Academic literature on the topic 'Groundwater-Atmosphere processes'

Abstract Complete models of the hydrologic cycle have gained recent attention as research has shown interdependence between the coupled land and energy balance of the subsurface, land surface, and lower atmosphere. PF.WRF is a new model that is a combination of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) atmospheric model and a parallel hydrology model (ParFlow) that fully integrates three-dimensional, variably saturated subsurface flow with overland flow. These models are coupled in an explicit, operator-splitting manner via the Noah land surface model (LSM). Here, the coupled model formulation and equations are presented and a balance of water between the subsurface, land surface, and atmosphere is verified. The improvement in important physical processes afforded by the coupled model using a number of semi-idealized simulations over the Little Washita watershed in the southern Great Plains is demonstrated. These simulations are initialized with a set of offline spinups to achieve a balanced state of initial conditions. To quantify the significance of subsurface physics, compared with other physical processes calculated in WRF, these simulations are carried out with two different surface spinups and three different microphysics parameterizations in WRF. These simulations illustrate enhancements to coupled model physics for two applications: water resources and wind-energy forecasting. For the water resources example, it is demonstrated how PF.WRF simulates explicit rainfall and water storage within the basin and runoff. Then the hydrographs predicted by different microphysics schemes within WRF are compared. Because soil moisture is expected to impact boundary layer winds, the applicability of the model to wind-energy applications is demonstrated by using PF.WRF and WRF simulations to provide estimates of wind and wind shear that are useful indicators of wind-power output.

SUMMARYBiogenic nitrogen (N2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) accumulations were measured in groundwater, streams and the vadose zone of small agricultural watersheds in the Mid-Atlantic USA. In general, N2and N2O in excess of atmospheric equilibrium were found in groundwater virtually everywhere that was sampled. Excess N2in groundwater ranged from undetectable to 616 μmol N2-N/l, the latter representingc. 50% of background N2. The N2O-N concentrations varied from undetectable to 75 μm, and usually greatly exceeded values at atmospheric equilibrium (25–30 nM); however, N2O was generally 1–10% of excess N2. Intermediate levels of deficit and excess N2in flowing streams (−65 to +250 μmol N2-N/L) resulting from both abiotic and biotic processes were also measured. In vadose zone gases, multiple N2/Ar gas profiles were measured which exhibited seasonal variations with below atmospheric values when the soil was warming in spring/summer and above atmospheric values when groundwater was cooling in fall/winter. Both abiotic and biotic processes contributed to the excess N2and N2O that was observed. The current data indicate that large concentrations of excess N gases can accumulate within soil, groundwater, and streams of agriculturally dominated watersheds. When excess N gases are exchanged with the atmosphere, the net fluxes to the atmosphere may represent an important loss term for watershed N budgets.

Abstract This study compares two modeling platforms, ParFlow.WRF (PF.WRF) and the Terrestrial Systems Modeling Platform (TerrSysMP), with a common 3D integrated surface–groundwater model to examine the variability in simulated soil–vegetation–atmosphere interactions. Idealized and hindcast simulations over the North Rhine–Westphalia region in western Germany for clear-sky conditions and strong convective precipitation using both modeling platforms are presented. Idealized simulations highlight the strong variability introduced by the difference in land surface parameterizations (e.g., ground evaporation and canopy transpiration) and atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) schemes on the simulated land–atmosphere interactions. Results of the idealized simulations also suggest a different range of sensitivity in the two models of land surface and atmospheric parameterizations to water-table depth fluctuations. For hindcast simulations, both modeling platforms simulate net radiation and cumulative precipitation close to observed station data, while larger differences emerge between spatial patterns of soil moisture and convective rainfall due to the difference in the physical parameterization of the land surface and atmospheric component. This produces a different feedback by the hydrological model in the two platforms in terms of discharge over different catchments in the study area. Finally, an analysis of land surface and ABL heat and moisture budgets using the mixing diagram approach reveals different sensitivities of diurnal atmospheric processes to the groundwater parameterizations in both modeling platforms.

