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1
Durie, R. A., H. Schaap, J. H. Edwards, and A. Ekstrom. "Greenhouse gas issues and mitigation initiatives in Australia - an overview." Energy Conversion and Management 37, no. 6-8 (June 1996): 685–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0196-8904(95)00240-5.
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Durie, R. A. "Greenhouse gas issues and mitigation initiatives in Australia — An overview." Fuel and Energy Abstracts 37, no. 3 (May 1996): 222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-6701(96)89131-4.
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Holmes, R. I. "Mitigating Ventilation Air Methane Cost-Effectively from a Colliery in Australia." Journal of Applied Engineering Sciences 6, no. 1 (May 1, 2016): 41–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jaes-2016-0005.
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Abstract Methane has been controlled in collieries in the past only for safety and statutory compliance reasons; however concerns over greenhouse gas emissions mean that this is now changing. About 65% of greenhouse emissions associated with underground coal mining come from ventilation air methane (VAM). The machinery to mitigate these fugitive emissions once the VAM exits the mine fans is expensive, has safety concerns and is not widely used at present. Consider these factors; more collieries are mining lower seams, methane content increases with depth, VAM mitigation plants are not widely used, most mine emissions are VAM, and widespread concern over greenhouse gases mean that it is desirable to lower VAM emissions now. One solution would be a method to prevent more methane from entering the mine airstream and becoming VAM in the first place. Recently, in a colliery in the Hunter Valley, this mitigation method underwent a 12-month trial, and involved six different measures. Measurements were taken to assess the emissions mitigation which was achieved, and the cost of the works; all the results are detailed herein. A reduction in fugitive emissions of 80,307 t/CO2-e below that which was projected for the next 12-month period was quantified, at an average cost of A$1.28c t/CO2-e. The mitigation measure outlined here represent a first attempt to the author’s knowledge, in an operating mine, to lower a collieries’ environmental footprint by preventing methane from entering the mine airstream and becoming VAM gas by the deliberate use of mitigation measures.
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Black, John L., Thomas M. Davison, and Ilona Box. "Methane Emissions from Ruminants in Australia: Mitigation Potential and Applicability of Mitigation Strategies." Animals 11, no. 4 (March 29, 2021): 951. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11040951.
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Anthropomorphic greenhouse gases are raising the temperature of the earth and threatening ecosystems. Since 1950 atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased 28%, while methane has increased 70%. Methane, over the first 20 years after release, has 80-times more warming potential as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Enteric methane from microbial fermentation of plant material by ruminants contributes 30% of methane released into the atmosphere, which is more than any other single source. Numerous strategies were reviewed to quantify their methane mitigation potential, their impact on animal productivity and their likelihood of adoption. The supplements, 3-nitrooxypropanol and the seaweed, Asparagopsis, reduced methane emissions by 40+% and 90%, respectively, with increases in animal productivity and small effects on animal health or product quality. Manipulation of the rumen microbial population can potentially provide intergenerational reduction in methane emissions, if treated animals remain isolated. Genetic selection, vaccination, grape marc, nitrate or biochar reduced methane emissions by 10% or less. Best management practices and cattle browsing legumes, Desmanthus or Leucaena species, result in small levels of methane mitigation and improved animal productivity. Feeding large amounts daily of ground wheat reduced methane emissions by around 35% in dairy cows but was not sustained over time.
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Kenway, S. J., P. Lant, and T. Priestley. "Quantifying water–energy links and related carbon emissions in cities." Journal of Water and Climate Change 2, no. 4 (December 1, 2011): 247–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2011.005.
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To date, key water–energy connections have not been systematically quantified. Nor has their potential for contributing to greenhouse gas mitigation been evaluated. Lack of knowledge of these links, particularly within cities, is viewed as a major limitation to energy-sensitive urban water management and integrated urban design. This paper fills part of this void. The key contribution is a new conceptual model coupled with a systematic review of the connections of influence. Drawing on Australian and international data, the results provide a structured estimate of water-related energy use and associated emissions in a hypothetical city of 1,000,000 people. This demonstrates that water-related energy use accounts for 13% of total electricity and 18% of the natural gas used by the population in the average case. This represents 9% of the total primary energy demand within Australia or 8% of total national territorial greenhouse gas emissions. Residential, industrial and commercial water-related energy use constitutes 86% of water-related greenhouse gas emissions. We conclude that urban water is a significant and overlooked lever that could significantly influence urban energy consumption.
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Garvie, Leanda C., Stephen H. Roxburgh, and Fabiano A. Ximenes. "Greenhouse Gas Emission Offsets of Forest Residues for Bioenergy in Queensland, Australia." Forests 12, no. 11 (November 15, 2021): 1570. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/f12111570.
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Harnessing sustainably sourced forest biomass for renewable energy is well-established in some parts of the developed world. Forest-based bioenergy has the potential to offset carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels, thereby playing a role in climate change mitigation. Despite having an established commercial forestry industry, with large quantities of residue generated each year, there is limited use for forest biomass for renewable energy in Queensland, and Australia more broadly. The objective of this study was to identify the carbon dioxide mitigation potential of replacing fossil fuels with bioenergy generated from forest harvest residues harnessed from commercial plantations of Pinus species in southeast Queensland. An empirical-based full carbon accounting model (FullCAM) was used to simulate the accumulation of carbon in harvest residues. The results from the FullCAM modelling were further analysed to identify the energy substitution and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions offsets of three bioenergy scenarios. The results of the analysis suggest that the greatest opportunity to avoid or offset emissions is achieved when combined heat and power using residue feedstocks replaces coal-fired electricity. The results of this study suggest that forest residue bioenergy is a viable alternative to traditional energy sources, offering substantive emission reductions, with the potential to contribute towards renewable energy and emission reduction targets in Queensland. The approach used in this case study will be valuable to other regions exploring bioenergy generation from forest or other biomass residues.
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Gabe, Jeremy. "Successful greenhouse gas mitigation in existing Australian office buildings." Building Research & Information 44, no. 2 (December 3, 2014): 160–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2014.979034.
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Howarth, Nicholas A. A., and Andrew Foxall. "The Veil of Kyoto and the politics of greenhouse gas mitigation in Australia." Political Geography 29, no. 3 (March 2010): 167–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2010.03.001.
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Pratt, Chris, Matthew Redding, Jaye Hill, Andrew Shilton, Matthew Chung, and Benoit Guieysse. "Good science for improving policy: greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural manures." Animal Production Science 55, no. 6 (2015): 691. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an13504.
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Australia’s and New Zealand’s major agricultural manure management emission sources are reported to be, in descending order of magnitude: (1) methane (CH4) from dairy farms in both countries; (2) CH4 from pig farms in Australia; and nitrous oxide (N2O) from (3) beef feedlots and (4) poultry sheds in Australia. We used literature to critically review these inventory estimates. Alarmingly for dairy farm CH4 (1), our review revealed assumptions and omissions that when addressed could dramatically increase this emission estimate. The estimate of CH4 from Australian pig farms (2) appears to be accurate, according to industry data and field measurements. The N2O emission estimates for beef feedlots (3) and poultry sheds (4) are based on northern hemisphere default factors whose appropriateness for Australia is questionable and unverified. Therefore, most of Australasia’s key livestock manure management greenhouse gas (GHG) emission profiles are either questionable or are unsubstantiated by region-specific research. Encouragingly, GHG from dairy shed manure are relatively easy to mitigate because they are a point source which can be managed by several ‘close-to-market’ abatement solutions. Reducing these manure emissions therefore constitutes an opportunity for meaningful action sooner compared with the more difficult-to-implement and long-term strategies that currently dominate agricultural GHG mitigation research. At an international level, our review highlights the critical need to carefully reassess GHG emission profiles, particularly if such assessments have not been made since the compilation of original inventories. Failure to act in this regard presents the very real risk of missing the ‘low hanging fruit’ in the rush towards a meaningful response to climate change.
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Stanford, Jon. "Electricity generation in a carbon constrained world: the role for gas." APPEA Journal 49, no. 2 (2009): 576. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/aj08049.
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In March 2009, the Australian government published draft legislation for its proposed emissions trading scheme—the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS). The CPRS is the main instrument that will be employed to achieve Australia’s stated objective of greenhouse gas mitigation, together with the new renewable energy target (RET) mandating that 20% of Australia’s electricity will be provided by renewable energy by 2020. The stated objective is to achieve a 5% reduction in emissions from the year 2000–2020. The objective of a 5% reduction in emissions (identified as CPRS-5 in the Treasury modelling undertaken for Garnaut and the Australian Government) is a more modest target than scientific opinion tells us is required to achieve temperature stabilisation at a level around two degrees higher than the average level now. Yet this target has been selected on the assumption that the rest of the world does not take more substantial action. If Australia seeks to achieve more than the rest of the world there will be a negligible impact on global emissions while we will export investments and jobs to less ambitious countries. In any case, a 5% reduction in emissions from 2000 levels will be difficult to achieve in the absence of major technological change being realised before 2020. It represents a reduction from the year 2000’s levels of 25% in per capita terms, and around 25% from projections of emissions under business-as-usual assumptions. Stationary energy, mainly power generation, is responsible for about half of Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions. Because this is also a sector where low emissions technologies are already available, it is expected that much of the heavy-lifting in regard to greenhouse gas mitigation will have to come from this sector. Much of the new investment in the power generation sector to 2020 will come from renewables so as to meet the RET, which equates to around 45,000 GWh of renewable generation by 2020. But what of base load generation? Apart from geothermal, that has yet to be technically and commercially proven in Australia, renewables are generally ill-suited to base load generation. Base load power in Australia has traditionally been provided by black and brown coal and with its high emissions it is unlikely to be seen as a future option in a carbon-constrained world. Lower emissions options for base load generation include: coal with carbon capture and storage (CCS); geothermal energy; nuclear energy; and, combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT). The first three options are all problematic in Australia, and would not be able to provide significant generation capacity before 2020.
