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1
Lyons, Thomas P. "Grain in Fujian: Intra-provincial Patterns of Production and Trade, 1952–1988." China Quarterly 129 (March 1992): 184–215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305741000041291.
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Over the past 20 years, studies of grain production and use in China have figured prominently in debates concerning economic efficiency, income disparities and the contours of the Maoist development strategy. Virtually all analysts now agree that grain production in China exhibited a strong tendency toward provincial self-sufficiency and that the inter-provincial grain trade declined during the Maoist era (from the 1950s to 1978), that provincial self-sufficiency obstructed efficient allocation of agricultural resources and contributed to the persistence of poverty, and that the tendency toward selfsufficiency is attributable partly to a policy of “grain first,” which promoted concentration upon grain production in every province regardless of comparative advantage. Recent studies point to significant changes in the pattern of grain production and trade since 1978 and trace these changes to relaxation of “grain first” and introduction of institutional reforms affecting the grain sector.
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Lyons, Thomas P. "Feeding Fujian: Grain Production and Trade, 1986–1996." China Quarterly 155 (September 1998): 512–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305741000049985.
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Recent years have seen a flurry of debate about China's ability to feed itself. In his article “Who will feed China?” and his book of the same title, Lester Brown predicted that China would need grain imports of 200 million tonnes by the year 2030 – an amount that would severely tax the world grain market. Scholars and journalists, both in China and abroad, have weighed in with contradictory analyses and predictions.
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Shiue, Carol Hua. "Grain Trade and Storeage in Late Imperial China." Journal of Economic History 60, no. 2 (June 2000): 511–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700025237.
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SHIUE, CAROL HUA. "Grain Trade and Storage in Late Imperial China." Journal of Economic History 60, no. 02 (June 2000): 511–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700250237.
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Felloni, Fabrizio, John Gilbert, Thomas I. Wahl, and Philip Wandschneider. "Trade policy, biotechnology and grain self-sufficiency in China." Agricultural Economics 28, no. 3 (May 2003): 173–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2003.tb00136.x.
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Kostecki, M. M. "Canada's Grain Trade with the Soviet Union and China." Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics/Revue canadienne d'agroeconomie 30, no. 2 (November 13, 2008): 223–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7976.1982.tb01980.x.
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Shi, J., J. Liu, and L. Pinter. "Recent evolution of China's virtual water trade: analysis of selected crops and considerations for policy." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 18, no. 4 (April 8, 2014): 1349–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-1349-2014.
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Abstract. China has dramatically increased its virtual water import over recent years. Many studies have focused on the quantity of traded virtual water, but very few go into analysing geographic distribution and the properties of China's virtual water trade network. This paper provides a calculation and analysis of the crop-related virtual water trade network of China based on 27 major primary crops between 1986 and 2009. The results show that China is a net importer of virtual water from water-abundant areas of North America and South America, and a net virtual water exporter to water-stressed areas of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Virtual water import is far larger than virtual water export, and in both import and export a small number of trade partners control the supply chain. Grain crops are the major contributors to virtual water trade, and among grain crops, soybeans, mostly imported from the US, Brazil and Argentina, are the most significant. In order to mitigate water scarcity and secure the food supply, virtual water should actively be incorporated into national water management strategies. And the sources of virtual water import need to be further diversified to reduce supply chain risks and increase resilience.
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Wang, Zongzhi, Lingling Zhang, Qing Zhang, Yi-Ming Wei, Jin-Wei Wang, Xueli Ding, and Zhifu Mi. "Optimization of virtual water flow via grain trade within China." Ecological Indicators 97 (February 2019): 25–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.09.053.
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Sun, Lin, Mingxian Qi, and Michael R. Reed. "The effects of soybean trade policies on domestic soybean market in China during the food crisis." China Agricultural Economic Review 10, no. 3 (September 3, 2018): 372–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/caer-04-2016-0061.
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Purpose Many grain exporting/importing countries implement temporary trade policies to intervene in grain trade volume during food crises. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the effects of Chinese soybean trade policies on the domestic soybean market during the food crisis. Design/methodology/approach A Markov switching error correction model is constructed for the empirical analysis. Market integration, market equilibrium and market stability are compared among three regimes: the normal state, crisis state and post-crisis state. In order to reduce the disturbance from external markets factors on the results, the US soybean market is selected as a control group in that it did not use any soybean intervention trade policies during the food crisis. Findings The empirical results indicate that China’s temporary soybean trade policies lead to a decrease in market integration between domestic and international soybean markets and a reduction in domestic soybean market stability. Originality/value It is the first time that China’s soybean market is selected as a sample and case on this issue. The regime shifting non-linear model could be more applicable because there exists a non-linear transmission relationship between grains markets during food crises. The results imply that China’s temporary soybean trade policies do not improve market integration and stability. China should reconsider implementing soybean trade intervening policies to protect the domestic market and safeguard food security.
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Shi, J., J. Liu, and L. Pinter. "Recent evolution of China's virtual water trade: analysis of selected crops and considerations for policy." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 10, no. 9 (September 17, 2013): 11613–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-10-11613-2013.
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Abstract. China has dramatically increased its virtual water import unconsciously for recent years. Many studies have focused on the quantity of traded virtual water but very few go into analysing geographic distribution and the properties of China's virtual water trade network. This paper provides a calculation and analysis of the crop-related virtual water trade network of China based on 27 major primary crops between 1986 and 2009. The results show that China is a net importer of virtual water from water-abundant areas of North and South America, and a net virtual water exporter to water-stressed areas of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Virtual water import is far larger than virtual water export and in both import and export a small number of trade partners control the supply chain. Grain crops are the major contributors to virtual water trade, and among grain crops soybeans, mostly imported from the US, Brazil and Argentina are the most significant. As crop yield and crop water productivity in North and South America are generally higher than those in Asia and Africa, the effect of China's crop-related virtual water trade positively contributes to optimizing crop water use efficiency at the global scale. In order to mitigate water scarcity and secure the food supply, virtual water should be actively incorporated into national water management strategies. From the national perspective, China should reduce the export and increase the import of water-intensive crops. But the sources of virtual water import need to be further diversified to reduce supply chain risks and increase resilience.
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Glauber, Joseph, and Simon Lester. "China – Tariff Rate Quotas for Certain Agricultural Products. Against the Grain: Can the WTO Open Chinese Markets? A Contaminated Experiment." World Trade Review 20, no. 4 (April 21, 2021): 405–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474745621000148.
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AbstractThe US complaint about Chinese tariff-rate quotas (TRQs) on certain grain products helps illustrate several key issues in US–China trade relations and the effectiveness of WTO disputes. First, do international obligations based on transparency and fairness work in relation to an authoritarian country not known for the rule of law domestically? Second, can there be a disconnect between the legal aspects of a dispute and the underlying economic interests, with a DSB ruling sometimes not leading to improved trade flows? And third, given the bilateral trade war and ‘phase one’ trade deal between the United States and China, has the WTO been superseded in this trade relationship? This paper summarizes the facts and law of the China–TRQs dispute, and examines each of these questions in that context.