In modeling, a study was made of the processes of the physical-chemical interaction between rainwater and sandstone. It was stated that as a result of the interaction, already in mineralization of water equal to 55 mg/l, there emerges a pure soda solution whose sharp oxidation properties, retaining up to 200 mg/l, change to sharp restorative when exceeding this value. At the mineralization of water equal to 30 mg/l, an intensive increase in the number of hydroxide ions in a solution makes it highly alkaline. The active removal of calcium from solution is due to the formation of not only solid phase calcite, whose share does not exceed 15 %, but largely limonite, whose content is as high as 25 %. The accumulation of high concentrations of sodium in a solution is caused by the absence of its secondary mineral formations in a wide range of the rock/water ratios. Under reservoir conditions, the solution is composed of carbonate. This solution, transferred from reservoir to surface conditions, undergoes transformation in the result of interaction with the atmosphere. A decrease in pH of the solution resulted in the acquisition of sharp oxidation properties, with the cation, sulfate, fluorine and chlorine contents remained at the level corresponding to the reservoir conditions and the cardinal changes affected the carbonate system components and silicon compounds. Hydrosilicate ion was transformed into precipitated silicon oxide. Carbonate ions were transformed into hydrocarbonate, and the additional hydrocarbonate ions were formed for the solution to preserve a state of equilibrium after the removal of the representative number of hydrosilicate ions therefrom. An amount of carbon required for their formation was extracted from the atmosphere. The solution became hydrocarbonate, with hydrosilicate ions almost disappeared therefrom. Different calculation options for model solution, which is in equilibrium with the atmosphere, correlate with the representative group of soda-type groundwater. The calculation results are confirmed by field observations over the authigenic mineral formation on a large part of the Russian territory.

This paper describes an investigation of carbonate deposition in seasonal groundwater-fed lakes (turloughs) situated on the limestone lowland of south-east county Mayo. Chemical data from four turloughs suggest that present-day calcite deposition is due predominantly to supersaturation caused by the loss of excess carbon dioxide from the water to the atmosphere. This process occurs throughout the winter. Biological influences appear to play only a minor role, although investigations of turlough trophic status and algal biomass are required to confirm this.

Abstract. Forests are thought to play an important role in the regional dynamics of the West African monsoon, through their capacity to extract water from permanent aquifers located deep in the soil and pump it into the atmosphere even during the dry season. This is especially true for riparian forests located at the bottom of the hillslopes. This coupling between the riparian forests and the permanent aquifers is investigated, looking for quantifying its contribution to the catchment water balance. To this end, use is made of the observations available from a comprehensively instrumented hillslope through the framework of the AMMA-CATCH (African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis – Coupling the Tropical Atmosphere and the Hydrological Cycle) observing system. Attention is paid to measurements of actual evapotranspiration, soil moisture and deep groundwater level. A vertical 2-D approach is followed using the physically-based Hydrus 2-D model in order to simulate the hillslope hydrodynamics, the model being calibrated and evaluated through a multi-criteria approach. The model correctly simulates the hydrodynamics of the hillslope as far as soil moisture dynamics, deep groundwater fluctuation and actual evapotranspiration dynamics are concerned. In particular, the model is able to reproduce the observed hydraulic disconnection between the deep permanent groundwater table and the river. A virtual experiment shows that the riparian forest depletes the deep groundwater table level through transpiration occurring throughout the year so that the permanent aquifer and the river are not connected. Moreover the riparian forest and the deep groundwater table form a coupled transpiration system: the riparian forest transpiration is due to the water redistribution at the hillslope scale feeding the deep groundwater through lateral saturated flow. The annual cycle of the transpiration origin is also quantified. The riparian forest which covers only 5% of the hillslope generates 37% of the annual transpiration, this proportion reaching 57% during the dry season. In a region of intense anthropogenic pressure, forest clearing and its replacement by cropping could impact significantly the water balance at catchment scale with a possible feedback on the regional monsoon dynamics.

The article is referred to important consequence of the biosphere oil and gas formation concept, according to which the process of hydrocarbons generation in the subsoil and degassing of the Earth are a single natural phenomenon. The main role in this phenomenon is played by geochemical circulation of carbon and water through the Earth’s surface accompanied by polycondensation synthesis of hydrocarbons by CO2+H2O reaction. This reaction is accompanied by a colossal decomposition of groundwater into hydrogen and oxygen within the sedimentary cover of the earth’s crust. Unreacted CO2, as well as H2 and most of the methane produced during the reaction are degassed into the atmosphere, while resulting C5+ hydrocarbons remain under the surface filling geological traps in the form of oil and gas. The article presents the results of model experiments, which make it possible to estimate the rate of groundwater decomposition and on this basis explain the current rate of Earth’s degassing, as well as the observed CO2, CH4 and H2 ratio in degassing products.