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Tomkins, Nigel, Matthew Harrison, Chris S. McSweeney, Stuart Denman, Ed Charmley, Cristopher J. Lambrides, and Ram Dalal. "Greenhouse gas implications of leucaena-based pastures. Can we develop an emissions reduction methodology for the beef industry?" Tropical Grasslands-Forrajes Tropicales 7, no. 4 (September 3, 2019): 267–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.17138/tgft(7)267-272.
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Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.The perennial legume leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) is grown across the subtropics for a variety of purposes including livestock fodder. Livestock in Australia emit a significant proportion of the methane produced by the agriculture sector and there is increasing pressure to decrease emissions from beef cattle production systems. In addition to direct productivity gains for livestock, leucaena has been shown to lower enteric methane production, suggesting an opportunity for emissions mitigation and Commonwealth Emissions Reduction Fund (ERF) methodology development, where leucaena browse is adopted for high value beef production. Determining the proportion of leucaena in the diet may be one of the more challenging aspects in attributing mitigation. Current enteric emission relationships for cattle consuming mixed grass-leucaena diets are based on intensive respiration chamber work. Herd-scale methane flux has also been determined using open path laser methodologies and may be used to validate an on-farm herd-scale methodology for leucaena feeding systems. The methodology should also address increased potential for soil organic carbon storage by leucaena grazing systems, and changes in nitrous oxide production. This paper outlines the background, justification, eligibility requirements and potential gaps in research for an emissions quantification protocol that will lead to the adoption of a leucaena methodology by the Australian beef industry. Development of a methodology would be supported by research conducted in Australia.
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Bentley, D., R. S. Hegarty, and A. R. Alford. "Managing livestock enterprises in Australia's extensive rangelands for greenhouse gas and environment outcomes: a pastoral company perspective." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, no. 2 (2008): 60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea07210.
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Extensive grazing of beef cattle is the principal use of the northern Australia land area. While north Australian beef production has traditionally utilised a low-input, low-output system of land management, recent innovations have increased the efficiency with which beef is produced. Investment to raise efficiency of cattle production by improving herd genetics, property infrastructure, the seasonal feed-base and its utilisation, as well as promoting feedlot finishing can all be expected to reduce the number of unproductive animals and reduce age-at-slaughter. Consequently, these innovations can all be expected to contribute to a reduction in the emissions intensity of greenhouse gases (GHG; t GHG/t liveweight gain). The North Australian Pastoral Company (NAPCO) has adopted these technologies to enhance reproductive and growth efficiency of the herd and has coupled them with changes in other aspects of property operation, such as use of solar energy systems, establishment of introduced perennial pastures and minimum tillage, to achieve production and operational gains, which also reduce the emissions intensity of their pastoral properties. Investments to improve production efficiency have been consistent with both financial and, in principle, environmental objectives of NAPCO. While NAPCO supports the development and implementation of new mitigation strategies, the company requires greater knowledge on pastoral emission levels and clarity on the future position of agriculture in a carbon economy. This information would enable confirmation of current emission levels, modelling of mitigation options and evaluation of the efficacy of potential on-farm carbon sinks. This paper presents NAPCO’s perspective on GHG emissions in the context of its pastoral enterprise, including current and future research and mitigation objectives.
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Price, Owen F., Jeremy Russell-Smith, and Felicity Watt. "The influence of prescribed fire on the extent of wildfire in savanna landscapes of western Arnhem Land, Australia." International Journal of Wildland Fire 21, no. 3 (2012): 297. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf10079.
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Fire regimes in many north Australian savanna regions are today characterised by frequent wildfires occurring in the latter part of the 7-month dry season. A fire management program instigated from 2005 over 24 000 km2 of biodiversity-rich Western Arnhem Land aims to reduce the area and severity of late dry-season fires, and associated greenhouse gas emissions, through targeted early dry-season prescribed burning. This study used fire history mapping derived mostly from Landsat imagery over the period 1990–2009 and statistical modelling to quantify the mitigation of late dry-season wildfire through prescribed burning. From 2005, there has been a reduction in mean annual total proportion burnt (from 38 to 30%), and particularly of late dry-season fires (from 29 to 12.5%). The slope of the relationship between the proportion of early-season prescribed fire and subsequent late dry-season wildfire was ~–1. This means that imposing prescribed early dry-season burning can substantially reduce late dry-season fire area, by direct one-to-one replacement. There is some evidence that the spatially strategic program has achieved even better mitigation than this. The observed reduction in late dry-season fire without concomitant increase in overall area burnt has important ecological and greenhouse gas emissions implications. This efficient mitigation of wildfire contrasts markedly with observations reported from temperate fire-prone forested systems.
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Sharma, S., P. Cook, T. Berly, and C. Anderson. "AUSTRALIA’S FIRST GEOSEQUESTRATION DEMONSTRATION PROJECT—THE CO2CRC OTWAY BASIN PILOT PROJECT." APPEA Journal 47, no. 1 (2007): 259. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/aj06017.
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Geological sequestration is a promising technology for reducing atmospheric emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) with the potential to geologically store a significant proportion Australia of Australia’s stationary CO2 emissions. Stationary emissions comprise almost 50% (or about 280 million tonnes of CO2 per annum) of Australia’s total greenhouse gas emissions. Australia has abundant coal and gas resources and extensive geological storage opportunities; it is therefore well positioned to include geosequestration as an important part of its portfolio of greenhouse gas emission mitigation technologies.The Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies is undertaking a geosequestration demonstration project in the Otway Basin of southwest Victoria, with injection of CO2 planned to commence around mid 2007. The project will extract natural gas containing a high percentage of CO2 from an existing gas well and inject it into a nearby depleted natural gas field for long-term storage. The suitability of the storage site has been assessed through a comprehensive risk assessment process. About 100,000 tonnes of CO2 is expected to be injected through a new injection well during a one- to two-year period. The injection of CO2 will be accompanied by a comprehensive monitoring and verification program to understand the behaviour of the CO2 in the subsurface and determine if the injected carbon dioxide has migrated out of the storage reservoir into overlying formations. This project will be the first storage project in Australia and the first in the world to test monitoring for storage in a depleted gas reservoir. Baseline data pertinent to geosequestration is already being acquired through the project and the research will enable a better understanding of long-term reactive transport and trapping mechanisms.This project is being authorised under the Petroleum Act 1998 (Victoria) and research, development and demonstration provisions administered by the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) Victoria in the absence of geosequestration- specific legislation. This highlights the need for such legislation to enable commercial-scale projects to proceed. Community acceptance is a key objective for the project and a consultation plan based on social research has been put in place to gauge public understanding and build support for the technology as a viable mitigation mechanism.
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Callaghan, M. J., N. W. Tomkins, I. Benu, and A. J. Parker. "How feasible is it to replace urea with nitrates to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from extensively managed beef cattle?" Animal Production Science 54, no. 9 (2014): 1300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an14270.
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Reducing methane emissions from cattle in Australia will be dependent upon finding a strategy that can be readily adopted by its northern beef industry. The majority of the herd are located in this region and they graze low-quality tropical (C4) pastures, resulting in high methane output. There are few mitigation options that can be readily applied to extensively grazed cattle. The addition of nitrate to the diet of cattle has been shown to reduce methane production and may be an applicable strategy in northern Australia. Nitrogen is often the primary limiting nutrient in low-quality tropical pastures and it is common practice by industry to supplement with urea. Supplying an equivalent dose of nitrogen using nitrate as an alternative to urea has been demonstrated in cattle without adverse impacts upon animal productivity or health. These findings may not be directly applicable to grazing cattle in northern Australian because the diets and feeding management are not representative of the region. Nitrite toxicity can result from feeding nitrates to livestock and there is evidence that the composition of the total diet and feeding pattern influences the risk of toxicity. If nitrate supplementation in grazing beef cattle in northern Australia can be demonstrated to reduce methane and be applied safely, adoption rates will still depend on carbon market pricing. Current modelling suggests that the cost of supplementing beef cows with nitrate in northern Australia would be at least double the cost of urea supplementation.
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Panchasara, Heena, Nahidul Hoque Samrat, and Nahina Islam. "Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trends and Mitigation Measures in Australian Agriculture Sector—A Review." Agriculture 11, no. 2 (January 20, 2021): 85. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020085.
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Agriculture is an important source of greenhouse gas emissions. It is one of the economic sectors that impacts both directly and indirectly towards climate change which contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. There has been a continuous trend of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions reduction technologies, but any step taken in this direction must not negatively affect farm productivity and economics. For the agriculture sector to achieve reduced GHG emission, climate-smart activities and improved food security will be needed for this sector to become a climate-smart landscape. Climate-smart technologies are effective at targeting inputs to the fields, helping to lower greenhouse gas emissions. This article explores the key sources of carbon emissions within the agriculture sector and reviews efficient ways to GHG emission via Smart Farming technology. Based on the public archive GHG datasets, we have found that livestock farming is the largest GHG emission sector among other agricultural sectors and responsible for 70% of the total emission. Besides, we also show that Queensland is the largest agricultural GHG contributor compared to other states and territories. The article also captures any possible sources within smart farming that may contribute to carbon emissions and suggest ways to reduce GHG emissions. Besides, an Australian-based best management practice approach is discussed to review the emissions reduction strategy based on climate-specific technology to help the farmers and other stakeholders take environmentally-friendly agricultural decisions.