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Lyons, Thomas P. "Commercial Reform in China: The Grain Trade of Fujian Province, 1978-1988." Economic Development and Cultural Change 41, no. 4 (July 1993): 691–736. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/452045.
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Wang, Zongzhi, Lingling Zhang, Xueli Ding, and Zhifu Mi. "Virtual water flow pattern of grain trade and its benefits in China." Journal of Cleaner Production 223 (June 2019): 445–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.03.151.
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Wilson, William W., Won W. Koo, Richard Taylor, and Bruce Dahl. "Long-Term Forecasting of World Grain Trade and U.S. Gulf Exports." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1909, no. 1 (January 2005): 22–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361198105190900104.
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Important changes occurring in the world grain trade will affect the spatial distribution of grain flows and affect large-scale transportation projects. Most important among these are developments in ethanol and in Brazil and China. This paper develops a spatial optimization model based on a long-term competitive equilibrium to make projections in the world grain trade and shipments from individual ports to 2025. Results indicate that world trade should increase by about 47%, with the fastest growth occurring in imports to China and Pakistan and the slowest growth in Japan and the European Union, traditionally large markets. Most increases in terms of volume are expected in soybeans (49%), followed by corn (26%). Most of the U.S. export growth is expected through the barge system to U.S. ports on the Gulf of Mexico, with negligible growth through the Pacific Northwest and lakes. Although a multitude of reasons explain this expected trend, one is the growth in ethanol concentrated in the western states, which will require shifting production to meet demand. As a result, the exportable surplus from these regions will decline, and much of the growth in exports will be through the U.S. Gulf and from Argentina and Brazil, particularly northern Brazil, through spatial competition. Reflecting the impacts of growth in demand as well as international and intermodal competition, these results provide insight for transport project planners about the long-term growth in exports from particular origins and routes.
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Wang, Xiaolong, Kangming Tan, Yuanquan Chen, Yong Chen, Xuefeng Shen, Lei Zhang, and Chaoxia Dong. "Emergy-based analysis of grain production and trade in China during 2000–2015." Journal of Cleaner Production 193 (August 2018): 59–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.05.072.
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Cui, Z. L., L. Wu, Y. L. Ye, W. Q. Ma, X. P. Chen, and F. S. Zhang. "Trade-offs between high yields and greenhouse gas emissions in irrigation wheat cropland in China." Biogeosciences 11, no. 8 (April 24, 2014): 2287–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-2287-2014.
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Abstract. Although the concept of producing higher yields with reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is a goal that attracts increasing public and scientific attention, the trade-off between high yields and GHG emissions in intensive agricultural production is not well understood. Here, we hypothesize that there exists a mechanistic relationship between wheat grain yield and GHG emission, and that could be transformed into better agronomic management. A total 33 sites of on-farm experiments were investigated to evaluate the relationship between grain yield and GHG emissions using two systems (conventional practice, CP; high-yielding systems, HY) of intensive winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in China. Furthermore, we discussed the potential to produce higher yields with lower GHG emissions based on a survey of 2938 farmers. Compared to the CP system, grain yield was 39% (2352 kg ha−1) higher in the HY system, while GHG emissions increased by only 10%, and GHG emission intensity was reduced by 21%. The current intensive winter wheat system with farmers' practice had a median yield and maximum GHG emission rate of 6050 kg ha−1 and 4783 kg CO2 eq ha−1, respectively; however, this system can be transformed to maintain yields while reducing GHG emissions by 26% (6077 kg ha−1, and 3555 kg CO2 eq ha−1). Further, the HY system was found to increase grain yield by 39% with a simultaneous reduction in GHG emissions by 18% (8429 kg ha−1, and 3905 kg CO2 eq ha−1, respectively). In the future, we suggest moving the trade-off relationships and calculations from grain yield and GHG emissions to new measures of productivity and environmental protection using innovative management technologies.
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Tian, Gui Liang, Xi Wu, Xing Bo Sun, Wen Tao, and Hui Xiang Zi Zheng. "Quantitative Research of China Agricultural Virtual Water Trade Based on CROPWAT Model." Advanced Materials Research 726-731 (August 2013): 3463–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.726-731.3463.
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The virtual water trade theory is one of the hot topics in the field of water demand management research today, which is considered as an important method for water resources constraints to ensure food security. And the introduction of the virtual water concept provides a new approach to analyze and study water resources. We used the CLIMWAT crop, meteorological databases and China's actual data to calculate virtual water content of major food crops and food virtual water trade in China's major grain producing areas by CROPWAT8.0 model recommended by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
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Li, Yuee, and Jingdong Li. "How Does China’s Economic Policy Uncertainty Affect the Sustainability of Its Net Grain Imports?" Sustainability 13, no. 12 (June 18, 2021): 6899. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13126899.
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China is a considerable grain importer in the world. However, the sustainability of China’s grain imports has been greatly challenged by its increasing economic policy uncertainty (EPU).This paper constructs the indicators of economic and environmental sustainability of China’s net grain imports and analyzes the impact of its EPU index on these indicators with a Time-Varying Parameter Stochastic Volatility Vector Autoregression (TVP-SV-VAR) model to explore how China’s EPU affects the sustainability of its net grain imports. The main conclusions are as follows.(1) The sustainability of China’s net grain imports fluctuated from 2001 to 2019. (2) China’s EPU has a negative impact on the economic sustainability of its net grain imports. A higher EPU index leads to a lower net import potential ratio and higher trade cost. (3) China’s EPU has a significant negative impact on the environmental sustainability of its net grain imports. It has the greatest negative impact on virtual water imports and smaller impact on virtual land imports and embodied carbon emission. Therefore, China’s EPU affects the sustainability of its net grain imports negatively through its impact on its net grain import potential ratio, trade cost, and virtual land, virtual water, and embodied carbon emissions in net grain imports.
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Qian, Haiyang, Bernie A. Engel, Xiaoyu Tian, Shikun Sun, Pute Wu, and Yubao Wang. "Evaluating drivers and flow patterns of inter-provincial grain virtual water trade in China." Science of The Total Environment 732 (August 2020): 139251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139251.
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Aubert, Claude. "The Grain Trade Reforms in China: An Unfinished Story of State v. Peasant Interest." China Information 12, no. 3 (December 1997): 72–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0920203x9701200304.
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Yang, Xi, La Zhuo, Pengxuan Xie, Hongrong Huang, Bianbian Feng, and Pute Wu. "Physical versus economic water footprints in crop production: a spatial and temporal analysis for China." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 25, no. 1 (January 11, 2021): 169–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-169-2021.