Abstract The water supply in the Gaza Strip substantially depends on the groundwater resource of the Gaza coastal aquifer. The climate changes and the over-exploiting processes negatively impact the recovery of the groundwater balance. The climate variability is characterized by the decline in the precipitation of −5.2% and an increase in temperature of +1 °C in the timeframe of 2020–2040. The potential evaporation and the sunshine period are expected to increase by about 111 mm and 5 hours, respectively, during the next 20 years. However, the atmosphere is predicted to be drier where the relative humidity will fall by a trend of −8% in 20 years. The groundwater abstraction is predicted to increase by 55% by 2040. The response of the groundwater level to climate change and groundwater pumping was evaluated using a model of a 20-neuron ANN with a performance of the correlation coefficient (r)=0.95–0.99 and the root mean square error (RMSE)=0.09–0.21. Nowadays, the model reveals that the groundwater level ranges between −0.38 and −18.5 m and by 2040 it is expected to reach −1.13 and −28 m below MSL at the northern and southern governorates of the Gaza Strip, respectively.

Abstract. Groundwater plays an important role in the terrestrial water cycle, interacting with the land surface via vertical fluxes through the water table and distributing water resources spatially via gravity-driven lateral transport. It is therefore essential to have a correct representation of groundwater processes in land surface models, as land–atmosphere coupling is a key factor in climate research. Here we use the LEAFHYDRO land surface and groundwater model to study the groundwater influence on soil moisture distribution and memory, and evapotranspiration (ET) fluxes in the Iberian Peninsula over a 10-year period. We validate our results with time series of observed water table depth from 623 stations covering different regions of the Iberian Peninsula, showing that the model produces a realistic water table, shallower in valleys and deeper under hilltops. We find patterns of shallow water table and strong groundwater–land surface coupling over extended interior semi-arid regions and river valleys. We show a strong seasonal and interannual persistence of the water table, which induces bimodal memory in the soil moisture fields; soil moisture “remembers” past wet conditions, buffering drought effects, and also past dry conditions, causing a delay in drought recovery. The effects on land–atmosphere fluxes are found to be significant: on average over the region, ET is 17.4 % higher when compared with a baseline simulation with LEAFHYDRO's groundwater scheme deactivated. The maximum ET increase occurs in summer (34.9 %; 0.54 mm d−1). The ET enhancement is larger over the drier southern basins, where ET is water limited (e.g. the Guadalquivir basin and the Mediterranean Segura basin), than in the northern Miño/Minho basin, where ET is more energy limited than water limited. In terms of river flow, we show how dry season baseflow is sustained by groundwater originating from accumulated recharge during the wet season, improving significantly on a free-drain approach, where baseflow comes from water draining through the top soil, resulting in rivers drying out in summer. Convective precipitation enhancement through local moisture recycling over the semi-arid interior regions and summer cooling are potential implications of these groundwater effects on climate over the Iberian Peninsula. Fully coupled land surface and climate model simulations are needed to elucidate this question.

Abstract. Appreciating when and how groundwater affects surface temperature and energy fluxes is important for utilizing remote sensing in groundwater studies and for integrating aquifers within land surface models. To explore the shallow groundwater effect, we numerically exposed two soil profiles – one having shallow groundwater – to the same meteorological forcing, and inspected their different responses regarding surface soil moisture, temperature and energy balance. We found that the two profiles differed in the absorbed and emitted amounts of energy, in portioning out the available energy and in heat fluency within the soil. We conclude that shallow groundwater areas reflect less shortwave radiation due to their lower albedo and therefore they get higher magnitude of net radiation. When potential evaporation demand is high enough, a large portion of the energy received by these areas is spent on evaporation. This makes the latent heat flux predominant, and leaves less energy to heat the soil. Consequently, this induces lower magnitudes of both sensible and ground heat fluxes. The higher soil thermal conductivity in shallow groundwater areas facilitates heat transfer between the top soil and the subsurface, i.e. soil subsurface is more thermally connected to the atmosphere. In view of remote sensors' capability of detecting shallow groundwater effect, we conclude that this effect can be sufficiently clear to be sensed if at least one of two conditions is met: high potential evaporation and big contrast in air temperature between day and night. Under these conditions, most day and night hours are suitable for shallow groundwater depth detection.

