniques, while the second edition (in 1993) included new modern recipes, modern pastry equipment, commodities, and food hygiene regulations reflecting the changing catering environment. The Art of the Garde Manger is an American book highlighting the artistry, creativity, and cooking sensitivity need to be a successful Garde Manger (the larder chef who prepares cold preparation in a partie system kitchen). It reflected the dynamic changes occurring in the culinary world but recognised the importance of understanding basic French culinary principles. It is no longer used in DIT culinary education. La Technique is a guide to classical French preparation (Escoffier’s methods and techniques) using detailed pictures and notes. This book remains a very useful guide and reference for culinary students. Practical Professional Cookery also became an important textbook as it was written with the student and chef/lecturer in mind, as it provides a wider range of recipes and detailed information to assist in understanding the tasks at hand. It is based on classical French cooking and compliments Practical Cookery as a textbook, however, its recipes are for ten portions as opposed to four portions in Practical Cookery. Again this book was written with the City & Guilds examinations in mind. 1980s During the mid-1980s, many young Irish chefs and waiters emigrated. They returned in the late-1980s and early-1990s having gained vast experience of nouvelle and fusion cuisine in London, Paris, New York, California and elsewhere (Mac Con Iomaire, “The Changing”). These energetic, well-trained professionals began opening chef-proprietor restaurants around Dublin, providing invaluable training and positions for up-and-coming young chefs, waiters and culinary college graduates. The 1980s saw a return to French classical cookery textbook such as Professional Cookery: The Process Approach, New Classic Cuisine and the Professional French Pastry series, because educators saw the need for students to learn the basics of French cookery. Professional Cookery: The Process Approach was written by Daniel Stevenson who was, at the time, a senior lecturer in Food and Beverage Operations at Oxford Polytechnic in England. Again, this book was written for students with an emphasis on the cookery techniques and the practices of professional cookery. The Complete Guide to Modern Cooking by Escoffier continued to be used. This book is used by cooks and chefs as a reference for ingredients in dishes rather than a recipe book, as it does not go into detail in the methods as it is assumed the cook/chef would have the required experience to know the method of production. Le Guide Culinaire was only used on advanced City & Guilds courses in DIT during this decade (Bowe). New Classic Cuisine by the classically French trained chefs, Albert and Michel Roux (Gayot), is a classical French cuisine cookbook used as a reference by DIT culinary educators at the time because of the influence the Roux brothers were having over the English fine dining scene. The Professional French Pastry Series is a range of four volumes of pastry books: Vol. 1 Doughs, Batters and Meringues; Vol. 2 Creams, Confections and Finished Desserts; Vol. 3 Petit Four, Chocolate, Frozen Desserts and Sugar Work; and Vol. 4 Decorations, Borders and Letters, Marzipan, Modern Desserts. These books about classical French pastry making were used on the advanced pastry courses at DIT as learners needed a basic knowledge of pastry making to use them. 1990s Ireland in the late 1990s became a very prosperous and thriving European nation; the phenomena that became known as the “celtic tiger” was in full swing (Mac Con Iomaire “The Changing”). The Irish dining public were being treated to a resurgence of traditional Irish cuisine using fresh wholesome food (Hughes). The Irish population was considered more well-educated and well travelled than previous generations and culinary students were now becoming interested in the science of cooking. In 1996, the BA (Hons) in Culinary Arts program at DIT was first mooted (Hegarty). Finally, in 1999, a primary degree in Culinary Arts was sanctioned by the Department of Education underpinned by a new liberal/vocational philosophy in education (Duff). Teaching culinary arts in the past had been through a vocational education focus whereby students were taught skills for industry which were narrow, restrictive, and constraining, without the necessary knowledge to articulate the acquired skill. The reading list for culinary students reflected this new liberal education in culinary arts as Harold McGee’s books The Curious Cook and On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen explored and explained the science of cooking. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen proposed that “science can make cooking more interesting by connecting it with the basic workings of the natural world” (Vega 373). Advanced Practical Cookery was written for City & Guilds students. In DIT this book was used by advanced culinary students sitting Fáilte Ireland examinations, and the second year of the new BA (Hons) in Culinary Arts. Culinary Artistry encouraged chefs to explore the creative process of culinary composition as it explored the intersection of food, imagination, and taste (Dornenburg). This book encouraged chefs to develop their own style of cuisine using fresh seasonal ingredients, and was used for advanced students but is no longer a set text. Chefs were being encouraged to show their artistic traits, and none more so than pastry chefs. Grande Finale: The Art of Plated Desserts encouraged advanced students to identify different “schools” of pastry in relation to the world of art and design. The concept of the recipes used in this book were built on the original spectacular pieces montées created by Antoine Carême. 2000–2013 After nouvelle cuisine, recent developments have included interest in various fusion cuisines, such as Asia-Pacific, and in molecular gastronomy. Molecular gastronomists strive to find perfect recipes using scientific methods of investigation (Blanck). Hervè This experimentation with recipes and his introduction to Nicholos Kurti led them to create a food discipline they called “molecular gastronomy”. In 1998, a number of creative chefs began experimenting with the incorporation of ingredients and techniques normally used in mass food production in order to arrive at previously unattainable culinary creations. This “new cooking” (Vega 373) required a knowledge of chemical reactions and physico-chemical phenomena in relation to food, as well as specialist tools, which were created by these early explorers. It has been suggested that molecular gastronomy is “science-based cooking” (Vega 375) and that this concept refers to conscious application of the principles and tools from food science and other disciplines for the development of new dishes particularly in the context of classical cuisine (Vega). The Science of Cooking assists students in understanding the chemistry and physics of cooking. This book takes traditional French techniques and recipes and refutes some of the claims and methods used in traditional recipes. Garde Manger: The Art and Craft of the Cold Kitchen is used for the advanced larder modules at DIT. This book builds on basic skills in the Larder Chef book. Molecular gastronomy as a subject area was developed in 2009 in DIT, the first of its kind in Ireland. The Fat Duck Cookbook and Modern Gastronomy underpin the theoretical aspects of the module. This module is taught to 4th year BA (Hons) in Culinary Arts students who already have three years experience in culinary education and the culinary industry, and also to MSc Culinary Innovation and Food Product Development students. Conclusion Escoffier, the master of French classical cuisine, still influences culinary textbooks to this day. His basic approach to cooking is considered essential to teaching culinary students, allowing them to embrace the core skills and competencies required to work in the professional environment. Teaching of culinary arts at DIT has moved vocational education to a more liberal basis, and it is imperative that the chosen textbooks reflect this development. This liberal education gives the students a broader understanding of cooking, hospitality management, food science, gastronomy, health and safety, oenology, and food product development. To date there is no practical culinary textbook written specifically for Irish culinary education, particularly within this new liberal/vocational paradigm. There is clearly a need for a new textbook which combines the best of Escoffier’s classical French techniques with the more modern molecular gastronomy techniques popularised by Ferran Adria. References Adria, Ferran. Modern Gastronomy A to Z: A Scientific and Gastronomic Lexicon. London: CRC P, 2010. Barker, William. The Modern Patissier. London: Hutchinson, 1974. Barham, Peter. The Science of Cooking. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2000. Bilheux, Roland, Alain Escoffier, Daniel Herve, and Jean-Maire Pouradier. Special and Decorative Breads. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1987. Blanck, J. "Molecular Gastronomy: Overview of a Controversial Food Science Discipline." Journal of Agricultural and Food Information 8.3 (2007): 77-85. Blumenthal, Heston. The Fat Duck Cookbook. London: Bloomsbury, 2001. Bode, Willi, and M.J. Leto. The Larder Chef. Oxford: Butter-Heinemann, 1969. Bowe, James. Personal Communication with Author. Dublin. 7 Apr. 2013. Boyle, Tish, and Timothy Moriarty. Grand Finales, The Art of the Plated Dessert. New York: John Wiley, 1997. Campbell, Anthony. Personal Communication with Author. Dublin, 10 Apr. 2013. Cashman, Dorothy. "An Exploratory Study of Irish Cookbooks." Unpublished M.Sc Thesis. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Technology, 2009. Ceserani, Victor, Ronald Kinton, and David Foskett. Practical Cookery. London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational, 1962. Ceserani, Victor, and David Foskett. Advanced Practical Cookery. London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational, 1995. Corr, Frank. Hotels in Ireland. Dublin: Jemma, 1987. Cousins, John, Kevin Gorman, and Marc Stierand. "Molecular Gastronomy: Cuisine Innovation or Modern Day Alchemy?" International Journal of Hospitality Management 22.3 (2009): 399–415. Cracknell, Harry Louis, and Ronald Kaufmann. Practical Professional Cookery. London: MacMillan, 1972. Cracknell, Harry Louis, and Ronald Kaufmann. Escoffier: The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery. New York: John Wiley, 1979. Dornenburg, Andrew, and Karen Page. Culinary Artistry. New York: John Wiley, 1996. Duff, Tom, Joseph Hegarty, and Matt Hussey. The Story of the Dublin Institute of Technology. Dublin: Blackhall, 2000. Escoffier, Auguste. Le Guide Culinaire. France: Flammarion, 1921. Escoffier, Auguste. The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery. Ed. Crachnell, Harry, and Ronald Kaufmann. New York: John Wiley, 1986. Gault, Henri. Nouvelle Cuisine, Cooks and Other People: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 1995. Devon: Prospect, 1996. 123-7. Gayot, Andre, and Mary, Evans. "The Best of London." Gault Millau (1996): 379. Gillespie, Cailein. "Gastrosophy and Nouvelle Cuisine: Entrepreneurial Fashion and Fiction." British Food Journal 96.10 (1994): 19-23. Gisslen, Wayne. Professional Cooking. Hoboken: John Wiley, 2011. Hanneman, Leonard. Patisserie. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1971. Hegarty, Joseph. Standing the Heat. New York: Haworth P, 2004. Hsu, Kathy. "Global Tourism Higher Education Past, Present and Future." Journal of Teaching in Travel and Tourism 5.1/2/3 (2006): 251-267 Hughes, Mairtin. Ireland. Victoria: Lonely Planet, 2000. Ireland. Irish Statute Book: Dublin Institute of Technology Act 1992. Dublin: Stationery Office, 1992. James, Ken. Escoffier: The King of Chefs. Hambledon: Cambridge UP, 2002. Lawson, John, and Harold, Silver. Social History of Education in England. London: Methuen, 1973. Lehmann, Gilly. "English Cookery Books in the 18th Century." The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999. 227-9. Marnell, Josephine, Nora Breathnach, Ann Martin, and Mor Murnaghan. All in the Cooking Book 1 & 2. Dublin: Educational Company of Ireland, 1946. Mac Con Iomaire, Máirtín. "The Changing Geography and Fortunes of Dublin's Haute Cuisine Restaurants, 1958-2008." Food, Culture and Society: An International Journal of Multidisiplinary Research 14.4 (2011): 525-45. ---. "Chef Liam Kavanagh (1926-2011)." Gastronomica: The Journal of Food and Culture 12.2 (2012): 4-6. ---. "The Emergence, Development and Influence of French Haute Cuisine on Public Dining in Dublin Restaurants 1900-2000: An Oral History". PhD. Thesis. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Technology, 2009. McGee, Harold. The Curious Cook: More Kitchen Science and Lore. New York: Hungry Minds, 1990. ---. On Food and Cooking the Science and Lore of the Kitchen. London: Harper Collins, 1991. Montague, Prosper. Larousse Gastronomique. New York: Crown, 1961. National Qualification Authority of Ireland. "Review by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI) of the Effectiveness of the Quality Assurance Procedures of the Dublin Institute of Technology." 2010. 18 Feb. 2012 ‹http://www.dit.ie/media/documents/services/qualityassurance/terms_of_ref.doc› Nicolello, Ildo. Complete Pastrywork Techniques. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1991. Pepin, Jacques. La Technique. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal, 1976. Richards, Peter. "Practical Cookery." 9th Ed. Caterer and Hotelkeeper (2001). 18 Feb. 2012 ‹http://www.catererandhotelkeeper.co.uk/Articles/30/7/2001/31923/practical-cookery-ninth-edition-victor-ceserani-ronald-kinton-and-david-foskett.htm›. Roux, Albert, and Michel Roux. New Classic Cuisine. New York: Little, Brown, 1989. Roux, Michel. Desserts: A Lifelong Passion. London: Conran Octopus, 1994. Saulnier, Louis. Le Repertoire De La Cuisine. London: Leon Jaeggi, 1914. Sonnenschmidt, Fredric, and John Nicholas. The Art of the Garde Manger. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1973. Spang, Rebecca. The Invention of the Restaurant: Paris and Modern Gastronomic Culture. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2000. Stevenson, Daniel. Professional Cookery the Process Approach. London: Hutchinson, 1985. The Culinary Institute of America. Garde Manger: The Art and Craft of the Cold Kitchen. Hoboken: New Jersey, 2004. Vega, Cesar, and Job, Ubbink. "Molecular Gastronomy: A Food Fad or Science Supporting Innovation Cuisine?". Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008): 372-82. Wilfred, Fance, and Michael Small. The New International Confectioner: Confectionary, Cakes, Pastries, Desserts, Ices and Savouries. 1968.

