Academic literature on the topic 'Government aid to private schools, N.S.W'

List of abstracts and authors:1. Comparative benefits of Atypical antipsychoticsDiana P Morrison2. Evidence-based management of depression in SchizophreniaAndre F Joubert3. Second generation Antipsychotics: An African updateDave Swingler4. The drug management of patients with HIV/Aids in the Mental Health Care setting: A therapeutic challengeDenise White5. New developments in the treatment of Bipolar depressionJospeh R Calabrese6. Dual action antidepressants: Faster onset, more remission, better value?Roger M Pinder7. Antisocial personality disorder: A reviewDonald W Black8. The South African study of stress and health: An overviewDavid R Williams9. Ugliness is in the eye of the beholder: Psychiatric apsects of body image disturbanceDavid Castle10. Over diagnosed or under recognized? Treating ADHDDora Wynchank11. The contagious effects of trauma and their impact on human service organisationsKerry Gibson12. Temporal lobe epilepsy in adolescence - 'Understanding the narrative'Helen Clark13. The effectiveness of treatment programs for Methaqualone (Mandrax) dependenceGreg McCarthy, Nandi Siegfried, Bronwyn Myers14. Community influence on alcohol and marijuanaAlan J Flisher, Robyn Mallett, Gary King, Neo Morojele, Martie Muller, Carl Lombard15. Psychiatric presentations of medical illnessSebastian Akalula16. Imaging of brain function using SpectJames Warwick17. Selected neuropsychological test performances and SSRI usageTheophilus Lazarus18. Comparative effectiveness and safety of antipsychotic treatments for outpatient SchizophreniaFrans Korb, Adel Sadak, Aly Akram, Sunar Birsoz, Abderrahmane Belaid19. Evidence-based mental healthcare - What do you know, think, feel?Nandi Siegfried, George Swingler, Soraya Seedat, Martie Muller, Rachel Churchill, Dan Stein20. Competitions Act - Anti-competitive health care practicesZ Nthakwana21. Unique approach to mental wellness by medical SchemesPetro Kempen22. What happens to my medical aid contribution?Eugene Allers23. Financial issues in a modern private practiceMike Edwards24. Transcranial magnetic stimulation: Uses in brain function research and medical interventionAlan St Clair Gibson25. The Neurochemistry of dreams: Implications for PsychiatryMark Solms26. Tenascin-R expression in the Central Nervvous system of lower vertebratesRuth Jarvis, N-. Hsu, P. Pesheva and D.M. Lang25. Localisation of the Nogo-A receptor in Neronal Lipid raftsEdward Nyatia, D.M. Lang26. Characterising an animal model for early life trauma using time dependent sensitisationJoachim D.K. Uys, Willie M.U. Daniels, Dan J. Stein27. Tolmetin affords protection against Quinoclinic acid induced Neurotoxixity in Rat brainAmichand Dairam, S Daya28. Acetaminophen and aspirin inhibit superoxide anion generation and Lipid Peroxidation, and protect against 1-Methyl-4Phenyl Pyridinim-induced Dopaminergic Neurotoxicity in ratsH. Maharaj, D.S. Maharaj, K. S. Saravanan, K.P. Mohanakumar, S. Daya29. Can exercise provide Neuroprotection in a rat model for Parkinson's disease?M Mabandla, L Kellaway, A St Clair Gibson, M Lambert, V Russell30. Treatment of rapid cycling Bipolar disorderJoseph R. Calabrese31. Depression as a Neurodegenerative Disorder: The need for achieving remissionRoger M Pinder32. Side-effects induced by modern antidepressants- Overview and managementFranco Colin33. The Placebo response in antidepressant clinical trialsRobin Emsley34. Impulse control disorders: An overviewDonald W. Black35. Post traumatic stress disorder: The Wits trauma clinic experienceUgash Subramaney36. Post traumatic stress disorder among recently diagnosed patients with HIV in South AfricaSoraya Seedat, Bo Olley, D J Stein37. Improving outcome in SchizophreniaDiana P Morrison38. Reviewing post Graduate trainingCliff W Allwood39. Ethics in HIV ResearchKeimanthro Moodley40. Improving and maintaining ethical standrads in Psychiatric researchTuviah Zabow=============================================================Posters: Neurosciences section (Presenting author only)1. Blunted Acth response correlates with altered Neurotransmitter function in maternally separatedratsW M U Daniels2. A mechanism for zinc toxicity in Neuroblastoma cellsW M U Daniels3. The effects of Hypericum Perforatum, Quercetin, and Fluoxetine on receptor densities in the Rat BrainL Heiderman4. Trichotillomania and obsessive-compulsive disorder: Clinical and genetic comparisons within a South African populationS M J Hemmings5. Expression of Nogo-A in the amphibian central nervous systemN. J. Hsu6. Biochemical model for inflammation of the brain: The role of iron, transferring and toxiferring in Lipid PeroxidationS J Van Rensburg7. Improvement in Alzheimer's disease patients with antioxidant supplementation over 15 monthsS J Van Rensburg8. The Placebo effect - Is it all in the mind?S J Van Rensburg9. Very low serum iron concentrations in elderly patients with active CarcinomaS J van Rensburg10. Melatonin affords protection against Rotenone-induced NeurotoxicityR John11. Effect of enriched environment on Ca uptake via NMDA receptors into barrel cortex slices of spontaneously HypertensiveratsM Lehohla12. Effects of Methylpenidate in a rat model for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderG. L. S. Lelaka13. 