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Rashti, M. Rezaei, W. J. Wang, S. M. Harper, P. W. Moody, C. R. Chen, H. Ghadiri, and S. H. Reeves. "Strategies to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions in intensively managed vegetable cropping systems in subtropical Australia." Soil Research 53, no. 5 (2015): 475. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr14355.
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The greenhouse gas fluxes and effective mitigation strategies in subtropical vegetable cropping systems remain unclear. In this field experiment, nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) fluxes from an irrigated lettuce cropping system in subtropical Queensland, Australia, were measured using manual sampling chambers. Four treatments were included: Control (no fertiliser), U100 (100 kg N ha–1 as urea), U200 (200 kg N ha–1 as urea) and N100 (100 kg N ha–1 as nitrate-based fertilisers). The N fertilisers were applied in three splits and irrigation was delivered sparingly and frequently to keep soil moisture around the field capacity. The cumulative N2O emissions from the control, U100, U200 and N100 treatments over the 68-day cropping season were 30, 151, 206 and 68 g N2O-N ha–1, respectively. Methane emission and uptake were negligible. Using N2O emission from the Control treatment as the background emission, direct emission factors for U100, U200 and N100 treatments were 0.12%, 0.09% and 0.04% of applied fertiliser N, respectively. Soil ammonium (NH4+) concentration, instead of nitrate (NO3–) concentration, exhibited a significant correlation with N2O emissions at the site where the soil moisture was controlled within 50%–64% water-filled pore space. Furthermore, soil temperature rather than water content was the main regulating factor of N2O fluxes in the fertilised treatments. Fertiliser type and application rates had no significant effects on yield parameters. Partial N balance analysis indicated that approximately 80% and 52% of fertiliser N was recovered in plants and soil in the treatments receiving 100 kg N ha–1 and 200 kg N ha–1, respectively. Therefore, in combination with frequent and low-intensity irrigation and split application of fertiliser N, substitution of NO3–-based fertilisers for urea and reduction in fertiliser N application rates were considered promising mitigation strategies to maintain yield and minimise N2O emissions during the low rainfall season.
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Doran-Browne, Natalie, Mark Wootton, Chris Taylor, and Richard Eckard. "Offsets required to reduce the carbon balance of sheep and beef farms through carbon sequestration in trees and soils." Animal Production Science 58, no. 9 (2018): 1648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an16438.
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The sustainability of farming is important to ensure that natural resources remain available into the future. Ruminant livestock production generates more greenhouse gas emissions than other types of agricultural production and most livestock mitigation options to date have a modest greenhouse gas reduction potential (<20%). Trees and soils, by comparison, can sequester large amounts of carbon depending on the availability of land. Previous studies on carbon neutral livestock production have shown that farms with a stocking rate of 8 dry sheep equivalents (DSE)/ha can be carbon neutral or carbon positive by sequestering more carbon than is emitted from the farm. However, the carbon offsets required by farms with higher stocking rates (>20 DSE/ha) has yet to be studied in Australia. The challenge is to sequester enough carbon to offset the higher level of emissions that these higher stocked farms produce. This study calculated the carbon balance of wool, prime lamb and beef enterprises using a range of stocking rates (6–22 DSE/ha) and levels of tree cover in two agroecological zones. Emissions from livestock, energy and transport were offset by the carbon sequestered in trees and soils. Additionally, the carbon balance was calculated of a case study, Jigsaw Farms, an intensive sheep and beef farm in south-eastern Australia. The methods used to calculate emissions and carbon stocks were from the Australian National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. The majority of stocking rates were carbon positive over a 25-year period when 20% of the sheep or beef enterprises were covered with trees. This study demonstrated that substantial reductions can be made in greenhouse gas emissions through the use of carbon sequestration, particularly in trees. The results showed that from 2000 to 2014 Jigsaw Farms reduced its emissions by 48% by sequestering carbon in trees and soil. The analysis of different stocking rates and tree cover provides an important reference point for farmers, researchers and policy analysts to estimate the carbon balance of wool, prime lamb and beef enterprises based on stocking rate and the area of tree cover.
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James, Adrian R., and Matthew T. Harrison. "Adoptability and effectiveness of livestock emission reduction techniques in Australia’s temperate high-rainfall zone." Animal Production Science 56, no. 3 (2016): 393. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an15578.
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Significant research has been conducted on greenhouse gas emissions mitigation techniques for ruminant livestock farming, however putting these techniques into practice on-farm requires consideration of adoptability by livestock producers. We modelled the adoptability of a range of livestock greenhouse gas abatement techniques using data from farm case studies and industry surveys, then compared the effectiveness of several techniques in reducing emissions intensity and net farm emissions. The influence of the Australian Government Emissions Reduction Fund on adoptability was included by modelling techniques with and without the requirements of an Australian Government Emissions Reduction Fund project. Modelled adoption results were compared with data obtained from surveys of livestock farmers in northern Tasmania, Australia. Maximum adoption levels of the greenhouse gas mitigation techniques ranged from 34% to 95% and the time required to reach 90% of the peak adoption levels ranged from 3.9 to 14.9 years. Techniques with the lowest adoption levels included providing supplements to optimise rumen energy : protein ratio and feeding high-lipid diets. Techniques with the highest adoptability involved improved ewe reproductive efficiency, with more fertile flocks having higher adoption rates. Increasing liveweight gain of young stock so animals reached slaughter liveweight 5–7 weeks earlier (early finishing) and joining maiden ewes at 8 months instead of 18 months had the fastest adoption rates. Techniques which increased net emissions and reduced emissions per liveweight sold (emissions intensity) had higher adoptability due to profit advantages associated with greater meat and wool production, whereas some techniques that reduced both net emissions and emissions intensity had lower adoptability and/or longer delays before peak adoption because of complexity and costs associated with implementation, or lack of extension information. Techniques that included an Australian Government Emissions Reduction Fund project had reduced maximum adoption levels and reduced rate of adoption due to difficulty of implementation and higher cost. Adopting pastures with condensed tannins reduced net emissions, emissions intensity and had high adoption potential, but had a long delay before peak adoption levels were attained, suggesting the technique may be worthy of increased development and extension investment. These results will be of benefit to livestock farmers, policymakers and extension practitioners. Programs designed to mitigate livestock greenhouse gas should consider potential adoption rates by agricultural producers and time of implementation before embarking on new research themes.
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Suybeng, Bénédicte, Edward Charmley, Christopher P. Gardiner, Bunmi S. Malau-Aduli, and Aduli E. O. Malau-Aduli. "Methane Emissions and the Use of Desmanthus in Beef Cattle Production in Northern Australia." Animals 9, no. 8 (August 9, 2019): 542. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani9080542.
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The Australian beef industry is a major contributor to the economy with an estimated annual revenue generation of over seven billion dollars. The tropical state of Queensland accounted for 48% of Australian beef and veal production in 2018. As the third biggest beef exporter in the world, Australia supplies 3% of the world’s beef exports and its agricultural sector accounts for an estimated 13.2% of its total greenhouse gas emissions. About 71% of total agricultural emissions are in the form of methane and nitrous oxide. In this review, an overview of the carbon footprint of the beef cattle production system in northern Australia is presented, with emphasis on the mitigation of greenhouse gases. The review also focuses on the tropical legume, Desmanthus, one of the more promising nutritional supplements for methane abatement and improvement of animal growth performance. Among the review’s findings is the need to select environmentally well-adapted and vigorous tropical legumes containing tannins that can persistently survive under the harsh northern Australian conditions for driving animal performance, improving meat quality and reducing methane emissions. The paper argues that the use of appropriate legumes such as Desmanthus, is a natural and preferred alternative to the use of chemicals for the abatement of methane emanating from tropical beef cattle production systems. It also highlights current gaps in knowledge and new research opportunities for in vivo studies on the impact of Desmanthus on methane emissions of supplemented tropical beef cattle.
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Ang, Emelyn, and Munish Kumar. "Greenhouse gases emissions evaluation for prospective energy projects." APPEA Journal 62, no. 2 (May 13, 2022): S1—S6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/aj21106.
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Greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory assessment, monitoring and auditing is becoming increasingly routine in oil and gas project evaluations. Already, some companies carry an ‘internal’ carbon cost reflected in projected capital and operational expenditure. Early evaluation allows for optimal planning of GHG mitigation and economic analysis inclusive of carbon costs, allaying concerns of investors and lenders. The challenge in evaluating pre-development, however, is the lack of real data and thus, uncertainties in field production. In this paper, we demonstrate the use of a Monte Carlo probabilistic method to better account for uncertainties in production, gas-oil ratio (GOR) and operation loads in a case study of a prospective oil field in offshore Western Australia. We compared the results to the scenario-based deterministic GHG emissions evaluation of the same field and found the deterministic estimates to be extreme representatives of the range of possible emission quantities, due to GOR and production uncertainties. From a breakdown of annual emissions, we also identified the emissions from flaring of excess natural gas to be one of the most significant mitigatable sources of emissions, due to the unexpectedly large production of gas over the project lifetime. Avoiding the flaring of excess gases alone could reduce the project’s emissions by ~44%. Through identifying these key sources and uncertainties, we are able to flag such unexpected, mitigatable sources of emissions at an early stage and provide a representative range of projected emissions, thus assisting the operator to make informed decisions in the field development.
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Engelbrecht, Deborah, Wahidul K. Biswas, and Waqar Ahmad. "An evaluation of integrated spatial technology framework for greenhouse gas mitigation in grain production in Western Australia." Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (October 2013): 69–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.06.010.
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Naylor, T. A., S. G. Wiedemann, F. A. Phillips, B. Warren, E. J. McGahan, and C. M. Murphy. "Emissions of nitrous oxide, ammonia and methane from Australian layer-hen manure storage with a mitigation strategy applied." Animal Production Science 56, no. 9 (2016): 1367. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an15584.