In August 2006 the LiveJournal (hereafter LJ) community sga_flashfic posted its bimonthly challenge: a “Mission Report” challenge. Challenge communities are fandom-specific sites where moderators pick a theme or prompt to which writers respond and then post their specific fan works. The terms of this challenge were to encourage participants to invent a new mission and create a piece of fan fiction in the form of a mission report from the point of view of the Stargate Atlantis team of explorers. As an alternative possibility, and this is where the trouble started, the challenge also allowed to “take another author’s story and write a report” of its mission. Moderator Cesperanza then explained, “if you choose to write a mission report of somebody else’s story, we’ll ask you to credit them, but we won’t require you to ask their permission” (sga_flashfic LJ, 21 Aug. 2006, emphasis added). Whereas most announcement posts would only gather a few comments, this reached more than a hundred responses within hours, mostly complaints. Even though the community administrators quickly backtracked and posted a revision of the challenge not 12 hours later, the fannish LiveJournal sphere debated the challenge for days, reaching far beyond the specific fandom of Stargate Atlantis to discuss the ethical questions surrounding fannish appropriation and remix. At the center of the debate were the last eight words: “we won’t require you to ask their permission.” By encouraging fans to effectively write fan fiction of fan fiction and by not requiring permission, the moderators had violated an unwritten norm within this fannish community. Like all fan communities, western media fans have developed internal rules covering everything from what to include in a story header to how long to include a spoiler warning following aired episodes (for a definition and overview of western media fandom, see Coppa). In this example, the mods violated the fannish prohibition against the borrowing of original characters, settings, plot points, or narrative structures from other fan writers without permission—even though as fan fiction, the source of the inspiration engages in such borrowing itself. These kinds of normative rules can be altered, of course, but any change requires long and involved discussions. In this essay, we look at various debates that showcase how this fan community—media fandom on LiveJournal—creates and enforces but also discusses and changes its normative behavior. Fan fiction authors’ desire to prevent their work from being remixed may seem hypocritical, but we argue that underlying these conversations are complex negotiations of online privacy and control, affective aesthetics, and the value of fan labor. This is not to say that all fan communities address issues of remixing in the same way media fandom at this point in time did nor to suggest that they should; rather, we want to highlight a specific community’s internal ethics, the fervor with which members defend their rules, and the complex arguments that evolve from all sides when rules are questioned. Moreover, we suggest that these conversations offer insight into the specific relation many fan writers have to their stories and how it may differ from a more universal authorial affect. In order to fully understand the underlying motivations and the community ethos that spawned the sga_flashfic debates, we first want to differentiate between forms of unauthorised (re)uses and the legal, moral, and artistic concerns they create. Only with a clear definition of copyright infringement and plagiarism, as well as a clear understanding of who is affected (and in what ways) in any of these cases, can we fully understand the social and moral intersection of fan remixing of fan fiction. Only when sidestepping the legal and economic concerns surrounding remix can we focus on the ethical intricacies between copyright holders and fan writers and, more importantly, within fan communities. Fan communities differ greatly over time, between fandoms, and even depending on their central social interfaces (such as con-based zines, email-based listservs, journal-based online communities, etc.), and as a result they also develop a diverse range of internal community rules (Busse and Hellekson, “Works”; Busker). Much strife is caused when different traditions and their associated mores intersect. We’d argue, however, that the issues in the case of the Stargate Atlantis Remix Challenge were less the confrontation of different communities and more the slowly changing attitudes within one. In fact, looking at media fandom today, we may already be seeing changed attitudes—even as the debates continue over remix permission and unauthorised use. Why Remixes Are Not Copyright Infringement In discussing the limits of unauthorised use, it is important to distinguish plagiarism and copyright violation from forms of remix. While we are more concerned with the ethical issues surrounding plagiarism, we want to briefly address copyright infringement, simply because it often gets mixed into the ethics of remixes. Copyright is strictly defined as a matter of law; in many of the online debates in media fandom, it is often further restricted to U.S. Law, because a large number of the source texts are owned by U.S. companies. According to the U.S. Constitution (Article I, Section 8), Congress has the power to secure an “exclusive Right” “for limited Times.” Given that intellectual property rights have to be granted and are limited, legal scholars read this statute as a delicate balance between offering authors exclusive rights and allowing the public to flourish by building on these works. Over the years, however, intellectual property rights have been expanded and increased at the expense of the public commons (Lessig, Boyle). The main exception to this exclusive right is the concept of “fair use,” defined as use “for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching..., scholarship, or research” (§107). Case law circumscribes the limits of fair use, distinguishing works that are merely “derivative” from those that are “transformative” and thus add value (Chander and Sunder, Fiesler, Katyal, McCardle, Tushnet). The legal status of fan fiction remains undefined without a specific case that would test the fair use doctrine in regards to fan fiction, yet fair use and fan fiction advocates argue that fan fiction should be understood as eminently transformative and thus protected under fair use. The nonprofit fan advocacy group, the Organization for Transformative Works, in fact makes clear its position by including the legal term in their name, reflecting a changing understanding of both fans and scholars. Why Remixes Are Not Plagiarism Whereas copyright infringement is a legal concept that punishes violations between fan writers and commercial copyright holders, plagiarism instead is defined by the norms of the audience for which a piece is written: definitions of plagiarism thus differ from academic to journalist to literary contexts. Within fandom one of the most blatant (and most easily detectable) forms of plagiarism is when a fan copies another work wholesale and publishes it under their own name, either within the same fandom or by simply searching and replacing names to make it fit another fandom. Other times, fan writers may take selections of published pro or fan fiction and insert them into their works. Within fandom accusations of plagiarism are taken seriously, and fandom as a whole polices itself with regards to plagiarism: the LiveJournal community stop_plagiarism, for example, was created in 2005 specifically to report and pursue accusations of plagiarism within fandom. The community keeps a list of known plagiarisers that include the names of over 100 fan writers. Fan fiction plagiarism can only be determined on a case-by-case basis—and fans remain hypervigilant simply because they are all too often falsely accused as merely plagiarising when instead they are interpreting, translating, and transforming. There is another form of fannish offense that does not actually constitute plagiarism but is closely connected to it, namely the wholesale reposting of stories with attributions intact. This practice is frowned upon for two main reasons. Writers like to maintain at least some control over their works, often deriving from anxieties over being able to delete one’s digital footprint if desired or necessary. Archiving stories without authorial permission strips authors of this ability. More importantly, media fandom is a gift economy, in which labor is not reimbursed economically but rather rewarded with feedback (such as comments and kudos) and the growth of a writer’s reputation (Hellekson, Scott). Hosting a story in a place where readers cannot easily give thanks and feedback to the author, the rewards for the writer’s fan labor are effectively taken from her. Reposting thus removes the story from the fannish gift exchange—or, worse, inserts the archivist in lieu of the author as the recipient of thanks and comments. Unauthorised reposting is not plagiarism, as the author’s name remains attached, but it tends to go against fannish mores nonetheless as it deprives the writer of her “payment” of feedback and recognition. When Copyright Holders Object to Fan Fiction A small group of professional authors vocally proclaim fan fiction as unethical, illegal, or both. In her “Fan Fiction Rant” Robin Hobbs declares that “Fan fiction is to writing what a cake mix is to gourmet cooking” and then calls it outright theft: “Fan fiction is like any other form of identity theft. It injures the name of the party whose identity is stolen.” Anne Rice shares her feelings about fan fiction on her web site with a permanent message: “I do not allow fan fiction. The characters are copyrighted. It upsets me terribly to even think about fan fiction with my characters. I advise my readers to write your own original stories with your own characters. It is absolutely essential that you respect my wishes.” Diana Gabaldon calls fan fiction immoral and describes, “it makes me want to barf whenever I’ve inadvertently encountered some of it involving my characters.” Moreover, in a move shared by other anti-fan fiction writers, she compares her characters to family members: “I wouldn’t like people writing sex fantasies for public consumption about me or members of my family—why would I be all right with them doing it to the intimate creations of my imagination and personality?” George R.R. Martin similarly evokes familial intimacy when he writes, “My characters are my children, I have been heard to say. I don’t want people making off with them.” What is interesting in these—and other authors’—articulations of why they disapprove of fan fiction of their works is that their strongest and ultimate argument is neither legal nor economic reasoning but an emotional plea: being a good fan means coloring within the lines laid out by the initial creator, putting one’s toys back exactly as one found them, and never ever getting creative or transformative with them. Many fan fiction writers respect these wishes and do not