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Abstract. A core goal of sustainable agricultural water resources management is to implement a lower water footprint (WF), i.e. higher water productivity, and to maximize economic benefits in crop production. However, previous studies mostly focused on crop water productivity from a single physical perspective. Little attention is paid to synergies and trade-offs between water consumption and economic value creation of crop production. Distinguishing between blue and green water composition, grain and cash crops, and irrigation and rainfed production modes in China, this study calculates the production-based WF (PWF) and derives the economic value-based WF (EWF) of 14 major crops in 31 provinces for each year over 2001–2016. The synergy evaluation index (SI) of PWF and EWF is proposed to reveal the synergies and trade-offs of crop water productivity and its economic value from the WF perspective. Results show that both the PWF and EWF of most considered crops in China decreased with the increase in crop yield and prices. The high (low) values of both the PWF and EWF of grain crops tended to cluster obviously in space and there existed a huge difference between blue and green water in economic value creation. Moreover, the SI revealed a serious incongruity between PWFs and EWFs both in grain and cash crops. Negative SI values occurred mostly in north-west China for grain crops, and overall more often and with lower values for cash crops. Unreasonable regional planting structure and crop prices resulted in this incongruity, suggesting the need to promote regional coordinated development to adjust the planting structure according to local conditions and to regulate crop prices rationally.
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YU, WUSHENG, and HANS G. JENSEN. "Trade policy responses to food price crisis and implications for existing domestic support measures: the case of China in 2008." World Trade Review 13, no. 4 (December 16, 2013): 651–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474745613000335.
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AbstractMany national governments around the world applied export restrictions in order to achieve domestic market stabilization during the 2007/8 world food price crisis. However, current literature says little about how these export restrictions interact with existing domestic support measures in jointly determining domestic market outcomes. This paper analyzes this interaction by providing a quantitative assessment on how increased spending on agricultural domestic support in China offset the negative effects on grain production caused by the country's export restrictions and how these two types of measures jointly moderated rises of domestic grain prices. In particular, domestic and trade measures on key agricultural inputs such as fertilizers are shown to contribute significantly to expand grain outputs and reduce domestic market prices. While the short-term goal in stabilizing domestic grain prices was achieved through these measures, large fiscal and efficiency costs were incurred, especially considering how the short-term export restrictions seemingly necessitated the extra spending on input-based domestic subsidies. We also demonstrate that the costs to China and the rest of the world of these complicated policy interventions may be partially avoidable with a simpler and less distorting instrument.
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Ding, Xiayang. "Diplomacy vs. Economics: Examining the Roots of Decline in Sino-U.S. Trade in 1975." Journal of American-East Asian Relations 28, no. 2 (June 23, 2021): 133–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18765610-28020004.
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Abstract In 1975, the explosive growth of Sino-U.S. trade that only had resumed after 1971 ended with a severe decline from $920 million a year to just $461 million. The cause of the collapse was the unilateral decision of the People’s Republic of China (prc) to cancel several orders from late 1974 to early 1975. Scholars have advanced three reasons for the prc’s action, blaming to trade disputes, Beijing’s desire to punish the Americans for slow progress on the Taiwan issue, and Chinese trade officials preventing radicals from labeled them “compradors.” Each explanation, however, overstates the importance of high-level politics and ignores mid-level exchanges, as trade delegations shuttled back and forth across the Pacific in 1975. The article demonstrates that the real obstacle to trade in 1975 was China’s limited ability to purchase American grain in the same quantities as in the last four years, along with indications of a good future harvest in China emerging at the end of 1974. Economic factors therefore better explain the decline in prc-U.S. trade, providing an example of how in the last years of the Cultural Revolution, Beijing’s economic policy was more pragmatic than one would expect.
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Ostashko, Tamara, and Volodymyr Olefir. "Prospects of free trade with China: development of domestic export and risks of import dependence." Economy and Forecasting 2019, no. 1 (2019): 124–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/econforecast2019.01.124.
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Development of the trade between Ukraine and China generates serious challenges for the national economy, because, presently, the trade with China accounts for more than a half of Ukraine's negative balance in this country's international trade in goods (56% in January-November 2018). Despite the risks of further deterioration of trade balance, Ukraine has suggested to start consultations on the Ukraine-China free-trade agreement (FTA). The purpose of the paper is to estimate the possible impact of the liberalization of trade with China and to develop recommendations for raising exports and suppressing China's goods expansion on domestic market. In order to investigate the problem and shape the outlook for domestic exports to China, the following steps have been made: (1) compared the structure of external trade in goods of Ukraine and China; (2) evaluated the trade regimes' symmetry between China and Ukraine; (3) identified the characteristics of China's non-tariff trade regulations; (4) analyzed special ties features of negotiating with China on FTA; (5) analyzed the situation with the development of domestic export to China, and identified prospective markets for domestic goods; and (6) analyzed the dynamics of imports of goods from China during 2004-2018. Also, discussed the groups of import goods that are top items by absolute volume and possess a high share in imports and in local domestic consumption. Analysis of the structure of trade flows between Ukraine and China showed that the most probable development scenario in the trade with China is the increased orientation of Ukrainian export on raw materials and empowering of Ukraine's dependence on the import of Chinese industrial goods. Probability of this scenario is increasing since the trade regimes of Ukraine and China are asymmetrical, which creates unequal conditions of trade that are more preferable for China. It was found that, even in case of trade liberalization as the result of FTA negotiations between China and Ukraine, Ukraine could not expect sustainable increase in exports of agri-food goods, as China has special non-tariff regulations in domestic agri-food markets. Among the core directions of the government policy of supporting the development of agricultural export to China is promotion of corn export in accordance with the credit agreement of 2012 between State Food and Grain Corporation of Ukraine and Export-Import Bank of China, and soybean export promotion with the purpose to substitute US in the Chinese import soybean market, which opened up as a result of US-China trade disputes in 2017-2018. Negative trends in bilateral trade are the reason for active government policy promoting the export of processed goods to China, first of all the products of food industry and optical photographic instruments and apparatus that are of high demand in local Chinese markets. Import dependence of domestic local market remains high without significant signs of decrease. In 2017, the ratio between import and GDP was the highest for the recent 17 years. During 2013-2017, this ratio increased from 0.51 to 0.56. Dependence of Ukraine's economy on import could increase further as a result of liberalization of the trade with China. Despite the benefits for exporters (mostly exporters of raw goods), cheap Chinese import could delay the renaissance of the domestic light industry that has gradually started after a sharp decline in 2013-2015. Dynamics of goods import from China during 2004-2018 was analyzed, and discussed groups of goods that are the top import items by absolute volume, possess a high share in imports and in local domestic consumption. The research was conducted on agricultural and agri-food goods, and for 4- and 6- digit codes. Presence of Chinese goods in domestic market is constantly increasing. In 2002-2003, balance of trade between Ukraine and China was positive, and the share of China's goods in market was below 2%, but, starting from 2005, the trade balance has been always negative with share of Chinese goods increasing to 13% (2018). Machinery accounted for more than a half of Chinese import in 2018, with machinery, instruments and equipment making the highest share. China is the main exporter of telephone equipment for cellular networks, computers and notebooks, photo-sensitive semi-conductors, light-emitting diodes and other innovative and high technology products. China possesses top positions in imports of household electronics and appliances, light industry goods (shoes, toys, synthetic textiles etc.) and other goods. In 74 out of 178 analyzed 4-digit groups of goods, China's share in import in 2017 was higher than 50%. From the position of domestic market protection, trade liberalization with China could cause high risks for domestic producers. Assortment of industrial goods that are imported from China is very extensive, hence their expansion in domestic market could be quite significant. The publication was prepared during the research work "The modernization of economic policy of field of activities and markets development" (state registration number 0118U007329).