La région méditerranéenne se distingue comme un « point chaud » potentiel en matière de science du climat, ce qui signifie une région où les impacts du changement climatique devraient être particulièrement importants. Dans la région méditerranéenne, il existe une interaction complexe entre l’atmosphère océanique et la terre ferme, associée à des caractéristiques morphologiques distinctes. Ce couplage fort fait référence aux interactions entre la mer Méditerranée, l’atmosphère et les terres environnantes, influençant des dynamiques climatiques locales spécifiques. Dans cette thèse, nous nous sommes concentrés sur la partie sud de la France située dans la région nord-ouest de la Méditerranée. En raison de ces caractéristiques géographiques particulières et des interactions complexes entre les processus océaniques et atmosphériques à différentes échelles spatiales et temporelles, le climat et en particulier l'hydroclimat du sud de la France présente des caractéristiques spatiales et temporelles complexes ainsi que leur variabilité. Il existe un manque de compréhension des processus hydrologiques locaux, ce qui nécessite une analyse complète à haute résolution de toutes les composantes du cycle hydrologique dans cette région. Dans nos travaux, nous nous concentrerons sur la branche atmosphérique du cycle hydrologique dans le Golfe du Lion et nous considérerons les précipitations, le transport d'humidité et les processus hydrologiques de surface tels que le ruissellement et l'humidité du sol.L’objectif de cette recherche doctorale peut être résumé en trois questions principales abordant la complexité du cycle hydrologique sur le sud de la France :1. Quelles sont les forces et les faiblesses des différents types de jeux de données pour capturer la variabilité des précipitations et leurs extrêmes sur le sud de la France ?Pour répondre à cette question, nous avons étudié l'exactitude et la fiabilité de toutes les sources de données disponibles pour cette région dans la représentation des conditions climatiques réelles, fournissant ainsi un aperçu de leur applicabilité aux études hydrologiques dans la région méditerranéenne. Les résultats de cette analyse sont présentés au chapitre 2.2. Quelles sont les sources de transport d'humidité qui contribuent aux précipitations et aux événements météorologiques extrêmes dans le sud de la France ?Pour répondre à cette question, nous avons analysé le transport d'humidité dans cette région. De plus, nous avons étudié le transport de l’humidité dans les conditions d’événements de précipitations extrêmes. Pour explorer les mécanismes à l’origine du transport d’humidité, nous avons effectué une analyse groupée des modèles météorologiques correspondants. Les résultats sont présentés au chapitre 3.3. Quel est l'impact de la variabilité et de l'évolution des précipitations sur l'humidité des sols et le ruissellement continental dans le sud de la France ?Pour répondre à cette question, nous avons analysé les interactions entre les régimes de précipitations et les composantes terrestres du cycle hydrologique, telles que l'humidité du sol et le ruissellement. Reasulate est présenté au chapitre 4
The Mediterranean region stands out as a potential ’hotspot’ in climate science which signifies a region where the impacts of climate change are expected to be particularly significant. In Mediterranean region there is intricate interplay between the ocean atmosphere and land, coupled with distinct morphological features. This strong coupling refers to the interactions among the Mediterranean Sea, the atmosphere, and the surrounding land, influencing specific local climate dynamics. In our study, we focused on the Southern part of France located in the northwestern Mediterranean region. Due to these special geographical features and the complex interactions between ocean and atmospheric processes at different spatial and temporal scales, the climate and especially the hydroclimate of the Southern part of France exhibits intricate spatial and temporal characteristics and their variability. There is a lack of understanding of local hydrological processes, which requires a high-resolution comprehensive analysis of all hydrological cycle components in this region. In our work, we will focus on the atmospheric branch of the hydrological cycle in the Gulf of Lion and we will consider precipitation, moisture transport, and surface hydrological processes such as runoff and soil moisture.The aim of this PhD research can be summarized in three main questions addressing the complexities of the hydrological cycle over southern France:1. What are the strengths and weaknesses of various type of datasets in capturing the precipitation variability and its extremes over southern France ?To answer this question, we investigated the accuracy and reliability of all available data sources for this region in representing the actual climatic conditions, providing insights into their applicability for hydrological studies in the Mediterranean region. Results of this analysis are presenting in Chapter 2.2. What are the sources of moisture transport contributing to precipitation and extreme weather events in southern France ?To answer this question, we analyzed the moisture transport in this region. Additionally, we investigated the moisture transport for the conditions of extreme precipitation events. To explores the mechanisms driving of moisture transport we performed clustering analysis of corresponding weather patterns. Results are presenting in Chapter 3.3. How do variability and trends in precipitation impact soil moisture and continental runoff in southern France ?To answer this question, we analyzed the interactions between precipitation patterns and terrestrial components of the hydrological cycle, such as soil moisture and runoff. Reasulate are presenting in Chapter 4.The structure of this thesis is organized as follows: Chapter 1 introduces the data sources utilized in this study, discussing their respective limitations. It also details the methodologies employed to evaluate these datasets and to investigate the sources of moisture affecting this region. Chapter 2 focuses on the examination of precipitation characteristics within the region. It assesses various precipitation datasets to understand their reliability and accuracy in capturing the area’s precipitation dynamics. Chapter 3 is dedicated to analyzing long-term moisture transport patterns. This chapter aims to elucidate the mechanisms behind moisture movement into the region. Chapter 4 delves into the analysis of runoff and soil moisture, exploring their relationship with precipitation. It examines how precipitation influences soil moisture and runoff, contributing to the broader understanding of the regional hydrological cycle