write in book fandoms where the authors have expressed their desires clearly. Sometimes entire archives respect an author’s desires: fanfiction.net, the largest repository of fic online, removed all stories based on Rice’s work and does not allow any new ones to be posted. However, fandom is a heterogeneous culture with no centralised authority, and it is not difficult to find fic based on Rice’s characters and settings if one knows where to look. Most of these debates are restricted to book fandoms, likely for two reasons: (1) film and TV fan fiction alters the medium, so that there is no possibility that the two works might be mistaken for one another; and (2) film and TV authorship tends to be collaborative and thus lowers the individual sense of ownership (Mann, Sellors). How Fannish Remixes Are like Fan Fiction Most fan fiction writers strongly dismiss accusations of plagiarism and theft, two accusations that all too easily are raised against fan fiction and yet, as we have shown, such accusations actually misdefine terms. Fans extensively debate the artistic values of fan fiction, often drawing from classical literary discussions and examples. Clearly echoing Wilde’s creed that “there is no such thing as a moral or immoral book,” Kalichan, for example, argues in one LJ conversation that “whenever I hear about writers asserting that other writing is immoral, I become violently ill. Aside from this, morality & legality are far from necessarily connected. Lots of things are immoral and legal, illegal and moral and so on, in every permutation imaginable, so let’s just not confuse the two, shall we” (Kalichan LJ, 3 May 2010). Aja Romano concludes an epic list of remixed works ranging from the Aeneid to The Wind Done Gone, from All’s Well That Ends Well to Wicked with a passionate appeal to authors objecting to fan fiction: the story is not defined by the barriers you place around it. The moment you gave it to us, those walls broke. You may hate the fact people are imagining more to your story than what you put there. But if I were you, I’d be grateful that I got the chance to create a story that has a culture around it, a story that people want to keep talking about, reworking, remixing, living in, fantasizing about, thinking about, writing about. (Bookshop LJ, 3 May 2010)Many fan writers view their own remixes as part of a larger cultural movement that appropriates found objects and culturally relevant materials to create new things, much like larger twentieth century movements that include Dada and Pop Art, as well as feminist and postcolonial challenges to the literary canon. Finally, fan fiction partakes in 21st century ideas of social anarchy to create a cultural creative commons of openly shared ideas. Fan Cupidsbow describes strong parallels and cross-connection between all sorts of different movements, from Warhol to opensource, DeviantArt to AMV, fanfiction to mashups, sampling to critique and review. All these things are about how people are interacting with technology every day, and not just digital technology, but pens and paper and clothes and food fusions and everything else. (Cupidsbow LJ, 20 May 2009) Legally, of course, these reuses of collectively shared materials are often treated quite differently, which is why fan fiction advocates often maintain that all remixes be treated equally—regardless of whether their source text is film, TV, literature, or fan fiction. The Archive of Our Own, a project of the Organization for Transformative Works, for example, does not distinguish in its Content and Abuse Policy section between commercial and fan works in regard to plagiarism and copyright. Returning to the initial case of the Stargate Atlantis Mission Report Challenge, we can thus see how the moderator clearly positions herself within a framework that considers all remixes equally remixable. Even after changing the guidelines to require permission for the remixing of existing fan stories, moderator Cesperanza notes that she “remain[s] philosophically committed to the idea that people have the right to make art based on other art provided that due credit is given the original artist” (sga_flashfic LJ, 21 Aug. 2006). Indeed, other fans agree with her position in the ensuing discussions, drawing attention to the hypocrisy of demanding different rules for what appears to be the exact same actions: “So explain to me how you can defend fanfiction as legitimate derivative work if it’s based on one type of source material (professional writing or TV shows), yet decry it as ‘stealing’ and plagiarism if it’s based on another type of source material (fanfiction)” (Marythefan LJ, 21 Aug. 2006). Many fans assert that all remixes should be tolerated by the creators of their respective source texts—be they pro or fan. Fans expect Rowling to be accepting of Harry Potter’s underage romance with a nice and insecure Severus Snape, and they expect Matthew Weiner to be accepting of stories that kill off Don Draper and have his (ex)wives join a commune together. So fans should equally accept fan fiction that presents the grand love of Rodney McKay and John Sheppard, the most popular non-canonical fan fiction pairing on Stargate Atlantis, to be transformed