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Greenhouse gas and ammonia emissions are important environmental impacts from manure management in the layer-hen industry. The present study aimed to quantify emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3) from layer-hen manure stockpiles, and assess the use of an impermeable cover as an option to mitigate emissions. Gaseous emissions of N2O, CH4 and NH3 were measured using open-path FTIR spectroscopy and the emission strengths were inferred using a backward Lagrangian stochastic model. Emission factors were calculated from the relationship between gaseous emissions and stockpile inputs over a 32-day measurement period. Total NH3 emissions were 5.97 ± 0.399 kg/t (control) and 0.732 ± 0.116 kg/t (mitigation), representing an 88% reduction due to mitigation. Total CH4 emissions from the mitigation stockpile were 0.0832 ± 0.0198 kg/t. Methane emissions from the control and N2O emissions (control and mitigation) were below detection. The mass of each stockpile was 27 820 kg (control) and 25 120 kg (mitigation), with a surface area of ~68 m2 and a volume of ~19 m3. Total manure nitrogen (N) and volatile solids (VS) were 25.2 and 25.8 kg/t N, and 139 and 106 kg/t VS for the control and mitigation stockpiles respectively. Emission factors for NH3 were 24% and 3% of total N for the control and mitigation respectively. Methane from the mitigation stockpile had a CH4 conversion factor of 0.3%. The stockpile cover was found to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 74% compared with the control treatment, primarily via reduced NH3 and associated indirect N2O emissions.
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Finn, Damien, Ram Dalal, and Athol Klieve. "Methane in Australian agriculture: current emissions, sources and sinks, and potential mitigation strategies." Crop and Pasture Science 66, no. 1 (2015): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp14116.
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Methane is a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential ~28 times that of carbon dioxide. Consequently, sources and sinks that influence the concentration of methane in the atmosphere are of great interest. In Australia, agriculture is the primary source of anthropogenic methane emissions (60.4% of national emissions, or 3 260 kt–1 methane year–1, between 1990 and 2011), and cropping and grazing soils represent Australia’s largest potential terrestrial methane sink. As of 2011, the expansion of agricultural soils, which are ~70% less efficient at consuming methane than undisturbed soils, to 59% of Australia’s land mass (456 Mha) and increasing livestock densities in northern Australia suggest negative implications for national methane flux. Plant biomass burning does not appear to have long-term negative effects on methane flux unless soils are converted for agricultural purposes. Rice cultivation contributes marginally to national methane emissions and this fluctuates depending on water availability. Significant available research into biological, geochemical and agronomic factors has been pertinent for developing effective methane mitigation strategies. We discuss methane-flux feedback mechanisms in relation to climate change drivers such as temperature, atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane concentrations, precipitation and extreme weather events. Future research should focus on quantifying the role of Australian cropping and grazing soils as methane sinks in the national methane budget, linking biodiversity and activity of methane-cycling microbes to environmental factors, and quantifying how a combination of climate change drivers will affect total methane flux in these systems.
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Campbell, David. "Application of an integrated multidisciplinary economic welfare approach to improved wellbeing through Aboriginal caring for country." Rangeland Journal 33, no. 4 (2011): 365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rj11025.
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The lands held by Aboriginal people are mostly located in the Australian desert, aside from pastoral country purchased under the Indigenous Land Corporation, they are among the least amenable to agricultural production. Social expectations regarding land use are undergoing a multifunctional transition with a move away from a focus on production, to increased amenity and conservation uses. This change means that Aboriginal people with cultural connections to country enjoy an absolute advantage in managing country through their application of land care involving Indigenous ecological knowledge. An integrated multidisciplinary economic welfare approach, based on data from northern Australia and the central Australian desert, is used to demonstrate the role Aboriginal people can play in caring for country. Such engagement can be to the advantage of Aboriginal people through a multiplicity of private and public good benefits, such as improving Aboriginal health, maintaining biodiversity, and the mitigation of climate change impacts through possible greenhouse gas biosequestration and the reduction of dust storms – which are an important vector of disease.
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Cottle, D. J., J. V. Nolan, and S. G. Wiedemann. "Ruminant enteric methane mitigation: a review." Animal Production Science 51, no. 6 (2011): 491. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an10163.
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In Australia, agriculture is responsible for ~17% of total greenhouse gas emissions with ruminants being the largest single source. However, agriculture is likely to be shielded from the full impact of any future price on carbon. In this review, strategies for reducing ruminant methane output are considered in relation to rumen ecology and biochemistry, animal breeding and management options at an animal, farm, or national level. Nutritional management strategies have the greatest short-term impact. Methanogenic microorganisms remove H2 produced during fermentation of organic matter in the rumen and hind gut. Cost-effective ways to change the microbial ecology to reduce H2 production, to re-partition H2 into products other than methane, or to promote methanotrophic microbes with the ability to oxidise methane still need to be found. Methods of inhibiting methanogens include: use of antibiotics; promoting viruses/bacteriophages; use of feed additives such as fats and oils, or nitrate salts, or dicarboxylic acids; defaunation; and vaccination against methanogens. Methods of enhancing alternative H2 using microbial species include: inoculating with acetogenic species; feeding highly digestible feed components favouring ‘propionate fermentations’; and modifying rumen conditions. Conditions that sustain acetogen populations in kangaroos and termites, for example, are poorly understood but might be extended to ruminants. Mitigation strategies are not in common use in extensive grazing systems but dietary management or use of growth promotants can reduce methane output per unit of product. New, natural compounds that reduce rumen methane output may yet be found. Smaller but more permanent benefits are possible using genetic approaches. The indirect selection criterion, residual feed intake, when measured on ad libitum grain diets, has limited relevance for grazing cattle. There are few published estimates of genetic parameters for feed intake and methane production. Methane-related single nucleotide polymorphisms have yet to be used commercially. As a breeding objective, the use of methane/kg product rather than methane/head is recommended. Indirect selection via feed intake may be more cost-effective than via direct measurement of methane emissions. Life cycle analyses indicate that intensification is likely to reduce total greenhouse gas output but emissions and sequestration from vegetation and soil need to be addressed. Bio-economic modelling suggests most mitigation options are currently not cost-effective.
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Volkova, Liubov, C. P. Mick Meyer, Simon Murphy, Thomas Fairman, Fabienne Reisen, and Christopher Weston. "Fuel reduction burning mitigates wildfire effects on forest carbon and greenhouse gas emission." International Journal of Wildland Fire 23, no. 6 (2014): 771. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf14009.
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A high-intensity wildfire burnt through a dry Eucalyptus forest in south-eastern Australia that had been fuel reduced with fire 3 months prior, presenting a unique opportunity to measure the effects of fuel reduction (FR) on forest carbon and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from wildfires at the start of the fuel accumulation cycle. Less than 3% of total forest carbon to 30-cm soil depth was transferred to the atmosphere in FR burning; the subsequent wildfire transferred a further 6% to the atmosphere. There was a 9% loss in carbon for the FR–wildfire sequence. In nearby forest, last burnt 25 years previously, the wildfire burning transferred 16% of forest carbon to the atmosphere and was characterised by more complete combustion of all fuels and less surface charcoal deposition, compared with fuel-reduced forest. Compared to the fuel-reduced forests, release of non-CO2 GHG doubled following wildfire in long-unburnt forest. Although this is the maximum emission mitigation likely within a planned burning cycle, it suggests a significant potential for FR burns to mitigate GHG emissions in forests at high risk from wildfires.
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Dodd, Tracey, and Tim Nelson. "Trials and tribulations of market responses to climate change: Insight through the transformation of the Australian electricity market." Australian Journal of Management 44, no. 4 (September 13, 2019): 614–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0312896219874096.
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We analyse the energy transition from coal to renewable. Our research contributes to the literature on transitions and grand challenges. Mitigating the effects of dangerous human-induced climate change requires Australia to adopt a ‘carbon budget’ of no more than 10 Gt between 2015 and 2050. To achieve this, the Australian electricity sector must reduce greenhouse gas emissions to at least net zero emissions by 2050. Australia’s strategic response to climate change will have a significant influence on greenhouse gas emissions across Asia and the Pacific. The transition to renewables has proved difficult. The Liddell case study, involving closure of an ageing coal-fired power station, shows how the transition was impeded by institutional decisions. While firm-level actors recognised opportunities, regulators resisted the transition. Our research illustrates that transitions for grand challenges may require a relational stakeholder review, beyond the concept of short-term win–wins. JEL Classification: L02, D02, Q05
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Henry, Beverley, Ed Charmley, Richard Eckard, John B. Gaughan, and Roger Hegarty. "Livestock production in a changing climate: adaptation and mitigation research in Australia." Crop and Pasture Science 63, no. 3 (2012): 191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp11169.
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Climate change presents a range of challenges for animal agriculture in Australia. Livestock production will be affected by changes in temperature and water availability through impacts on pasture and forage crop quantity and quality, feed-grain production and price, and disease and pest distributions. This paper provides an overview of these impacts and the broader effects on landscape functionality, with a focus on recent research on effects of increasing temperature, changing rainfall patterns, and increased climate variability on animal health, growth, and reproduction, including through heat stress, and potential adaptation strategies. The rate of adoption of adaptation strategies by livestock producers will depend on perceptions of the uncertainty in projected climate and regional-scale impacts and associated risk. However, management changes adopted by farmers in parts of Australia during recent extended drought and associated heatwaves, trends consistent with long-term predicted climate patterns, provide some insights into the capacity for practical adaptation strategies. Animal production systems will also be significantly affected by climate change policy and national targets to address greenhouse gas emissions, since livestock are estimated to contribute ~10% of Australia’s total emissions and 8–11% of global emissions, with additional farm emissions associated with activities such as feed production. More than two-thirds of emissions are attributed to ruminant animals. This paper discusses the challenges and opportunities facing livestock industries in Australia in adapting to and mitigating climate change. It examines the research needed to better define practical options to reduce the emissions intensity of livestock products, enhance adaptation opportunities, and support the continued contribution of animal agriculture to Australia’s economy, environment, and regional communities.