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Peng, Jian, Xiaoxu Hu, Xiaoyu Wang, Jeroen Meersmans, Yanxu Liu, and Sijing Qiu. "Simulating the impact of Grain-for-Green Programme on ecosystem services trade-offs in Northwestern Yunnan, China." Ecosystem Services 39 (October 2019): 100998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2019.100998.
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Shan, Mei, and Xun Wang. "Trade-off Analysis between the Indexes of Cultivated Land Health Evaluation." MATEC Web of Conferences 227 (2018): 03001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201822703001.
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Cultivated land is the basis for the survival and development of human society. The selective utilization of human factors and the level of utilization are the decisive factors to promote the external performance of cultivated land. The quality components of cultivated land in different regions have their own characteristics, and the external performance is different. This paper analyzed the China southern city of major grain producing areas of cultivated land within the health influence of constituent elements and characteristics of the relationship between each other, there are dominant factors to find the current utilization level under the influence of the external manifestations of the health of cultivated land, but also conducive to the area of cultivated land ecological function of human selective use, finally get maximum benefit of land use, the best function cultivated land.
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d’Alpoim Guedes, Jade, and R. Kyle Bocinsky. "Climate change stimulated agricultural innovation and exchange across Asia." Science Advances 4, no. 10 (October 2018): eaar4491. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aar4491.
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Ancient farmers experienced climate change at the local level through variations in the yields of their staple crops. However, archaeologists have had difficulty in determining where, when, and how changes in climate affected ancient farmers. We model how several key transitions in temperature affected the productivity of six grain crops across Eurasia. Cooling events between 3750 and 3000 cal. BP lead humans in parts of the Tibetan Plateau and in Central Asia to diversify their crops. A second event at 2000 cal. BP leads farmers in central China to also diversify their cropping systems and to develop systems that allowed transport of grains from southern to northern China. In other areas where crop returns fared even worse, humans reduced their risk by increasing investment in nomadic pastoralism and developing long-distance networks of trade. By translating changes in climatic variables into factors that mattered to ancient farmers, we situate the adaptive strategies they developed to deal with variance in crop returns in the context of environmental and climatic changes.
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Li, Xiufen, Yichen Tian, Tian Gao, Lei Jin, Shuangtian Li, Dan Zhao, Xiao Zheng, Lizhong Yu, and Jiaojun Zhu. "Trade-Offs Analysis of Ecosystem Services for the Grain for Green Program: Informing Reforestation Decisions in a Mountainous Headwater Region, Northeast China." Sustainability 12, no. 11 (June 11, 2020): 4762. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12114762.
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The effects of forest restoration on ecosystem services and their trade-offs are increasingly discussed by environmental managers and ecologists, but few demonstrations have analyzed ecosystem service trade-offs with a view to informing afforestation choices. Here, we examined how the Grain for Green Program (GGP), an ambitious reforestation program in China, affected ecosystem services. We quantified regulating services and provisioning service in the potential scenarios, which were developed to improve ecosystem services better. The results indicated the GGP drove 14.5% of land-use/land-cover from 2000 to 2015, and all the regulating services increased. Prioritizing reforestations in steep-sloped and riparian farmlands can promote flood mitigation, water purification, and soil retention services by 62.7%, 25.5%, and 216.1% as compared with 2015 levels, respectively, suggesting that the improvements strongly depend on afforestation locations. Driven by the new GGP policy, a high proportion of economic forest increased provisioning service (272.2%), but at the expense of decreases in soil retention (−25.1%), flood mitigation (−11.4%), water purification (−36.6%), and carbon storage (−48.5%). We identified a suitable scenario that would reduce the trade-offs, which associated with afforestation types and their spatial allocation. Identifying priority areas of afforestation types can inform the GGP policy to assure sustainable and broader benefits.
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Shao, Jiaqi, and Fei Li. "Multi-Function Tradeoffs of Land System in Urbanized Areas—A Case Study of Xi’an, China." Land 10, no. 6 (June 16, 2021): 640. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land10060640.
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Multi-functional trade-offs and synergy research on land systems are hotspots in geography and land science research, and are of great significance for achieving sustainable development of land use and the effective allocation of land resources. Recently, the development of the western region and The Belt and Road Initiative have become key topics, bringing opportunities and challenges to Xi’an. The rapid development of cities is accompanied by drastic changes in land use, and the ecological problems in the Qinling Mountains are becoming increasingly severe. This study took Xi’an as a case study and quantitatively evaluated the spatial-temporal patterns and trade-offs of land system functions such as economic development (ED), grain production (GP), ecological service (ES), etc. on the scale of 1 km × 1 km by fusing the data on land use, topography, soil, climate, and social economy. The results showed that the ED function of the land system continued to rise between 1980 and 2015, the GP function first declined and then increased; however, the ES function continued to decline. The ED, GP and ES functions respectively present a spatial pattern of high-value agglomeration, high in the north and low in the south, and high in the south and low in the north. In general, the three land system functions were trade-offs between each other. In terms of spatial pattern, ED and ES functions showed trade-offs in the south and a synergy distribution in the north; ESs and GP function trade-off zone significantly larger than the synergy zone, the trade-off between the two was significant; while the trade-off and the synergy zone for GP and ED was relatively small, the trade-off zone was the main one. The significant trade-off between GP and ES functions of the land system is a serious problem in land use in Xi’an. Under the premise of limited arable land, it is the current feasible strategy to promote the high-quality development of agriculture to increase the cultivation rate and efficiency, and to strengthen the ecological protection of arable land. In addition, the continued decline of ES functions is also worthy of attention. It is necessary to focus on increasing the greening rate of the city and strengthening the ecological management of the northern foot of the Qinling Mountains.
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Wang, Xiaofeng, Xinrong Zhang, Xiaoming Feng, Shirong Liu, Lichang Yin, and Yongzhe Chen. "Trade-offs and Synergies of Ecosystem Services in Karst Area of China Driven by Grain-for-Green Program." Chinese Geographical Science 30, no. 1 (January 11, 2020): 101–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11769-020-1098-z.
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Jiang, Shan, Jianhua Wang, Yong Zhao, Yizi Shang, Xuerui Gao, Haihong Li, Qingming Wang, and Yongnan Zhu. "Sustainability of water resources for agriculture considering grain production, trade and consumption in China from 2004 to 2013." Journal of Cleaner Production 149 (April 2017): 1210–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.103.
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Wang, Jitao, Jian Peng, Mingyue Zhao, Yanxu Liu, and Yunqian Chen. "Significant trade-off for the impact of Grain-for-Green Programme on ecosystem services in North-western Yunnan, China." Science of The Total Environment 574 (January 2017): 57–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.026.
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Zurndorfer, Harriet T. "Cotton Textile Manufacture and Marketing in Late Imperial China and the ‘Great Divergence’." Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 54, no. 5 (2011): 701–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156852011x614028.