A raingauge network made of six stations was installed in the Hyblean region. Stations were located at different altitudes (from 5 m to 986 m a.s.l.) and along two directions (E-W and SW-NE). Rainwater samples were monthly collected for stable isotope measurements. Spatial distribution of rainwater isotope composition has confirmed the wet air masses move from South-East/South-West toward North. Water balance has highlighted that the annual volume of infiltrating waters is in the range of 1-1.5 *105 m3 Km-2. 82 well waters and 12 spring waters located within the Hyblean Plateau (South-Estern Sicily), were also collected from 1999 to 2001 during several surveys for chemical (major,minor and trace elements) analyses. Water chemistry allowed to identify two main aquifers: the first aquifer hosted within sedimentary rocks is characterized by earthalkaline bicarbonate waters, while the second aquifer, located within the volcanic deposits (mainly towards North- North-East) is characterized by groundwaters evolving from earthalkaline bicarbonate water-type towards a Na-HCO3-type. A slightly anomaly in water temperature (24-28°C) have been identified along the northern margin, while the lower Eh values have been recorded along the M.Lauro-Scicli and the Hyblean Malta Escarpment fault systems. Isotope composition of groundwaters has suggested the occurrence of evaporative processes during soil infiltration having a dD/d18O slope close to 4.5. Chemical and isotope composition of dissolved gases (d13CTDIC, d13CCH4, 3He/4He) have revealed, as expected, that deeply-derived gases rise along the main tectonic discontinuities. Chemical and isotope analyses of dissolved carbon have revealed the existence of two sampling sites (NA and FE samples) attesting the interaction between groundwaters and a consistent amount of deep inorganic carbon dioxide. He isotope ratios (from 0.81Ra to 6.19 Ra) have revealed the occurrence of mixing process, in different proportions, between crustal and mantle components. On the base of the obtained results, a clear picture of the groundwaters circulation within the Hyblean aquifers has been drawn. In framework of projecting of a geochemical network for the continuous monitoring of the local seismic activity the most suitable geochemical parameters and the sites of great interest have been identified.
- Unione Europea Fondo Sociale Europeo; - Ministero dell’Università e della Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica; - Università degli studi di Palermo
Published
open

The groundwater has great potential for water resource utilization, accounting for about a quarter of vegetation transpiration globally and contributing up to 84% in shallow groundwater areas. However, in irrigated agricultural regions or coastal areas with shallow groundwater levels, due to the high groundwater salinity, the contribution of groundwater to transpiration is small and even harmful. This paper proposes a new conception of groundwater benefit zone in the groundwater-soil–plant-atmosphere continuum (GSPAC) system. Firstly, it analyzes the mutual feedback processes of the underground hydrological process and aboveground farmland ecosystem. Secondly, it elaborates on the regional water and salt movement model proposed vital technologies based on the optimal regulation of the groundwater benefit zone and is committed to building a synergy that considers soil salt control and groundwater yield subsidies. Finally, based on the GSPAC system water-salt coupling transport mechanism, quantitative model of groundwater benefit zone, and technical parameters of regional water-salt regulation and control, the scientific problems and development opportunities related to the conception of groundwater benefit zone have been prospected.