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Hayman, Peter, Lauren Rickards, Richard Eckard, and Deirdre Lemerle. "Climate change through the farming systems lens: challenges and opportunities for farming in Australia." Crop and Pasture Science 63, no. 3 (2012): 203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp11196.
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Adaptation to and mitigation of climate change in Australian agriculture has included research at the plant, animal, and soil level; the farming system level; and the community and landscape level. This paper focuses on the farming systems level at which many of the impacts of a changing climate will be felt. This is also the level where much of the activity relating to adaptation and mitigation can usefully be analysed and at which existing adaptive capacity provides a critical platform for further efforts. In this paper, we use a framework of nested hierarchies introduced by J. Passioura four decades ago to highlight the need for research, development and extension (RDE) on climate change at the farming systems level to build on more fundamental soil, plant, and animal sciences and to link into higher themes of rural sociology and landscape science. The many questions asked by those managing farming systems can be categorised under four broad headings: (1) climate projections at a local scale, (2) impacts of climate projections on existing farming systems, (3) adaptation options, and (4) risks and opportunities from policies to reduce emissions. These questions are used as a framework to identify emerging issues for RDE in Australian farming systems, including the complex balance in on-farm strategies between adapting to climate change and reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. Climate is recognised as one of the defining features of different farming systems in Australia. It follows that if the climate changes, farming systems will have to shift, adapt, or be transformed into a different land use. Given that Australian farming systems have been adaptive in the past, we address the question of the extent to which research on adaptation to climate change in farming systems is different or additional to research on farming systems in a variable climate.
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Iram, Naima, Emad Kavehei, Damien T. Maher, Stuart E. Bunn, Mehran Rezaei Rashti, Bahareh Shahrabi Farahani, and Maria Fernanda Adame. "Soil greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical coastal wetlands and alternative agricultural land uses." Biogeosciences 18, no. 18 (September 16, 2021): 5085–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-5085-2021.
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Abstract. Coastal wetlands are essential for regulating the global carbon budget through soil carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas (GHG – CO2, CH4, and N2O) fluxes. The conversion of coastal wetlands to agricultural land alters these fluxes' magnitude and direction (uptake/release). However, the extent and drivers of change of GHG fluxes are still unknown for many tropical regions. We measured soil GHG fluxes from three natural coastal wetlands – mangroves, salt marsh, and freshwater tidal forests – and two alternative agricultural land uses – sugarcane farming and pastures for cattle grazing (ponded and dry conditions). We assessed variations throughout different climatic conditions (dry–cool, dry–hot, and wet–hot) within 2 years of measurements (2018–2020) in tropical Australia. The wet pasture had by far the highest CH4 emissions with 1231±386 mgm-2d-1, which were 200-fold higher than any other site. Dry pastures and sugarcane were the highest emitters of N2O with 55±9 mgm-2d-1 (wet–hot period) and 11±3 mgm-2d-1 (hot-dry period, coinciding with fertilisation), respectively. Dry pastures were also the highest emitters of CO2 with 20±1 gm-2d-1 (wet–hot period). The three coastal wetlands measured had lower emissions, with salt marsh uptake of -0.55±0.23 and -1.19±0.08 gm-2d-1 of N2O and CO2, respectively, during the dry–hot period. During the sampled period, sugarcane and pastures had higher total cumulative soil GHG emissions (CH4+N2O) of 7142 and 56 124 CO2-eqkgha-1yr-1 compared to coastal wetlands with 144 to 884 CO2-eqkgha-1yr-1 (where CO2-eq is CO2 equivalent). Restoring unproductive sugarcane land or pastures (especially ponded ones) to coastal wetlands could provide significant GHG mitigation.
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Cottle, David, and Richard Eckard. "Modelling the reduction in enteric methane from voluntary intake versus controlled individual animal intake of lipid or nitrate supplements." Animal Production Science 54, no. 12 (2014): 2121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an14464.
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In 2011, the Australian government introduced a voluntary carbon offset scheme called the Carbon Farming Initiative (CFI), which provides an incentive mechanism for farmers to earn carbon credits by lowering greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions or sequestering carbon. In Australia, there is now interest in developing offset methods for controlled feeding of lipids or nitrates to livestock, where individual animal daily supplement intake is controlled and recorded. Carbon offset methodologies are being drafted that require the impact of voluntary versus controlled feeding of these supplements on methane mitigation to be modelled. This paper presents modelling results and tests the hypothesis that controlled feeding would result in higher mitigation than would voluntary, uncontrolled feeding. Controlled feeding with all animals either having the same average supplement intake (C1) or having a controlled maximum intake (C2) resulted in higher herd- or flock-scale methane mitigation than did voluntary, uncontrolled feeding (VFI) from the same total amount of supplement fed. The percentage reductions in methane from C1 and C2 feeding patterns versus VFI were relatively greater at higher levels of both lipid and nitrate supplementation. The modelled effect of higher methane production from VFI than from C1 or C2 was larger for nitrate than for lipid supplements. Controlled feeding can be expected to result in a far more even and consistent intake per animal than from VFI. Any supplementation aimed at reducing enteric methane is therefore more effectively administered through some form of controlled feeding. Also, due to the potential toxicity from excess intake of nitrate, controlled supplementation is far less likely to lead to excessive intake and toxicity.
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Bai, Mei, David W. T. Griffith, Frances A. Phillips, Travis Naylor, Stephanie K. Muir, Sean M. McGinn, and Deli Chen. "Correlations of methane and carbon dioxide concentrations from feedlot cattle as a predictor of methane emissions." Animal Production Science 56, no. 1 (2016): 108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an14550.
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Accurate measurements of methane (CH4) emissions from feedlot cattle are required for verifying greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting and mitigation strategies. We investigate a new method for estimating CH4 emissions by examining the correlation between CH4 and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations from two beef cattle feedlots in Australia representing southern temperate and northern subtropical locations. Concentrations of CH4 and CO2 were measured at the two feedlots during summer and winter, using open-path Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. There was a strong correlation for the concentrations above background of CH4 and CO2 with concentration ratios of 0.008 to 0.044 ppm/ppm (R2 >0.90). The CH4/CO2 concentration ratio varied with animal diet and ambient temperature. The CH4/CO2 concentration ratio provides an alternative method to estimate CH4 emissions from feedlots when combined with CO2 production derived from metabolisable energy or heat production.
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Baldock, J. A., I. Wheeler, N. McKenzie, and A. McBrateny. "Soils and climate change: potential impacts on carbon stocks and greenhouse gas emissions, and future research for Australian agriculture." Crop and Pasture Science 63, no. 3 (2012): 269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp11170.
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Organic carbon and nitrogen found in soils are subject to a range of biological processes capable of generating or consuming greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O and CH4). In response to the strong impact that agricultural management can have on the amount of organic carbon and nitrogen stored in soil and their rates of biological cycling, soils have the potential to reduce or enhance concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Concern also exists over the potential positive feedback that a changing climate may have on rates of greenhouse gas emission from soil. Climate projections for most of the agricultural regions of Australia suggest a warmer and drier future with greater extremes relative to current climate. Since emissions of greenhouse gases from soil derive from biological processes that are sensitive to soil temperature and water content, climate change may impact significantly on future emissions. In this paper, the potential effects of climate change and options for adaptation and mitigations will be considered, followed by an assessment of future research requirements. The paper concludes by suggesting that the diversity of climate, soil types, and agricultural practices in place across Australia will make it difficult to define generic scenarios for greenhouse gas emissions. Development of a robust modelling capability will be required to construct regional and national emission assessments and to define the potential outcomes of on-farm management decisions and policy decisions. This model development will require comprehensive field datasets to calibrate the models and validate model outputs. Additionally, improved spatial layers of model input variables collected on a regular basis will be required to optimise accounting at regional to national scales.
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Doran-Browne, Natalie A., John Ive, Phillip Graham, and Richard J. Eckard. "Carbon-neutral wool farming in south-eastern Australia." Animal Production Science 56, no. 3 (2016): 417. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an15541.
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Ruminant livestock production generates higher levels of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) compared with other types of farming. Therefore, it is desirable to reduce or offset those emissions where possible. Although mitigation options exist that reduce ruminant GHGE through the use of feed management, flock structure or breeding management, these options only reduce the existing emissions by up to 30% whereas planting trees and subsequent carbon sequestration in trees and soil has the potential for livestock emissions to be offset in their entirety. Trees can introduce additional co-benefits that may increase production such as reduced salinity and therefore increased pasture production, shelter for animals or reduced erosion. Trees will also use more water and compete with pastures for water and light. Therefore, careful planning is required to locate trees where the co-benefits can be maximised instead of any negative trade-offs. This study analysed the carbon balance of a wool case study farm, Talaheni, in south-eastern Australia to determine if the farm was carbon neutral. The Australian National Greenhouse Gas Inventory was used to calculate GHGE and carbon stocks, with national emissions factors used where available, and otherwise figures from the IPCC methodology being used. Sources of GHGE were from livestock, energy and fuel, and carbon stocks were present in the trees and soil. The results showed that from when the farm was purchased in 1980–2012 the farm had sequestered 11 times more carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) in trees and soil than was produced by livestock and energy. Between 1980 and 2012 a total of 31 100 t CO2e were sequestered with 19 300 and 11 800 t CO2e in trees and soil, respectively, whereas farm emissions totalled 2800 t CO2e. There was a sufficient increase in soil carbon stocks alone to offset all GHGE at the study site. This study demonstrated that there are substantial gains to be made in soil carbon stocks where initial soils are eroded and degraded and there is the opportunity to increase soil carbon either through planting trees or introducing perennial pastures to store more carbon under pastures. Further research would be beneficial on the carbon-neutral potential of farms in more fertile, high-rainfall areas. These areas typically have higher stocking rates than the present study and would require higher levels of carbon stocks for the farm to be carbon neutral.