6-Hydroxymelatonin converts Fe (III) to Fe(II) and reduces iron-induced Lipid PeroxidationD S Maharaj14. Metrofinate Potentiates Quinolinic Acid and Potassium Cyanide induced NeurotoxicityA Ramsunder15. The effect of chronic Intra-Amylgdala CRF injections on rat behaviour and HPA-Axis functionL Richter16. Effect of Glutamate in the Prefrontal Cortex of a rat model for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderV Russell17. An investigation into the relationship between Corticosterone and Neuron Cell deathP J Van Vuuren=============================================================41. Blunted Acth response correlates with altered Neurotransmitter function in maternally separated RatsW M U Daniels, C Y Pietersen, M E Carstens, D J Stein42. A mechanism for Zinc Toxicity in NeuroBlastoma CellsW M U Daniels, J Hendricks, R Salie, S J Van Rensburg43. The effects of Hypericum Perforatum, Quercetin and Fluoxetine on receptor densities in the rat brainL Heideman and S Daya44. Trichotillomania and obsessive-compulsive disorder: Clinical and genetic comparisons withn a South African populationS M J Hemmings, C J Kinnear, C Lochner, H Moolman-Smook, D J H Niehaus, V Corfield, D J Stein45. Expression of Nogo-A in the amphibian central nervous systemN. J. Hsu, R Jarvis, D. M. Lang46. Biochemical model for inflammation of the brain: The role of iron, transferring and Toxiferring in Lipid PeroxidationS J Van Rensburg, R T Erasmus, J M van Zyl, D Hon, W M U Daniels, F C V Potocnik, M J Kotze, N J De Villiers, P R Hurly47. Improvement in Alzheimer's Disease patients with antioxidant supplementation over 15 monthsS J van Rensburg, F C V Potocnik, J M Van Zyl, B J Van der Walt, D Hon, A Roos, E Rienhardt, R T Erasmus48. The Placebo effect - Is it all in the mind?S J van Rensburg, R A Emsley, C M Smuts, M Kidd, S Van der Merwe, C C Myburgh, P Oosthuizen, H Bleeker49. Very low serum Iron concentrations in elderly patients with active CarcinomaS J van Rensburg, R Erasmus, D Hon, C Bouwens50. Melatonin affords protection against Rotenone-induced NeurotoxicityR John, S Daya51. Effect of enriched environment on Ca uptake via NMDA Receptors into barrel Cortex slices of spontaneously Hypertensive ratsM Lehohla, V Russell, L Kellaway52. Effects of Methylpenidate in a rat model for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderG. L. S. Lelaka, V. A. Russel, L. A. Kellaway53. 6-Hydroxymelatonin converts Fe (III) to Fe (II) and reduces iron-induced Lipid PeroxidationD S Maharaj, S Daya54. Metrofinate Potentiates Quinolinic Acid and Potassium Cyanide induced NeurotoxicityA Ramsunder, S Daya55. The effect of chronic Intra-Amygdala CRF injections on rat behaviour and HPA-Axis functionL Richter, W Daniels, D J Stein56. Effect of Glutamate in the Prefrontal Cortex of a rat model for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderV Russell, M Lehohla, L Kellaway57. An investigation into the relationship between Corticosterone and Neuron cell deathP J Van Vuuren, J Hendricks, W M U Daniels=============================================================Posters: Psychiatry Section1. Descriptive study of Tardive Dyskinesia in a South African Xhosa populationS Brink2. Alcohol drinking problems at three urban High Schools in UmtataO Alonso Betancourt3. Childhood and adolescent sexual abuse - Demographic, traumatic and clinical signpostsP D Carey4. Inositol in the treatment of Obsessive Compulsive DisorderP D Carey5. A review of factors associated with Suicidal behaviour in children and adolescents admitted to Tygerberg HospitalT Du Plessis6. Psychological and physical outcomes fo elective abortion; Local Anaesthesia vs Intravenous SedationT Ericksen7. Mental health literacy of Human Resource Practitioners in South AfricaC J Hugo8. The importance of a specialized clinic for the care of patients with first episodes of psychosisN Keyter9. Self-report vs Urinary drug screening in Schizophrenia: A pilot studyL Koen10. The effect of aggression on the use of Psychotropics in Schizophrenia: A naturalistic studyH Lategan11. Factor analysis of obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders in patients with obssessive-compulsive disorder: Clinical and Genetic correlatesC Lochner12. Experiences in obsessive-compulsive Disorder and Trichotillomania: Role of childhood traumaC Lochner13. Delusional systems in Xhosa Schizophrenia SibpairsJ E Muller14. OCD Heteogeneity reflected by lack of Genealogically determined