ABSTRACT Discoveries in the 1980s greatly expanded speleologists’ understanding of the role that hypogenic groundwater flow can play in developing caves at depth. Ascending groundwater charged with carbon dioxide and, especially, hydrogen sulfide can readily dissolve carbonate bedrock just below and above the water table. Sulfuric acid speleogenesis, in which anoxic, rising, sulfidic groundwater mixes with oxygenated cave atmosphere to form aggressive sulfuric acid (H2SO4) formed spectacular caves in Carlsbad Caverns National Park, USA. Cueva de Villa Luz in Mexico provides an aggressively active example of sulfuric acid speleogenesis processes, and the Frasassi Caves in Italy preserve the results of sulfuric acid speleogenesis in its upper levels while sulfidic groundwater currently enlarges cave passages in the lower levels. Many caves in east-central Nevada and western Utah (USA) are products of hypogenic speleogenesis and formed before the current topography fully developed. Wet climate during the late Neogene and Pleistocene brought extensive meteoric infiltration into the caves, and calcite speleothems (e.g., stalactites, stalagmites, shields) coat the walls and floors of the caves, concealing evidence of the earlier hypogenic stage. However, by studying the speleogenetic features in well-established sulfuric acid speleogenesis caves, evidence of hypogenic, probably sulfidic, speleogenesis in many Great Basin caves can be teased out. Compelling evidence of hypogenic speleogenesis in these caves include folia, mammillaries, bubble trails, cupolas, and metatyuyamunite. Sulfuric acid speleogenesis signs include hollow coralloid stalagmites, trays, gypsum crust, pseudoscallops, rills, and acid pool notches. Lehman Caves in Great Basin National Park is particularly informative because a low-permeability capstone protected about half of the cave from significant meteoric infiltration, preserving early speleogenetic features.

Water is our largest natural resource, but only 3% is freshwater and only one- third of it is available for agriculture and drinking purposes. The freshwater we use comes from two sources: Surface water runoff and groundwater. Precipitation that flows into water bodies such as streams, rivers, and lakes at the surface of the earth without infiltrating the surface or returning to the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration is called surface water runoff [1]. Some of the precipitation percolates to the surface, where it collects as soil water, partially filling the pores between surface soil particles and rocks. Aquifers are underground rocks that are water-bearing layers and water in them is called groundwater. The water collects on the layer of impermeable rock or on compacted clay called unconfined aquifers. When the water is collected between two impermeable rocks is called confined aquifers [2]. Sustainable water management means being able to meet current water demands without risking the ability of future generations. It requires multidisciplinary and comprehensive strategies that consider technical, environmental, economic, aesthetic, social, and cultural concerns. In recent years, the term “sustainability” has come to use frequently which includes various planning activities. It has a slightly different meaning depending on the user's point of View. Organising the different aspects of water management in order to maximize benefits is the goal of sustainable water management. This can be done through Several processes such as water reuse, water recovery, and minimal water Consumption. Long- term availability and supply of clean water for people and other living things are necessary for water sustainability. The physical, chemical, and Biological properties of natural waters that are required to fulfil long-term societal and Ecological needs are known as sustainable water quality [3]. The driving factors, Effects, and best management practices affecting the future of our water are Highlighted in this chapter.