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Schwenke, Graeme D., Philippa M. Brock, Bruce M. Haigh, and David F. Herridge. "Greenhouse gas emission reductions in subtropical cereal-based cropping sequences using legumes, DMPP-coated urea and split timings of urea application." Soil Research 56, no. 7 (2018): 724. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr18108.
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To contribute to national greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) reduction targets, grain growers need strategies that minimise emissions associated with grain production. We used life cycle assessments (LCAs) with field-measured production inputs, grain yields and proteins, legume nitrogen (N2) fixation, and soil nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) emissions, to explore mitigation strategies in 3-year crop sequences in subtropical Australia. The sequences were: canola plus 80 kg/ha fertiliser nitrogen (80N)–wheat 85N–barley 65N (CaNWtNBaN), chickpea 0N–wheat 85N–barley 5N (CpWtNBa), chickpea 0N–wheat 5N–chickpea 5N (CpWtCp), and chickpea 0N–sorghum 45N (CpSgN). We also assessed the impacts of split fertiliser N application and urea coated with DMPP, a nitrification inhibitor, on the LCA for the CaNWtNBaN sequence. Total pre-farm plus on-farm GHG emissions varied between 915 CO2-e/ha (CpSgN) and 1890 CO2-e/ha (CaNWtNBaN). Cumulative N2O emitted over the 3-year study varied between 0.479 kg N2O-N/ha (CpWtCp) and 1.400 kg N2O-N/ha (CaNWtNBaN), which constituted 24–44% of total GHG emissions. Fertiliser production accounted for 20% (CpSgN) to 30% (CaNWtNBaN) of total emissions. An extra 4.7 kg CO2-e/ha was emitted for each additional kg N/ha of applied N fertiliser. Three-year CH4 emissions ranged from −1.04 to −0.98 kg CH4-C/ha. Split N and DMPP strategies could reduce total GHG emissions of CaNWtNBaN by 17 and 28% respectively. Results of the study indicate considerable scope for reducing the carbon footprint of subtropical, dryland grains cropping in Australia.
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Vernooij, Roland, Marcos Giongo, Marco Assis Borges, Máximo Menezes Costa, Ana Carolina Sena Barradas, and Guido R. van der Werf. "Intraseasonal variability of greenhouse gas emission factors from biomass burning in the Brazilian Cerrado." Biogeosciences 18, no. 4 (February 23, 2021): 1375–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-1375-2021.
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Abstract. Landscape fires, often referred to as biomass burning (BB), emit substantial amounts of (greenhouse) gases and aerosols into the atmosphere each year. Frequently burning savannas, mostly in Africa, Australia, and South America are responsible for over 60 % of total BB carbon emissions. Compared to many other sources of emissions, fires have a strong seasonality. Previous research has identified the mitigation potential of prescribed fires in savanna ecosystems; by burning cured fuels early in the dry season when landscape conditions still provide moist buffers against fire spread, fires are in general smaller, patchier, and less intense. While it is widely accepted that burned area (BA) and the total carbon consumed are lower when fires are ignited early in the dry season, little is known about the intraseasonal variability of emission factors (EFs). This is important because potentially, higher EFs in the early dry season (EDS) could offset some of the carbon benefits of EDS burning. Also, a better understanding of EF intraseasonal variability may improve large-scale BB assessments, which to date rely on temporally static EFs. We used a sampling system mounted on an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) to sample BB smoke in the Estação Ecológica Serra Geral do Tocantins in the Brazilian states of Tocantins and Bahia. The protected area contains all major Cerrado vegetation types found in Brazil, and EDS burning has been implemented since 2014. Over 800 smoke samples were collected and analysed during the EDS of 2018 and late dry season (LDS) of 2017 and 2018. The samples were analysed using cavity ring-down spectroscopy, and the carbon balance method was used to estimate CO2, CO, CH4, and N2O EFs. Observed EF averages and standard deviations were 1651 (±50) g kg−1 for CO2, 57.9 (±28.2) g kg−1 for CO, 0.97 (±0.82) g kg−1 for CH4, and 0.096 (±0.174) g kg−1 for N2O. Averaged over all measured fire prone Cerrado types, the modified combustion efficiency (MCE) was slightly higher in the LDS (0.961 versus 0.956), and the CO and CH4 were 10 % and 2.3 % lower in the LDS compared to the EDS. However, these differences were not statistically significant using a two-tailed t test with unequal variance at a 90 % significance level. The seasonal effect was larger in more wood-dominated vegetation types. N2O EFs showed a more complex seasonal dependency, with opposite intraseasonal trends for savannas that were dominated by grasses versus those with abundant shrubs. We found that the N2O EF for the open Cerrado was less than half the EF suggested by literature compilations for savannas. This may indicate a substantial overestimation of the contribution of fires in the N2O budget. Overall, our data imply that in this region, seasonal variability in greenhouse gas emission factors may offset only a small fraction of the carbon mitigation gains in fire abatement programmes.
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Dang, Nhi Yen Thi, Heung-Sik Park, Kaleem Anwar Mir, Choong-Gon Kim, and Seungdo Kim. "Greenhouse Gas Emission Model for Tidal Flats in the Republic of Korea." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 9, no. 11 (October 27, 2021): 1181. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse9111181.
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Since coastal wetlands have been severely degraded and polluted by human activities, they have increasingly become a significant source of greenhouse gases (GHGs), so understanding the characteristics of their emissions is critical for devising future climate change mitigation strategies. This study modified a model based on carbon balance to forecast carbon stored and CO2, CH4 emissions in four types of typical tidal flats—Phragmites australis (PA), Spartina alterniflora (SA), Suaeda japonica (SJ), and Bare Tidal Flat (BTF) in Korea’s Ganghwa province from 2017 to 2047. The model was built using biomass data from salt plant species collected in different locations. The results indicate that the total annual simulated flow of CH4 increased over time in all four areas, most notably in SA, while CO2 remained relatively stable. The mean CO2 and CH4 fluxes in the four types of representative tidal flats were in the range of 0.03 to 19.1 mg m−2 d−1 and 0.007 to 5.23 mg m−2 d−1, respectively, across all seasons. Besides, the results indicate that the amount of carbon accumulated in the top soil increases linearly over time in nearly all areas studied, ranging from 0.01 to 0.13 (kgC m−2 yr−1). In general, the study provides a model for Korean tidal flats that incorporates carbon storage and GHG emissions in the intertidal zone in order to develop potential GHG reduction scenarios.
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Preston, Brian J. "The influence of climate change litigation on governments and the private sector." Climate Law 2, no. 4 (2011): 485–513. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/cl-2011-048.
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In recent years, the number of court cases around theworld raising the issue of climate change has increased dramatically, especially in jurisdictions that have not yet adopted effective national responses to climate change, such as Australia and the United States. In these countries, litigation provides an alternative path to encourage mitigation of the causes and adaptation to the effects of climate change. In Australia, much of the litigation, particularly the early climate change cases, has taken place in state courts or administrative tribunals, and has focused on applying existing legislation to require government decision-makers to consider future climate-associated risks in planning decisions. The influence of these cases have been wide reaching, leading to the revision or formulation of government policies on mining and coastal management. Other cases, particularly within federal courts, have been less successful, but have nonetheless highlighted areas in need of law reform. In the United States, recent high-profile cases targeting major sources of greenhouse gas emissions including power stations have raised novel arguments based on common law public nuisance grounds and the public trust doctrine. This article examines the extent to which climate change litigation, mainly in Australia, but also in the United States, has influenced government decision-makers, legislatures, and polluters to curb emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.
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Christie, K. M., R. P. Rawnsley, C. Phelps, and R. J. Eckard. "Revised greenhouse-gas emissions from Australian dairy farms following application of updated methodology." Animal Production Science 58, no. 5 (2018): 937. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an16286.
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Every year since 1990, the Australian Federal Government has estimated national greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions to meet Australia’s reporting commitments under the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGGI) methodology used to estimate Australia’s GHG emissions has altered over time, as new research data have been used to improve the inventory emission factors and algorithms, with the latest change occurring in 2015 for the 2013 reporting year. As measuring the GHG emissions on farm is expensive and time-consuming, the dairy industry is reliant on estimating emissions using tools such as the Australian Dairy Carbon Calculator (ADCC). The present study compared the emission profiles of 41 Australian dairy farms with ADCC using the old (pre-2015) and new (post-2015) NGGI methodologies to examine the impact of the changes on the emission intensity across a range of dairy-farm systems. The estimated mean (±s.d.) GHG emission intensity increased by 3.0%, to 1.07 (±0.02) kg of carbon dioxide equivalents per kilogram of fat-and-protein-corrected milk (kg CO2e/kg FPCM). When comparing the emission intensity between the old and new NGGI methodologies at a regional level, the change in emission intensity varied between a 4.6% decrease and 10.4% increase, depending on the region. When comparing the source of emissions between old and new NGGI methodologies across the whole dataset, methane emissions from enteric fermentation and waste management both increased, while nitrous oxide emissions from waste management and nitrogen fertiliser management, CO2 emissions from energy consumption and pre-farm gate (supplementary feed and fertilisers) emissions all declined. Enteric methane remains a high source of emissions and so will remain a focus for mitigation research. However, these changes to the NGGI methodology have highlighted a new ‘hotspot’ in methane from manure management. Researchers and farm managers will have greater need to identify and implement practices on-farm to reduce methane losses to the environment.