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Abstract By 1800 cotton cloth was China’s most important domestic trade commodity after grain. This paper reviews the history of cotton textile production in the Jiangnan region (or Lower Yangzi River area) where it thrived from 1300 to 1830, and discusses the factors contributing to its commercialization. It reveals the impact of the Ming and Qing governments in its institutionalization, and how the social organization of the industry was framed around the household economy and women’s labor. This essay also documents the problems that cotton production and marketing encountered by the end of the eighteenth century, and demonstrates how the recent debates about the ‘great divergence’ and the nature of the Chinese political economy resonate in the history of China’s cotton textile enter-prise. Finally, it shows how in the first decades of the nineteenth century, empire-wide demographic and environmental constraints brought economic stasis to Jiangnan’s cotton industry.
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Wang, Lina, Enyi Yu, Shuang Li, Xiao Fu, and Gang Wu. "Analysis of Ecosystem Service Trade-Offs and Synergies in Ulansuhai Basin." Sustainability 13, no. 17 (September 1, 2021): 9839. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13179839.
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As an important grain production base and ecological barrier zone in China, Ulansuhai Basin provides a variety of important ecosystem services and ensures human well-being, and it is essential to maintain the sustainable development of the regional ecology–economy–society. Therefore, in order to explore the trade-offs and synergies between ecosystem services in Ulansuhai Basin, we first evaluated the spatio-temporal characteristics of five ecosystem services in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2018 based on the InVEST model, including soil conservation, carbon storage, water production, water purification, and food supply. We then further analyzed the trade-offs and synergies of ecosystem services in Ulansuhai Basin and in different functional areas through using the Spearman correlation coefficient. The results show that different ecosystem services had obvious regional differences due to different land-use types in Ulansuhai Basin. Soil conservation, carbon storage, and water production were higher in the eastern region and lower in the central and western regions, while water purification and food supply were higher in the central region and lower in the eastern and western regions. Ecosystem services showed an overall increasing trend from 2000 to 2018. Moreover, trade-off was the dominant relationship between different ecosystem services, and trade-offs and synergies showed strengthening trends to a certain extent. The trade-offs and synergies of ecosystem services in different functional areas were obviously different. Our study aimed to clarify the trade-offs and synergies between ecosystem services and to propose ecological protection and management countermeasures and suggestions, which can provide decision-making reference for regional ecological protection and management.
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Wang, G. L., Y. L. Ye, X. P. Chen, and Z. L. Cui. "Determining the optimal nitrogen rate for summer maize in China by integrating agronomic, economic, and environmental aspects." Biogeosciences Discussions 11, no. 2 (February 14, 2014): 2639–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-11-2639-2014.
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Abstract. The concept of high yield with a goal of minimum environmental cost has become widely accepted. However, the trade-offs and complex linkages among agronomic, economic, and environmental factors are not yet well understood. In this study, reactive nitrogen (Nr) losses were estimated using an empirical model, and an economic indicator and an evaluation model were used to account for the environmental costs of different Nr losses after N fertilizer application. The minimum N rate to achieve the maximum yield benefit (agronomically optimal N rate), maximum economic benefit (economically optimal N rate: economic benefit was defined as yield benefit minus N fertilizer cost), and maximum net benefit (ecologically optimal N rate: net benefit was defined as yield benefit minus N fertilizer and environmental costs) were estimated based on 91 on-farm experiment sites with five N levels for summer maize production on the North China Plain. Across all experimental sites, the agronomically, economically, and ecologically optimal N rates (Nagr, Neco, and Necl, respectively) averaged 289, 237, and 186 kg N ha−1, respectively. Necl management increased net benefit by 31% with a 45% decrease in Nr loss intensity (44%, 60%, and 33% for N2O emission, N leaching, and NH3 volatilization, respectively) and maintained grain yield, compared to Nagr management. Compared to Neco management, Necl increased net benefit by 6%, with a 27% decrease in Nr loss intensity, and maintained economic benefit and grain yield. No differences in Necl were observed between soil types or years, but significant variation among counties was revealed. Necl increased with the increase in N-derived yield with an R2 of 0.80. In conclusion, Necl was primarily affected by N-derived yield and could enhance profitability as well as reduce Nr losses associated with the maize grain yield.
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Liu, Jianguo, Andrés Viña, Wu Yang, Shuxin Li, Weihua Xu, and Hua Zheng. "China's Environment on a Metacoupled Planet." Annual Review of Environment and Resources 43, no. 1 (October 17, 2018): 1–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-030040.
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China has emerged as a global economic powerhouse after four decades of unprecedented growth. Such growth has generated many environmental challenges with enormous ecological, socioeconomic, and health consequences in China and beyond. Although the overall quality of air and water is starting to improve, both are still below national and international standards. Water shortages are widespread. Biodiversity continues to decline. China is the world's top CO2 emitter, although per capita emissions are much lower than those of developed counties. On the positive side, large national conservation programs have been implemented, including the Natural Forest Conservation Program, the Grain-to-Green Program, Ecosystem Functional Conservation Areas, and Ecological Protection Redlines. More than 2,750 nature reserves have been established and a new national park system is being constructed. Some endangered and threatened species, such as the giant panda, are showing signs of recovery, and forest cover and some ecosystem services have increased. These mixed environmental outcomes result from human-nature interactions within China as well as between China and adjacent and distant countries. These include increasing rapid economic growth, resource consumption, land use change, trade and investment, and conservation and development policies. We suggest systems approaches such as nexus approaches and flow-centered governance to help China achieve ecological civilization and become an environmental leader on a metacoupled planet.
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An, Tingli, Lizhen Wang, Xuerui Gao, Xinxueqi Han, Yong Zhao, Lixing Lin, and Pute Wu. "Simulation of the virtual water flow pattern associated with interprovincial grain trade and its impact on water resources stress in China." Journal of Cleaner Production 288 (March 2021): 125670. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125670.
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Wang, G. L., Y. L. Ye, X. P. Chen, and Z. L. Cui. "Determining the optimal nitrogen rate for summer maize in China by integrating agronomic, economic, and environmental aspects." Biogeosciences 11, no. 11 (June 11, 2014): 3031–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-3031-2014.
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Abstract. The concept of high yield with a goal of minimum environmental cost has become widely accepted. However, the trade-offs and complex linkages among agronomic, economic, and environmental factors are not yet well understood. In this study, reactive nitrogen (Nr) losses were estimated using an empirical model, and an economic indicator and an evaluation model were used to account for the environmental costs of N fertilizer production and use. The minimum N rate to achieve the maximum yield benefit (agronomically optimal N rate), maximum economic benefit (economically optimal N rate: economic benefit was defined as yield benefit minus N fertilizer cost), and maximum net benefit (ecologically optimal N rate: net benefit was defined as yield benefit minus N fertilizer and environmental costs) were estimated based on 91 on-farm experiment sites with five N levels for summer maize production on the North China Plain. Across all experimental sites, the agronomically, economically, and ecologically optimal N rates (Nagr, Neco, and Necl, respectively) averaged 289, 237, and 171 kg N ha−1, respectively. Necl management increased net benefit by 53% with a 46% decrease in total environmental costs, and a 51% decrease in Nr loss intensity from N fertilizer use (47, 65, and 38% for N2O emission, N leaching, and NH3 volatilization, respectively) and maintained grain yield, compared with Nagr management. Compared with Neco management, Necl increased net benefit by 12%, with a 31% decrease in total environmental costs and a 33% decrease in Nr loss intensity from N fertilizer use, and maintained economic benefit and grain yield. No differences in Necl were observed between soil types or years, but significant variation among counties was revealed. Necl increased with the increase in N-derived yield with an R2 of 0.83. In conclusion, Necl was primarily affected by N-derived yield and could enhance profitability as well as reduce Nr losses associated with the maize grain yield.