Abstract The natural particles whose surface reactions figure most importantly in the geochemistry of soils and sediments range in size from approximately 10 nm to 10 µ,m—from fine clay to fine silt—while comprising a heterogeneous mixture of crystalline minerals, amorphous weathering residues, humus, and microbial biomass. The size range just given, which can be broadened in certain circumstances by as much as an order of magnitude from either endpoint, encompasses typical groundwater colloids and viruses in its lower portion, with riverine suspended solids and phytoplankton included in its upper portion. The processes forming these particles involve the life cycles of organisms, the geochemical weathering of terrestrial materials, and mass transport.1 Once they are formed, the particles themselves may be consumed by the biota; react with dissolved solutes and, there-fore, undergo further transformation; or be moved by advective transport through the atmosphere, surface water, or subsurface water. This last mode of natural particle evolution can be an effiective mechanism for the movement of adsorbed nutrients or contaminants, a phenomenon termed colloid-facilitated transport of adsorbed species.2 Reaction with dissolved solutes, on the other hand, which mediates surface charge, can facilitate the settling of natural particles out of the aqueous phase in which they are suspended, thus reducing the mobility of adsorbed species.

Variables and parameters required to characterize soil water flow and solute transport are often measured at different spatial scales from those for which they are needed. This poses a problem since results from field and laboratory measurements at one spatial scale are not necessarily valid for application at another. Herein lies a challenge that vadose zone hydrologists are faced with. For example, vadose zone studies can include flow at the groundwater-unsaturated zone as well as at the soil surface-atmosphere interface at either one specific location or representing an entire field or landscape unit. Therefore, vadose zone measurements should include techniques that can monitor at large depths and that characterize landsurface processes. On the other end of the space spectrum, microscopic laboratory measurement techniques are needed to better understand fundamental flow and transport mechanisms through observations of pore-scale geometry and fluid flow. The Vadose Zone Hydrology (VZH) Conference made very clear that there is an immediate need for such microscopic information at fluid-fluid and solid-fluid interfaces, as well as for methodologies that yield information at the field/landscape scale. The need for improved instrumentation was discussed at the ASA-sponsored symposium on “Future Directions in Soil Physics” by Hendrickx (1994) and Hopmans (1994). Soil physicists participating in the 1994-1999 Western Regional Research Project W-188 (1994) focused on “improved characterization and quantification of flow and transport processes in soils,” and prioritized the need for development and evaluation of new instrumentation and methods of data anlysis to further improve characterization of water and solute transport. The regional project documents the critical need for quantification of water flow and solute transport in heterogeneous, spatially variable field soils, specifically to address preferential and accelerated contaminant transport. Cassel and Nielsen (1994) describe the contributions in computed tomography (CT) using x-rays or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as “an awakening,” and they envision these methodologies to become an integral part of vadose zone research programs. The difference in size between measurement and application scales poses a dilemma for the vadose zone hydrologist.

Soils are porous media created at the land surface through weathering processes mediated by biological, geological, and hydrological phenomena. From the point of view of chemistry, soils are open biogeochemical systems containing reactive solids, liquids, and gases. That they are open systems means they exchange both matter and energy with the surrounding atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere. That they are biogeochemical systems means their development over time is a result of chemical transformations of earth materials linked to the life cycles of the soil biota and plant roots. Soils are the central feature of the life-supporting Critical Zone, which extends from the top of the vegetation canopy to the bottom of the groundwater aquifer in a terrestrial ecosystem. The Critical Zone provides essential ecosystem services (outputs of food, fiber, fuel, and water, including their quality) that sustain the biosphere. Other earth materials than soil may occur in the Critical Zone (for example, weathered rock [saprolite]), but soils are unique in showing a distinctive vertical stratification, the soil profile (Fig. 1.1), created by percolating water under the combined influence of parent material, topography, climate, living organisms, and pedogenic time—the five factors of soil formation. Analogous to biomes, which classify terrestrial ecosystems according to similar climate and vegetative cover, orders classify soils according to similar climate, parent material, or pedogenic time. With respect to climate, for example, Oxisols reflect tropical conditions, whereas Mollisols reflect temperate conditions. Spodosols and Gelisols reflect mainly boreal conditions (Table 1.1). Andisols, Histosols, and Vertisols, on the other hand, are not defined by climatic region, but instead by parent material (volcanic ash, organic litter, or swelling clay, respectively), whereas Entisols and Inceptisols reflect pedogenic time being insufficiently long for significant A or B horizon development, respectively. Biomes are basic classification units of the aboveground biosphere useful for characterizing its ecosystem services, whereas orders are basic classification units of the pedosphere useful for the same purpose. The natural capitalof soils is the set of assets that allows them to function beneficially as providers of ecosystem services.