into an abusive and manipulative relationship or rewritten with one of them dying tragically. Lydiabell, for example, argues that “there’s [no]thing wrong with creating a piece of art that uses elements of another work to create something new, always assuming that proper credit is given to the original... even if your interpretation is at odds with everything the original artist wanted to convey” (Lydiabell LJ, 22 Aug. 2006). Transforming works can often move them into territory that is critical of the source text, mocks the source text, rearranges relationships, and alters characterisations. It is here that we reach the central issue of this article: many fans indeed do view intrafandom interactions as fundamentally different to their interactions with professional authors or commercial entertainment companies. While everyone agrees that there are no legal, economic, or even ultimately moral arguments to be made against remixing fan fiction (because any such argument would nullify the fan’s right to create their fan fiction in the first place), the discourses against open remixing tend to revolve around community norms, politeness, and respect. How Fannish Remixes Are Not like Fan Fiction At the heart of the debate lie issues of community norms: taking another fan’s stories as the basis for one’s own fiction is regarded as a violation of manners, at least the way certain sections of the community define them. This, in fact, is not unlike the way many fan academics engage with fandom research. While it may be perfectly legal to directly cite fans’ blog posts, and while it may even be in compliance with institutional ethical research requirements (such as Internal Review Boards at U.S. universities), the academic fan writing about her own community may indeed choose to take extra precautions to protect herself and that community. As Kristina Busse and Karen Hellekson have argued, fan studies often exists at the intersection of language and social studies, and thus written text may simultaneously be treated as artistic works and as utterances by human subjects (“Identity”). In this essay (and elsewhere), we thus limit direct linking into fannish spaces, instead giving site, date, and author, and we have consent from all fans we cite in this essay. The community of fans who write fic in a particular fandom is relatively small, and most of them are familiar with each other, or can trace a connection via one or two degrees of separation only. While writing fan fiction about Harry Potter may influence the way you and your particular circle of friends interpret the novels, it is unlikely to affect the overall reception of the work. During the remix debate, fan no_pseud articulates the differing power dynamic: When someone bases fanfic on another piece of fanfic, the balance of power in the relationship between the two things is completely different to the relationship between a piece of fanfic and the canon source. The two stories have exactly equal authority, exactly equal validity, exactly equal ‘reality’ in fandom. (nopseud LJ, 21 Aug. 2006) Within fandom, there are few stories that have the kind of reach that professional fiction does, and it is just as likely that a fan will come across an unauthorised remix of a piece of fan fiction as the original piece itself. In that way, the reception of fan fiction is more fragile, and fans are justifiably anxious about it. In a recent conversation about proper etiquette within Glee fandom, fan writer flaming_muse articulates her reasons for expecting different behavior from fandom writers who borrow ideas from each other: But there’s a huge difference between fanfic of media and fanfic of other fanfic authors. Part of it is a question of the relationship of the author to the source material … but part of it is just about not hurting or diminishing the other creative people around you. We aren’t hurting Glee by writing fic in their ‘verse; we are hurting other people if we write fanfic of fanfic. We’re taking away what’s special about their particular stories and all of the work they put into them. (Stoney321 LJ, 12 Feb. 2012)Flaming_muse brings together several concepts but underlying all is a sense of community. Thus she equates remixing within the community without permission as a violation of fannish etiquette. The sense of community also plays a role in another reason given by fans who prefer permission, which is the actual ease of getting it. Many fandoms are fairly small communities, which makes it more possible to ask for permission before doing a translation, adaptation, or other kind of rewrite of another person’s fic. Often a fan may have already given feedback to the story or shared some form of conversation with the writer, so that requesting permission seems fairly innocuous. Moreover, fandom is a community based on the economy of gifting and sharing (Hellekson), so that etiquette becomes that much more important. Unlike pro authors who are financially reimbursed for their works, feedback is effectively a fan writer’s only payment. Getting comments, kudos, or recommendations for their stories are ways in which readers reward and thank the writers for their work. Many fans feel that a gift economy