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Dolley, Jonathan, Fiona Marshall, Bradley Butcher, Jeremy Reffin, James Alexander Robinson, Baris Eray, and Novi Quadrianto. "Analysing trade-offs and synergies between SDGs for urban development, food security and poverty alleviation in rapidly changing peri-urban areas: a tool to support inclusive urban planning." Sustainability Science 15, no. 6 (April 2, 2020): 1601–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11625-020-00802-0.
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Abstract Transitional peri-urban contexts are frontiers for sustainable development where land-use change involves negotiation and contestation between diverse interest groups. Multiple, complex trade-offs between outcomes emerge which have both negative and positive impacts on progress towards achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These trade-offs are often overlooked in policy and planning processes which depend on top-down expert perspectives and rely on course grain aggregate data which does not reflect complex peri-urban dynamics or the rapid pace of change. Tools are required to address this gap, integrate data from diverse perspectives and inform more inclusive planning processes. In this paper, we draw on a reinterpretation of empirical data concerned with land-use change and multiple dimensions of food security from the city of Wuhan in China to illustrate some of the complex trade-offs between SDG goals that tend to be overlooked with current planning approaches. We then describe the development of an interactive web-based tool that implements deep learning methods for fine-grained land-use classification of high-resolution remote sensing imagery and integrates this with a flexible method for rapid trade-off analysis of land-use change scenarios. The development and potential use of the tool are illustrated using data from the Wuhan case study example. This tool has the potential to support participatory planning processes by providing a platform for multiple stakeholders to explore the implications of planning decisions and land-use policies. Used alongside other planning, engagement and ecosystem service mapping tools it can help to reveal invisible trade-offs and foreground the perspectives of diverse stakeholders. This is vital for building approaches which recognise how trade-offs between the achievement of SDGs can be influenced by development interventions.
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Dang, Dongliang, Xiaobing Li, Shengkun Li, and Huashun Dou. "Ecosystem Services and Their Relationships in the Grain-for-Green Programme—A Case Study of Duolun County in Inner Mongolia, China." Sustainability 10, no. 11 (November 3, 2018): 4036. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10114036.
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Grassland restoration projects are currently being implemented to mitigate human disturbance to the natural environment and reduce grassland degradation. China’s Grain-for-Green Programme (GFGP), including one project implemented in Duolun County, China, in 2000, has significantly improved the overall ecological health of this region. Using a modeling approach, this study quantified changes in four ecosystem services (ESs), including Net Primary Production (NPP), soil conservation (SC), water yield (WY), and sandstorm prevention (SP), in Duolun County between 2000 and 2016. We found the total NPP, water yield, and soil conservation increased by 80.44%, 248.2%, and 12.2%, respectively, during this period, while the sandstorm prevention decreased by 55.9%. Unlike other areas of GFGP implementation, the improvement of the ecological environment in Duolun County is largely attributed to the increased of vegetation coverage (88%) instead of land use circulation (12%). We found the grassland is a factor that reduces the trade-off while this effect was related with the grassland coverage. Future policies should be based on the mechanisms of vegetation underlying the ESs change and the relationships of ESs in order to achieve sustainable provision of ESs.
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He, Juan, Xueyi Shi, Yangjun Fu, and Ye Yuan. "Spatiotemporal pattern of the trade-offs and synergies of ecosystem services after Grain for Green Program: a case study of the Loess Plateau, China." Environmental Science and Pollution Research 27, no. 24 (May 23, 2020): 30020–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09060-0.
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McMullen, Marcia, Gary Bergstrom, Erick De Wolf, Ruth Dill-Macky, Don Hershman, Greg Shaner, and Dave Van Sanford. "A Unified Effort to Fight an Enemy of Wheat and Barley: Fusarium Head Blight." Plant Disease 96, no. 12 (December 2012): 1712–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis-03-12-0291-fe.
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Wheat and barley are critical food and feed crops around the world. Wheat is grown on more land area worldwide than any other crop. In the United States, production of wheat and barley contributes to domestic food and feed use, and contributes to the export market and balance of trade. Fifteen years ago, Plant Disease published a feature article titled “Scab of wheat and barley: A re-emerging disease of devastating impact”. That article described the series of severe Fusarium head blight (FHB) epidemics that occurred in the United States and Canada, primarily from 1991 through 1996, with emphasis on the unparalleled economic and sociological impacts caused by the 1993 FHB epidemic in spring grains in the Northern Great Plains region. Earlier publications had dealt with the scope and damage caused by this disease in the United States, Canada, Europe, and China. Reviews published after 1997 further described this disease and its impact on North American grain production in the 1990s. This article reviews the disease and documents the information on U.S. FHB epidemics since 1997. The primary goal of this article is to summarize a sustained, coordinated, and collaborative research program that was put in place shortly after the 1993 epidemic, a program intended to quickly lead to improved management strategies and outreach implementation. This program serves as a model to deal with other emerging plant disease threats.
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Malinoshevska, Kateryna. "DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY OF THE GRAIN MARKET OF UKRAINE FOR EXPORT." Green, Blue & Digital Economy Journal 2, no. 2 (May 31, 2021): 47–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.30525/2661-5169/2021-2-7.
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The grain market is a sphere of grain circulation, strategic interests for multinational corporations, which includes its processing. The growth in demand for wheat is due to the growing population in the world and other factors that affect the country’s food security. Communication interaction between producer and consumer creates an organizational system in the form of various forms of markets: markets, fairs, auctions, exchanges and more. The trend of increasing the cost of grain is observed around the world because production volumes are insufficient to meet all the needs of the population. The grain market is the main lever in the Ukrainian market. The strategy for the development of grain crops affects the reproduction of the country’s economy as a whole and changes in macro and microeconomic indicators. The climatic conditions of the regions are important factors for the prosperity of the grain market and ensuring yields. A favorable political climate is impossible without the export of domestic products, namely grain. Many countries cannot produce enough grain and import it. A significant share of grain production is concentrated in developed countries, so ensuring it is an important issue around the world, the solution of which is to finance the import of grain crops, including wheat. Ukraine has a huge land potential (chernozems), as well as the prospects and opportunities to expand areas for sowing, thus increasing grain production and strengthening its position in the world market. Grain is an important type of product and has its own versatility, a number of countries around the world annually purchase significant volumes of sourdough products. Ukraine fully meets its domestic needs and is one of the exporters of grain to the EU and the world. Increasing grain yields will help increase production. Due to its uniqueness and long storage time, grain remains a necessary component of the population’s life. Not every country is able to increase production, for this it is necessary to apply strategic measures, in particular in agricultural policy. This is intervention in the grain market, agricultural subsidies and others. Grain resources consist of stocks of previous periods, production and imports. In Ukraine, grain production is increasing. Demand for quality products exists in both domestic and foreign markets. High commodity grades of wheat can be produced under favorable natural conditions, so additional investment in growing quality products is a significant economic lever that ensures the economic growth of the country. Methodology. The purpose of the article is to analyze the grain market and study the role of the state in building a strategy for the development of grain exports. Empirical research methods were used in the study. A comparison of the main indicators of the world grain market and Ukraine’s place in it was made. Due to the use of theoretical research methods, in particular analysis and synthesis, the main features of the grain market were identified and characterized. The main factors influencing the development of the world grain market were identified. High quality of grain production and processing increases the country’s competitiveness on the world market. Results. According to the results of the study, it can be concluded that over the past year, despite the trends of coronavirus in the country, Ukraine has strengthened its position and taken a leading position in the production and export of cereals. Factors that affect grain yields in the world also affect yields in Ukraine. Practical implications. During the strategic analysis in our case, we found that the world grain market is affected by many factors: reducing the area for planting in developing countries, increasing grain use, wheat is beginning to occupy a leading position as a food crop, increasing cereal consumption by traditional rice producers, especially in China. The volume of export resources and competitive products is an important advantage of Ukrainian products on the world market. Practical studies have shown that the volume of production and export of Ukrainian grain to international markets also depends on the world grain market. Value/originality. These studies make it possible to determine the country’s place in grain exports to international markets and factors influencing the development of international trade.