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Joblin, K. N. "Ruminal acetogens and their potential to lower ruminant methane emissions." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 50, no. 8 (1999): 1307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar99004.
Full textAbstract:
Ruminant methane is a major contributor to the anthropogenic greenhouse gas inventories of Australia and New Zealand. Direct intervention in the rumen offers one means for controlling ruminant methane emissions. In this respect, acetogenic bacteria (acetogens) normally present in the rumen are of interest because they have the potential to provide an alternative sink for H2, an essential intermediate in the formation of methane. Although little is known about the populations of acetogens in grazing ruminants, studies on ruminants fed diets containing concentrates or conserved forages indicate that the rumen contains a diversity of acetogens and that some of these have the potential to act as hydrogenotrophs in place of methanogens. This paper describes the current understanding of ruminal acetogens and outlines potential applications of acetogens in methane mitigation strategies. Strategies which use acetogens to outcompete and displace methanogens are considered less likely to be successful than strategies which use acetogens to maintain low H2 levels in the rumen following suppression of methanogens. However, the former cannot be completely discounted at present.
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Cottle, D., R. Eckard, S. Bray, and M. Sullivan. "An evaluation of carbon offset supplementation options for beef production systems on coastal speargrass in central Queensland, Australia." Animal Production Science 56, no. 3 (2016): 385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an15446.
Full textAbstract:
In 2014, the Australian Government implemented the Emissions Reduction Fund to offer incentives for businesses to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by following approved methods. Beef cattle businesses in northern Australia can participate by applying the ‘reducing GHG emissions by feeding nitrates to beef cattle’ methodology and the ‘beef cattle herd management’ methods. The nitrate (NO3) method requires that each baseline area must demonstrate a history of urea use. Projects earn Australian carbon credit units (ACCU) for reducing enteric methane emissions by substituting NO3 for urea at the same amount of fed nitrogen. NO3 must be fed in the form of a lick block because most operations do not have labour or equipment to manage daily supplementation. NO3 concentrations, after a 2-week adaptation period, must not exceed 50 g NO3/adult animal equivalent per day or 7 g NO3/kg dry matter intake per day to reduce the risk of NO3 toxicity. There is also a ‘beef cattle herd management’ method, approved in 2015, that covers activities that improve the herd emission intensity (emissions per unit of product sold) through change in the diet or management. The present study was conducted to compare the required ACCU or supplement prices for a 2% return on capital when feeding a low or high supplement concentration to breeding stock of either (1) urea, (2) three different forms of NO3 or (3) cottonseed meal (CSM), at N concentrations equivalent to 25 or 50 g urea/animal equivalent, to fasten steer entry to a feedlot (backgrounding), in a typical breeder herd on the coastal speargrass land types in central Queensland. Monte Carlo simulations were run using the software @risk, with probability functions used for (1) urea, NO3 and CSM prices, (2) GHG mitigation, (3) livestock prices and (4) carbon price. Increasing the weight of steers at a set turnoff month by feeding CSM was found to be the most cost-effective option, with or without including the offset income. The required ACCU prices for a 2% return on capital were an order of magnitude higher than were indicative carbon prices in 2015 for the three forms of NO3. The likely costs of participating in ERF projects would reduce the return on capital for all mitigation options.
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Harrison, Matthew T., Brendan R. Cullen, Nigel W. Tomkins, Chris McSweeney, Philip Cohn, and Richard J. Eckard. "The concordance between greenhouse gas emissions, livestock production and profitability of extensive beef farming systems." Animal Production Science 56, no. 3 (2016): 370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an15515.
Full textAbstract:
Here we examine the concordance among emissions, production and gross margins of extensive beef farming systems by modelling a range of scenarios for herd management, animal genotype and pasture nutritive quality. We based our simulations on a case-study farm in central Queensland, Australia, and studied the influence of interventions designed for emissions mitigation, increasing productivity, or increasing gross margin. Interventions included replacing urea supplementation with nitrate, finishing cattle on the perennial forage leucaena (L), herd structure optimisation (HO), higher female fecundity (HF), and a leucaena finishing enterprise that had net farm emissions equal to the baseline (leucaena equal emissions; LEE). The HO intervention reduced the ratio of breeding cows relative to steers and unmated heifers, and lowered the ratio of costs to net cattle sales. Gross margin of the baseline, nitrate, L, LEE, HO and HF scenarios were AU$146 000, AU$91 000, AU$153 000, AU$170 000, AU$204 000 and AU$216 000, respectively. Enterprises with early joining of maiden heifers as well as HO and HF further increased gross margin (AU$323 000), while systems incorporating all compatible interventions (HO, HF, early joining, LEE) had a gross margin of AU$315 000. We showed that interventions that increase liveweight turnoff while maintaining net farm emissions resulted in higher gross margins than did interventions that maintained liveweight production and reduced net emissions. A key insight of this work was that the relationship between emissions intensity (emissions per unit liveweight production) or liveweight turnoff with gross margin were negative and positive, respectively, but only when combinations of (compatible) interventions were included in the dataset. For example, herd optimisation by reducing the number of breeding cows and increasing the number of sale animals increased gross margin by 40%, but this intervention had little effect on liveweight turnoff and emissions intensity. However, when herd optimisation was combined with other interventions that increased production, gross margins increased and emissions intensity declined. This is a fortuitous outcome, since it implies that imposing more interventions with the potential to profitably enhance liveweight turnoff allows a greater reduction in emissions intensity, but only when each intervention works synergistically with those already in place.
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Haverd, V., M. R. Raupach, P. R. Briggs, J. G. Canadell, P. Isaac, C. Pickett-Heaps, S. H. Roxburgh, E. van Gorsel, R. A. Viscarra Rossel, and Z. Wang. "Multiple observation types reduce uncertainty in Australia's terrestrial carbon and water cycles." Biogeosciences Discussions 9, no. 9 (September 11, 2012): 12181–258. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-9-12181-2012.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract. Information about the carbon cycle potentially constrains the water cycle, and vice versa. This paper explores the utility of multiple observation sets to constrain a land surface model of Australian terrestrial carbon and water cycles, and the resulting mean carbon pools and fluxes, as well as their temporal and spatial variability. Observations include streamflow from 416 gauged catchments, measurements of evapotranspiration (ET) and net ecosystem production (NEP) from 12 eddy-flux sites, litterfall data, and data on carbon pools. By projecting residuals between observations and corresponding predictions onto uncertainty in model predictions at the continental scale, we find that eddy flux measurements provide a significantly tighter constraint on continental net primary production (NPP) than the other data types. Nonetheless, simultaneous constraint by multiple data types is important for mitigating bias from any single type. Four significant results emerging from the multiply-constrained model are that, for the 1990–2011 period: (i) on the Australian continent, a predominantly semi-arid region, over half the water loss through ET (0.64 ± 0.05) occurs through soil evaporation and bypasses plants entirely; (ii) mean Australian NPP is quantified at 2.2 ± 0.4 (1σ) Pg C yr−1; (iii) annually cyclic ("grassy") vegetation and persistent ("woody") vegetation account for 0.56 ± 0.14 and 0.43 ± 0.14, respectively of NPP across Australia; (iv) the average interannual variability of Australia's NEP (±0.18 Pg C yr−1, 1σ) is larger than Australia's total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2011 (0.149 Pg C equivalent yr−1), and is dominated by variability in Desert and Savanna regions.
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Haverd, V., M. R. Raupach, P. R. Briggs, J. G. Canadell, P. Isaac, C. Pickett-Heaps, S. H. Roxburgh, E. van Gorsel, R. A. Viscarra Rossel, and Z. Wang. "Multiple observation types reduce uncertainty in Australia's terrestrial carbon and water cycles." Biogeosciences 10, no. 3 (March 25, 2013): 2011–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-2011-2013.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract. Information about the carbon cycle potentially constrains the water cycle, and vice versa. This paper explores the utility of multiple observation sets to constrain a land surface model of Australian terrestrial carbon and water cycles, and the resulting mean carbon pools and fluxes, as well as their temporal and spatial variability. Observations include streamflow from 416 gauged catchments, measurements of evapotranspiration (ET) and net ecosystem production (NEP) from 12 eddy-flux sites, litterfall data, and data on carbon pools. By projecting residuals between observations and corresponding predictions onto uncertainty in model predictions at the continental scale, we find that eddy flux measurements provide a significantly tighter constraint on continental net primary production (NPP) than the other data types. Nonetheless, simultaneous constraint by multiple data types is important for mitigating bias from any single type. Four significant results emerging from the multiply-constrained model are that, for the 1990–2011 period: (i) on the Australian continent, a predominantly semi-arid region, over half the water loss through ET (0.64 ± 0.05) occurs through soil evaporation and bypasses plants entirely; (ii) mean Australian NPP is quantified at 2.2 ± 0.4 (1σ) Pg C yr−1; (iii) annually cyclic ("grassy") vegetation and persistent ("woody") vegetation account for 0.67 ± 0.14 and 0.33 ± 0.14, respectively, of NPP across Australia; (iv) the average interannual variability of Australia's NEP (±0.18 Pg C yr−1, 1σ) is larger than Australia's total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2011 (0.149 Pg C equivalent yr–1), and is dominated by variability in desert and savanna regions.
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Moate, Peter J., Matthew H. Deighton, S. Richard O. Williams, Jennie E. Pryce, Ben J. Hayes, Joe L. Jacobs, Richard J. Eckard, Murray C. Hannah, and William J. Wales. "Reducing the carbon footprint of Australian milk production by mitigation of enteric methane emissions." Animal Production Science 56, no. 7 (2016): 1017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an15222.