The process of evaporation, including transpiration (evaporation from plants), returns to the atmosphere more than half of the water reaching the Earth’s land surface; thus, it plays an important role in controlling the chemistry of surface water and groundwater, especially in relatively arid climates. Geochemists study the evaporation process to understand the evolution of water in desert playas and lakes as well as the origins of evaporite deposits. They also investigate environmental aspects of evaporation (e.g., Appelo and Postma, 1993), such as its effects on the chemistry of rainfall and, in areas where crops are irrigated, the quality of groundwater and runoff. To model the chemical effects of evaporation, we construct a reaction path in which H2O is removed from a solution, thereby progressively concentrating the solutes. We also must account in the model for the exchange of gases such as CO2 and O2 between fluid and atmosphere. In this chapter we construct simulations of this sort, modeling the chemical evolution of water from saline alkaline lakes and the reactions that occur as seawater evaporates to desiccation. We choose as a first example the evaporation of spring water from the Sierra Nevada mountains of California and Nevada, USA, as modeled by Garrels and Mackenzie (1967). Their hand calculation, the first reaction path traced in geochemistry (see Chapter 1), provided the inspiration for Helgeson’s (1968 and later) development of computerized methods for reaction modeling. Garrels and Mackenzie wanted to test whether simple evaporation of groundwater discharging from the mountains, which is the product of the reaction of rainwater and CO2 with igneous rocks, could produce the water compositions found in the saline alkaline lakes of the adjacent California desert. They began with the mean of analyses of perennial springs from the Sierra Nevada (Table 18.1). The springs are Na-Ca-HCO3 waters, rich in dissolved silica.

This chapter examines the spatial and temporal variability and patterns of climate for the period 1972–1991 in the North Central Region of North America (NCR). Since the mid-1970s, climate has become more variable in the region, compared to the more benign period 1950–1970. The regional perspective presented in this chapter characterizes the general climatology of the NCR from 1972 to 1991 and compares the climate to a severe drought that occurred in 1988. This one-year drought was one of the most substantial in the region’s recent history, and it had a significant impact on the region’s agricultural economy and ecosystems. Petersen et al. (1995) characterize the 1988 drought with respect to solar radiation, and Zangvil et al. (2001) consider this drought from the perspective of a large-scale atmosphere moisture budget. A major reason for the seriousness of the drought in 1988 was the fact that May and June were unusually dry and hot (Kunkel and Angel 1989). Drought is defined as a condition of moisture deficit sufficient to adversely affect vegetation, animals, and humans over a sizeable area (Warwick 1975). The condition of drought may be considered from a meteorological, agricultural, and hydrologic perspective. Meteorological drought is a period of abnormally dry weather sufficiently prolonged to a point where the lack of water causes a serious hydrologic imbalance in the affected area (Huschke 1959). Agricultural drought is a climatic digression involving a shortage of precipitation sufficient to adversely affect crop production or the range of production (Rosenberg 1980). Hydrologic drought is a period of below-average water content in streams, reservoirs, groundwater aquifers, lakes, and soils (Yevjevich et al. 1977). All of these drought conditions are mutually linked. The objectives of this chapter are to (1) address the issues of climatic spatial scale to quantify variability of climate in the NCR, (2) examine the characteristics of the 1988 drought as it relates to characteristics of an ecoregion, (3) illustrate a means to quantify drought through a potential plant stress index, and (4) examine the link of regional drought to ecosystem processes. This analysis will provide background and methodology for ecologists, agriculturalists, and others interested in spatial and temporal characterization of climate patterns within large geographic regions.

Heavy metals have been spreading into the atmosphere and soil through human activities and natural means since ancient times. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, etc. Heavy metals entering surface and subsurface waters for various reasons spread throughout the ecosystem. But natural spread also has its limits. Water and air pollutants from industrial activities are more likely to be chemically released into the environment. Industrialization has led to heavy metal pollution, which has increased over time. We are exposed to more than 35 metals in our external environment, 23 of which are heavy metals. The definition of heavy metal is used for metals with a density above 5 g/cm3. Lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), mercury (Hg) and zinc (Zn) are frequently encountered. Heavy metals are released into the atmosphere from a variety of sources and through various process steps. Heavy metals entering the atmosphere from various sources can affect the ecological balance by mixing with the soil, surface waters, and even groundwater through dry and wet accumulation.