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Peterson, G. L., T. B. Whitaker, R. J. Stefanski, E. V. Podleckis, J. G. Phillips, J. S. Wu, and W. H. Martinez. "A Risk Assessment Model for Importation of United States Milling Wheat Containing Tilletia contraversa." Plant Disease 93, no. 6 (June 2009): 560–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis-93-6-0560.
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Dwarf bunt of wheat, caused by the fungus Tilletia contraversa, is a pathogen historically limited in distribution by its very specific climatic requirements for establishment. In an effort to both address the need for adequate protection and eliminate unwarranted trade barriers, a number of countries have examined restrictions on importing milling wheat containing teliospores of T. contraversa. Pest risk analysis (PRA), under the guidelines of the World Trade Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization, has become an internationally accepted process for evaluating such issues. As a component of a dwarf bunt PRA, our objective was to develop a quantitative mathematical model to evaluate and communicate the potential risk of dwarf bunt establishment from the importation of U.S. milling wheat containing teliospores of T. contraversa. A T. contraversa–risk model (TCK-risk model) was developed using new data, historic literature, and industry statistics to estimate teliospore diversion from transport and milling processes, spore contamination levels, grain handling, and end-product usage. A climatic model was developed to identify potential regions where the environment was favorable for disease development. The likelihood of disease establishment and wheat yield loss was determined using the model to conduct Monte Carlo simulations of 100,000 wheat shipping-years. The model is dynamic in that individual components can be easily updated or modified in order to determine the effect of numerous scenarios (e.g., climate changes, shipping tonnage, contamination levels, mitigation strategies) on the probability of dwarf bunt establishment. TCK-risk model evaluation scenarios previously conducted for the People's Republic of China, Brazil, Mexico, and Peru are presented as examples.
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Tang, Yuzhi, Quanqin Shao, Jiyuan Liu, Haiyang Zhang, Fan Yang, Wei Cao, Dan Wu, and Guoli Gong. "Did Ecological Restoration Hit Its Mark? Monitoring and Assessing Ecological Changes in the Grain for Green Program Region Using Multi-source Satellite Images." Remote Sensing 11, no. 3 (February 11, 2019): 358. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs11030358.
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Ecological restoration programs are expected to control environmental deterioration and enhance ecosystem functions under a scenario of increasing human disturbance. The largest ecological restoration program ever implemented in China, the first round of the countrywide Grain for Green Program (GGP), finished in 2010. However, it is not known whether the ecological changes that resulted from the GGP met the restoration goal across the whole implementation region. In this study, we monitored and assessed the ecological changes in the whole GGP region in China over the lifetime of the first round of implementation (2000–2010), by establishing a comprehensive assessment indicator system composed of ecosystem pattern, ecosystem quality (EQ), and key ecosystem services (ESs). Remote sensing interpretation, ecological model simulations based on multi-source images, and trend analysis were used to generate land use and land cover (LULC) datasets and estimate ES and ESs indicators. Results showed that while forest increased by 0.77%, artificial land increased more intensely by 22.38%, and cropland and grassland decreased by 1.81% and 0.68%, respectively. The interconversion of cropland and forest played a primary role in ecosystem pattern change. The increase in ecosystem quality measures, including fractional vegetation cover (0.1459% yr−1), leaf area index (0.0121 yr−1), and net primary productivity (2.6958 gC m−2 yr−1), and the mitigation of ecosystem services deterioration in soil water loss (−0.0841 t ha yr−1) and soil wind loss (−1.0071 t ha yr−1) in the GGP region, indicated the positive ecological change in the GGP region to some extent, while southern GGP subregions improved more than the those in the north on the whole. The GGP implementation other than climate change impacted ecological change, with contributions of 14.23%, 9.94%, 8.23%, 30.45%, and 18.05% in the ecological outputs mentioned above, respectively. However, the water regulation did not improve (−2283 t km−2 yr−1), revealing trade-offs between ecosystem services and inappropriate afforestation in ecological restoration programs. Future GGP implementation should change the practice of large-scale afforestation, and focus more on the restoration of existing forest and cultivation of young plantings, formulating rational and specific plans and designs for afforestation areas through the establishment of near-natural vegetation communities, instead of single-species plantations, guided by regional climate and geographical characteristics.
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Niu, Teng, Jiaxin Yu, Depeng Yue, Linzhe Yang, Xueqing Mao, Yahui Hu, and Qianqian Long. "The Temporal and Spatial Evolution of Ecosystem Service Synergy/Trade-Offs Based on Ecological Units." Forests 12, no. 8 (July 26, 2021): 992. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/f12080992.