Full textAbstract:
This review examines research aimed at reducing enteric methane emissions from the Australian dairy industry. Calorimeter measurements of 220 forage-fed cows indicate an average methane yield of 21.1 g methane (CH4)/kg dry matter intake. Adoption of this empirical methane yield, rather than the equation currently used in the Australian greenhouse gas inventory, would reduce the methane emissions attributed to the Australian dairy industry by ~10%. Research also indicates that dietary lipid supplements and feeding high amounts of wheat substantially reduce methane emissions. It is estimated that, in 1980, the Australian dairy industry produced ~185 000 t of enteric methane and total enteric methane intensity was ~33.6 g CH4/kg milk. In 2010, the estimated production of enteric methane was 182 000 t, but total enteric methane intensity had declined ~40% to 19.9 g CH4/kg milk. This remarkable decline in methane intensity and the resultant improvement in the carbon footprint of Australian milk production was mainly achieved by increased per-cow milk yield, brought about by the on-farm adoption of research findings related to the feeding and breeding of dairy cows. Options currently available to further reduce the carbon footprint of Australian milk production include the feeding of lipid-rich supplements such as cottonseed, brewers grains, cold-pressed canola, hominy meal and grape marc, as well as feeding of higher rates of wheat. Future technologies for further reducing methane emissions include genetic selection of cows for improved feed conversion to milk or low methane intensity, vaccines to reduce ruminal methanogens and chemical inhibitors of methanogenesis.
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White, Robert E. "The Role of Soil Carbon Sequestration as a Climate Change Mitigation Strategy: An Australian Case Study." Soil Systems 6, no. 2 (May 9, 2022): 46. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6020046.
Full textAbstract:
Soil carbon sequestration (SCS) is a key priority in the Australian government’s Long-Term Emissions Reduction Plan. Under the government’s Emission Reduction Fund (ERF), farmers are encouraged to change to a management practice that will increase their soil carbon (C) stock and earn Australian Carbon Credit Units (ACCUs). The projections of net C abatement nationally range from 17 to 103 Mt carbon dioxide equivalent annually up to 2050. This huge range reflects the uncertainties in achieving net SCS due to biophysical constraints, such as those imposed by the paucity and variability of Australian rainfall and the difficulty of measuring small changes in soil C stock. The uptake by farmers is also uncertain because of compliance costs, opportunity costs of a practice change and the loss of business flexibility when a farmer must commit to a 25-year permanence period. Since the program’s inception in 2014, only one soil C project has been awarded ACCUs. Nevertheless, an increase in soil C is generally beneficial for farm productivity. As a voluntary C market evolves, the government is expecting that farmers will sell their ACCUs to businesses seeking to offset their greenhouse gas emissions. The risk is that, in buying cheap offsets, businesses will not then invest in new energy-efficient technologies to reduce their emissions at source.
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Maraseni, Tek, and Kathryn Reardon-Smith. "Meeting National Emissions Reduction Obligations: A Case Study of Australia." Energies 12, no. 3 (January 30, 2019): 438. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en12030438.
Full textAbstract:
Akin to a public good, emissions reduction suffers from the ‘free rider’ syndrome. Although many countries claim that they are meeting their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction commitments, the average global temperature and GHG emissions continue to rise. This has led to growing speculation that some countries may be taking advantage of the system by effectively exploiting a range of loopholes in global agreements. Using a case study approach, we critically review the evidence from Australia, exploring how Australia has participated in global climate change negotiations and the way in which this emissions intensive country’s national emissions reduction obligations have been met. The findings suggest that: (1) successful negotiation to include Article 3.7 (‘Adjusting the 1990 Baseline’ or ‘the Australia Clause’) in the Kyoto Protocol significantly favored Australia’s ability to meet its First Kyoto Commitment (2008–2012); and (2) successful bargaining for the accounting rule that allowed carbon credits from the first commitment period to be carried over to the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol benefitted Australia by 128 MtCO2e. At the national level, a lack of bipartisan political support for an effective mechanism to drive emissions reduction has also been problematic. While the introduction of the Carbon Pricing Mechanism (CPM) in 2012 reduced emissions from electricity production from about 199.1 MtCO2e to 180.8 MtCO2e in 2014, a change of government led to the abolition of the CPM in 2014 and emissions from electricity production subsequently rose to 187 MtCO2e in 2015 and 189 MtCO2e in 2016 with adverse impacts in many sectors as well as Australia’s overall emissions. The current Australian government continues to undermine its commitment to mitigation and the integrity and credibility of its own emissions reductions policy, introducing a softer ‘calculated baseline’ for its own Safeguard Mechanism, which allows companies to upwardly adjust their calculated baselines on the basis of their highest expected emissions, permitting emissions in excess of their historical emissions. While disappointing in the context of the global emissions reduction project, Australia’s actions are sadly not unique and we also provide examples of loopholes exploited by countries participating in a range of other negotiations and emissions reduction projects. Such strategies undoubtedly serve the short-term political and economic interests of these countries; however, it is increasingly apparent that the cumulative impact of such tactics will ultimately impact the entire global community.
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Cowie, Annette, Richard Eckard, and Sandra Eady. "Greenhouse gas accounting for inventory, emissions trading and life cycle assessment in the land-based sector: a review." Crop and Pasture Science 63, no. 3 (2012): 284. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp11188.
Full textAbstract:
Governments, organisations and individuals have recognised the need to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To identify where savings can be made, and to monitor progress in reducing emissions, we need methodologies to quantify GHG emissions and sequestration. Through the Australian Government’s Carbon Farming Initiative (CFI) landholders may generate credits for reducing emissions and/or sequestering carbon (C). National GHG inventories for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and accounting under the Kyoto Protocol use a sectoral approach. For example, fuel use in agriculture is reported in the transport component of the energy sector; energy use in producing herbicide and fertiliser is included in the manufacturing section of the energy sector; sequestration in farm forestry is reported in the land use, land-use change and forestry sector, while emissions reported in the agriculture sector include methane (CH4) from ruminant livestock, nitrous oxide (N2O) from soils, and non-carbon dioxide (CO2) GHG from stubble and savannah burning. In contrast, project-level accounting for CFI includes land-use change, forestry and agricultural sector emissions, and significant direct inputs such as diesel and electricity. A C footprint calculation uses a life cycle approach, including all the emissions associated with an organisation, activity or product. The C footprint of a food product includes the upstream emissions from manufacturing fertiliser and other inputs, fuel use in farming operations, transport, processing and packaging, distribution to consumers, electricity use in refrigeration and food preparation, and waste disposal. Methods used to estimate emissions range from simple empirical emissions factors, to complex process-based models. Methods developed for inventory and emissions trading must balance the need for sufficient accuracy to give confidence to the market, with practical aspects such as ease and expense of data collection. Requirements for frequent on-ground monitoring and third party verification of soil C or livestock CH4 estimates, for example, may incur costs that would negate the financial benefit of credits earned, and could also generate additional GHG emissions. Research is required to develop practical on-farm measures of CH4 and N2O, and methods to quantify C in environmental plantings, agricultural soils and rangeland ecosystems, to improve models for estimation and prediction of GHG emissions, and enable baseline assessment. There is a need for whole-farm level estimation tools that accommodate regional and management differences in emissions and sequestration to support landholders in managing net emissions from their farming enterprises. These on-farm ‘bottom-up’ accounting tools must align with the ‘top-down’ national account. To facilitate assessment of C footprints for food and fibre products, Australia also needs a comprehensive life cycle inventory database. This paper reviews current methods and approaches used for quantifying GHG emissions for the land-based sectors in the context of emissions reporting, emissions trading and C footprinting, and proposes possible improvements. We emphasise that cost-effective yet credible GHG estimation methods are needed to encourage participation in voluntary offset schemes such as the CFI, and thereby achieve maximum mitigation in the land-based sector.
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Allen, D. E., D. S. Mendham, Bhupinderpal-Singh, A. Cowie, W. Wang, R. C. Dalal, and R. J. Raison. "Nitrous oxide and methane emissions from soil are reduced following afforestation of pasture lands in three contrasting climatic zones." Soil Research 47, no. 5 (2009): 443. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr08151.
Full textAbstract:
Land use change from agriculture to forestry offers potential opportunities for carbon (C) sequestration and thus partial mitigation of increasing levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. The effects of land use change of grazed pastures on in situ fluxes of nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) from soil were examined across 3 forest types in Australian temperate, Mediterranean, and subtropical regions, using a network of paired pasture−forest sites, representing 3 key stages of forest stand development: establishment, canopy-closure, and mid to late rotation. During the 12-month study, soil temperature ranged from –6° to 40°C and total rainfall from 487 to 676 mm. Rates of N2O flux ranged between 1 and 100 μg/m2.h in pasture soils and from –5 to 50 μg/m2.h in forest soils; magnitudes were generally similar across the 3 climate zones. Rates of CH4 flux varied from –1 to –50 μg/m2.h in forest soil and from +10 to –30 μg/m2.h in pasture soils; CH4 flux was highest at the subtropics sites and lowest at the Mediterranean sites. In general, N2O emissions were lower, and CH4 consumption was higher, under forest than pasture soils, suggesting that land use change from pasture to forest can have a positive effect on mitigation of non-CO2 greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from soil as stands become established. The information derived from this study can be used to improve the capacity of models for GHG accounting (e.g. FullCAM, which underpins Australia’s National Carbon Accounting System) to estimate N2O and CH4 fluxes resulting from land use change from pasture to forest in Australia. There is still, however, a need to test model outputs against continuous N2O and CH4 measurements over extended periods of time and across a range of sites with similar land use, to increase confidence in spatial and temporal estimates at regional levels.