functions only through the goodwill of all its participants, which remixing without permission violates. How Fan Writing May Differ From Pro Writing Fans have a different emotional investment in their creations, only partially connected to writing solely for love (as opposed to professional writers who may write for love but also write for their livelihood in the best-case scenarios). One fan, who writes both pro and fan fiction, describes her more distanced emotional involvement with her professional writing as follows, When I’m writing for money, I limit my emotional investment in the material I produce. Ultimately what I am producing does not belong to me. Someone else is buying it and I am serving their needs, not my own. (St_Crispins LJ, 27 Aug. 2006)The sense of writing for oneself as part of a community also comes through in a comment by pro and fan writer Matociquala, who describes the specificity and often quite limited audience of fan fiction as follows: Fanfiction is written in the expectation of being enjoyed in an open membership but tight-knit community, and the writer has an expectation of being included in the enjoyment and discussion. It is the difference, in other words, between throwing a fair on the high road, and a party in a back yard. Sure, you might be able to see what’s going on from the street, but you’re expected not to stare. (Matociquala LJ, 18 May 2006)What we find important here is the way both writers seem to suggest that fan fiction allows for a greater intimacy and immediacy on the whole. So while not all writers write to fulfill (their own or other’s) emotional and narrative desires, this seems to be more acceptable in fan fiction. Intimacy, i.e., the emotional and, often sexual, openness and vulnerability readers and writers exhibit in the stories and surrounding interaction, can thus constitute a central aspect for readers and writers alike. Again, none of these aspects are particular to fan fiction alone, but, unlike in much other writing, they are such a central component that the stories divorced from their context—textual, social, and emotional—may not be fully comprehensible. In a discussion several years ago, Ellen Fremedon coined the term Id Vortex, by which she refers to that very tailored and customised writing that caters to the writers’ and/or readers’ kinks, that creates stories that not only move us emotionally because we already care about the characters but also because it uses tropes, characterisations, and scenes that appeal very viscerally: In fandom, we’ve all got this agreement to just suspend shame. I mean, a lot of what we write is masturbation material, and we all know it, and so we can’t really pretend that we’re only trying to write for our readers’ most rarefied sensibilities, you know? We all know right where the Id Vortex is, and we have this agreement to approach it with caution, but without any shame at all. (Ellen Fremedon LJ, 2 Dec. 2004)Writing stories for a particular sexual kink may be the most obvious way fans tailor stories to their own (or others’) desires, but in general, fan stories often seem to be more immediate, more intimate, more revealing than most published writing. This attachment is only strengthened by fans’ immense emotional attachment to the characters, as they may spend years if not decades rewatching their show, discussing all its details, and reading and writing stories upon stories. From Community to Commons These norms and mores continue to evolve as fannish activity becomes more and more visible to the mainstream, and new generations of fans enter fandom within a culture where media is increasingly spreadable across social networks and all fannish activity is collectively described and recognised as “fandom” (Jenkins, Ford, and Green). The default mode of the mainstream often treats “found” material as disseminable, and interfaces encourage such engagement by inviting users to “share” on their collection of social networks. As a result, many new fans see remixing as not only part of their fannish right, but engage in their activity on platforms that make sharing with or without attribution both increasingly easy and normative. Tumblr is the most recent and obvious example of a platform in which reblogging other users’ posts, with or without commentary, is the normative mode. Instead of (or in addition to) uploading one’s story to an archive, a fan writer might post it on Tumblr and consider reblogs as another form of feedback. In fact, our case study and its associated differentiation of legal, moral, and artistic justifications for and against remixing fan works, may indeed be an historical artifact in its own right: media fandom as a small and well-defined community of fans with a common interest and a shared history is the exception rather than the norm in today’s fan culture. When access to stories and other fans required personal initiation, it was easy to teach and enforce a community ethos. Now, however, fan fiction tops Google searches for strings that include both Harry and Draco or Spock and Uhura, and fan art is readily reblogged by sites for shows ranging from MTV’s Teen Wolf to NBC’s Hannibal. 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