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“Two ecological barriers and three shelters” (TEBTS), which has the effect of relieving ecological pressure, is the national ecological security pattern in China. Calculating the value of TEBTS ecosystem services, clarifying the synergy/trade-off relationships between ecosystem services, and maximizing the value of regional ecosystem services are of great significance for maintaining the security of the ecological civilization. At present, the research on ecosystem service synergy/trade-off has become the frontier field of ecology and related disciplines at home and abroad, and many research results have been obtained. However, there is still room and significance for continuing research to think about the synergy/trade-off relationship of ecosystems from the perspective of temporal and spatial heterogeneity: clarifying the spatial scope and spatial transmission characteristics of ecosystem service synergy/trade-off; exploring the trend of ecosystem service synergy/trade-off, and simulating the dynamic characteristics of natural factors affecting ecosystem services; and analyzing the characteristics of different spatial attributes that lead to the synergy/trade-off of ecosystem services. In this study, the Songhua River Basin (SRB), where the NFB is located, is used as the research area, the ecosystem services are simulated through the ecosystem assessment model, ecological unit (EU) is constructed as a research carrier, which is used to define the spatial scope of ecosystem services, and the influence of spatial characteristics and attribute characteristics on the change trend of the ecosystem service synergy/trade-off relationship is analyzed. The research found that water retention, soil conservation, and biodiversity did not change much from 2000 to 2015, and these ecosystem services have a greater value in the NFZ. The amount of carbon sequestration increased rapidly from 2010 to 2015. Crop production showed an increasing trend year by year. As the main grain production area, the Songnen Plain provides the main crop production function, which is greatly affected by humans. In the spatial characteristic, water retention, soil sequestration, and biodiversity present a very significant synergistic relationship, which is manifested in the obvious high-value aggregation characteristics in the NFZ, and crop production and the other four types of ecosystem services are in a trade-off relationship. At the time scale, the four types of ecosystem services, including water retention, soil conservation, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration, are synergistic, and crop production and water retention are synergistic. The vegetation types exhibiting a synergy/trade-off relationship are mainly broad-leaved forests, and the soil types are mainly luvisols and phaeozems. These EUs are mainly distributed in the NFZ and have spatial topological characteristics: the area and circumference of these EUs are smaller, the radius of gyration is also significantly smaller than that of other EUs, and the shape is more regular. By focusing on the spatial aggregation characteristics and changing trends of the ecosystem service synergy/trade-off and clarifying the influencing factors of the ecosystem service synergy/trade-off, the ecosystem services can be integrated, and the ecosystem can be optimized. Thus, the value of regional ecosystem services can be maximized, and a certain data foundation and theoretical support can be provided for major projects, such as ecological restoration and ecological environment governance, which is of great significance for improving the pattern of ecological security.
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Delgado, C. L., C. B. Courbois, and M. W. Rosegrant. "Global food demand and the contribution of livestock as we enter the new millennium." BSAP Occasional Publication 21 (1998): 27–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0263967x00032043.
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AbstractPeople in developed countries currently consume about three to four times as much meat and fish and five to six times as much milk products per capita as in developing Asia and Africa. Meat, milk and fish consumption per capita has barely grown in the developed countries as a whole over the past 20 years. Yet poor people everywhere clearly desire to eat more animal protein products as their incomes rise above the poverty level and as they become urbanized. Growth in per capita consumption and production has in fact occurred in regions such as developing Asia and most particularly China. Per capita consumption of animal proteins and use of cereals for animal food in Asia have both grown in the 3 to 5% per annum range over the past 20 years. By 2020, according to the International Food Policy Research Institute's IMPACT model projections, the share of developing countries in total world meat consumption will expand from 47% currently to 63%. Of the global total projected increase in meat consumption, 40% is from pork, 30% is from poultry and 24% is from beef. The latter helps mitigate the otherwise much larger decline in real beef prices expected through 2020. Projected annual growth in meat consumption in China of 3.2% per annum through 2020, up from 8.3% per annum from the early 1980s to the early 1990s, drives these results.A rapidly expanding supply of feedgrains will be essential to achieving the desired production increases for livestock products without undue upwards pressure on grain prices, especially in view of the rôle of monogastrics and the relative increase in industrial production in developing countries. IMPACT projections under various technical and economic assumptions suggest that there is enough production supply response in world systems to accomplish these production increases smoothly. Sensitivity analysis of the impact of restrictions on China's ability to produce more feedgrains illustrates that in a system of linked global markets for cereals and livestock products, such restrictions are not effective at lowering Chinese livestock consumption, which is driven by global trade in manufactures, although they do lower Chinese livestock production. The resulting imbalance raises world food costs by one-third in 2020 over anticipated levels, encourages increased livestock exports from Latin America, discourages livestock exports from the USA and reduces meat and cereals imports and consumption in the poorer countries of Africa and Asia.
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Tong, Guijie, shaohua Wu, Yujie Yuan, Fufu Li, Lian Chen, and Daohao Yan. "Modeling of Trace Metal Migration and Accumulation Processes in a Soil-Wheat System in Lihe Watershed, China." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 11 (November 1, 2018): 2432. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112432.
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Samples of wheat and soil were collected in the Lihe watershed in East China, the migration and accumulation processes of four common trace metals (Cu, Pb, Cd and Ni) in each part of the wheat plant (root, stem, leaf and grain) were analyzed, and a mechanistic model was proposed to simulate these processes based on wheat growth techniques. Model results show that Cu and Cd migrate more easily with wheat grains, while most Pb and Ni accumulate in roots. Modeling results were shown to be relatively good, with an error of 25.29% in value and 26.38% in fluctuation, and had smaller dispersion degree than actual measurement results. Monte Carlo simulation results also match quite well with actual measurement results, and modeling results are slightly smaller in the simulation of Leaf-Cu, Grain-Cu and Leaf-Ni. Trace metal pollution risk in wheat is evaluated based on this model; our results show that the northwest and northeast parts in the research area are not suitable for growing wheat. In general, this model is relatively accurate, and can evaluate the wheat pollution risk before seeding wheat, providing scientific references for the early selection of wheat safety sowing areas.
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Gregory Veeck. "Grains in China: Foodgrain, Feedgrain, and World Trade (review)." China Review International 14, no. 1 (2008): 318–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/cri.0.0028.
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Csapóné Riskó, Tünde, Ádám Péntek, and Troy Wiwczaroski. "Bread consumption habits in the gluten free diet." Applied Studies in Agribusiness and Commerce 11, no. 3-4 (December 31, 2017): 113–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.19041/apstract/2017/3-4/16.
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Gluten is a protein found in many grain products. Celiac disease is a genetic autoimmune disorder characterized by sensitivity to gluten. When a person with celiac disease consumes gluten, his/her immune system perceives the gluten to be a harmful substance and reacts negatively. The only treatment for individuals with celiac disease is lifelong adherence to a gluten-free diet. It is one of the most frequent and well defined of all lifelong diseases. In Hungary, 1-2 % of the population is said to be affected, but only every 10th has been diagnosed. Bread is a basic and frequently consumed food made principally from wheat. Gluten is the main structure-forming protein in flour, and is responsible for the elastic characteristics of dough, and contributes to the crumb structure and appearance of many baked products. Gluten removal results in major problems for bakers. Currently many gluten-free products available on the market are of low quality, exhibiting poor mouth feel and flavour. People wishing to eat bread in the gluten-free diet basically have two options: buying or baking the bread for themselves. There are several gluten-free bread brands are available on the Hungarian market. The price, ingredients, texture, colour, softness of the available breads are different. There is a rather good choice in gluten-free flour mixtures on the Hungarian market, as well. The composition of these mixtures are also different. The aim of our empirical research was to investigate the gluten-free bread consumption habits of people following gluten-free diet. The research was carried out using Google forms in January 2017. Size of the sample is 196. The online form was shared in four closed gluten free Facebook groups in Hungary since they are really active in sharing information concerning gluten-free lifestyle and diet. Summarizing, in this study we wish to examine how evolve the world pork meat production, trade and consumption, and to demonstrate the main consuming countries, highlighting the role of China, as it is the most populated country in the world with its 1.4 billion inhabitants.
JEL Code: M31