founder effectD J H Niehaus15. The efficacy and tolerbaility of low-dose vs standard dose Haloperidol in first episode Psychosis. A randomised, double-blind studyP P Oosthuizen16. Treatment with low-dose Haloperidol does not protect against Tardive DyskinesiaP P Oosthuizen17. Do healthcare funders discriminate against members on the grounds of mental illness?O Scholtz18. Treatment strategies in patients with Clozaopine-resistant Schizophrenia at Stikland Hospital: A critical evaluation of one optionA Schulte19. Early coadministration of Clonazepam with Paroxetine for generalized social anxiety disorderS Seedat20. Trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress symptoms in adolescents: A schools' survey in Cape Town (South Africa) and Nairobi (Kenya)S Seedat21. The QTC effects of Thioridazine when used as a second line Anti-psychotic ( at Stikland Hospital)C Seller22. Brain imaging and substance related disordersD J Stein23. Gender differences in trauma exposure & post traumatic stress disorder in a clinic sampleS Suliman24. Assessing the prevalence of anxiety and depressive symptoms among clinica at Tygerbeg Academic Hospital and controlsH Van der Bijl25. Pharmacological challenge with a serotonin ID Agonist in alcohol dependenceB Vythilingum26. The treatment of ADHD in adultsW Verbeeck=============================================================58. Descriptive study of Tardive Dyskinesia in a South African Xhosa populationS Brink, D J H Niehaus, L Koen, J E Muller59. Alcohol drinking problems at three Urban High Schools in UmtataO Alonso Betancourt, M Morales Herrera60. Childhood and adolescent sexual abuse - Demographic, traumatic and clinical signpostsP D Carey, J Walker, S Seedat, D J Stein61. Inositol in the treatment of obsessive compulsive DisorderP D Carey, S Seedat, D J Stein62. A review of factors associated with suicidal behaviour in children and adolescents admitted to Tygerberg HospitalT Du Plessis, S M Hawkridge, F H Theron, S A Du Plessis63. Psychological and physical outcomes of elective abortion: Local anaestheisa vs Intravenous sedationT Ericksen, S Seedat, P Labuschagne, D J Stein64. Mental health literacy of Human resource practitioners in South AfricaC J Hugo, H D Vos, D J Stein65. The importance of a specialized clinic for the care of patients with first episodes of psychosisN Keyter, P P Oosthuizen, R A Emsley, H J Turner66. Self-reort vs urinary drug screening in Schizophrenia: A pilot studyL Koen, D J H Niehaus, J E Muller, C Seller, N Keyter67. The effect of aggression on the use of Psychotropics in Schizophrenia: A naturalistic studyH Lategan, L Koen, D J H Niehaus68. Factor analysis of obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders in patients with obsessive-compulsive Disorder: Clinical and genetic correlatesC Lochner, D J H Niehaus, S M J Hemmings, C J Kinnear, V A Corfield, J C Moolman-Smook, D J Stein69. Experiences in obsessive-compulsive disorder and Trichotillomania: Role of childhood traumaC Lochner, S Seedat, P D Carey, D J Stein70. Delusional systems in Xhosa Schizophrenia SibpairsJ E Muller, D J H Niehaus, L Koen, C Seller, N Keyter, C Laurent, R A Emsley71. OCD Heteogeneity reflected by lack of Genealogically determined founder effectD J H Niehaus, L Endeman, I Bosman, S Hemmings, C Lochner, L Koen, H Moolman-Smook, V A Corfield, D J Stein72. The efficacy and tolerability of low-dose vs standard dose Haloperidol in first episode Psychosis. A randomised, double-blind studyP P Oosthuizen, R A Emsley, H J Turner, N Keyter73. Treatment with low-dose Haloperidol does not protect against Tardive DyskinesiaP P Oosthuizen, R A Emsley, H J Turner, N Keyter74. Do healthcare funders discriminate against members on the grounds of mental illness?O Scholtz, P P Oosthuizen, C Hugo, B Richards75. Treatment strategies in patients with Clozapine resistant Schizophrenia at Stikland Hospital: A critical evaluation of one optionA Schulte, D J H Niehaus, L Koen, J E Muller, P P Oosthuizen, R A Emsley76. Early coadministration of Clonazepam with Paroxetine for generalised Social Anxiety DisorderS Seedat, M B Stein77. Trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress symptoms in adolescents: A schools' survey in Cape Town (South Africa) and Nairobi (Kenya)S Seedat, C Nyamap, F Njenga, B Vythilingum, D J Stein78. The QTC effects of Thioridazine when used as a second line Antipsychotic (at Stikland Hospital)C Seller, P P Oosthuizen79. Brain imaging and substance related disordersD J Stein80. Gender differences in trauma exposure & post traumatic stress disorder in a clinic sampleS Suliman, S Seedat, F Gxama, J Walker, W Rossouw81. Assessing the prevalence of anxiety and depressive symptoms among clinicians at Tygerberg Academic Hospital and controlsH Van der Bijl, P P Oosthuizen82. Pharmacological challenge with a Serotonin ID agonist in alcohol dependenceB Vythilingum, C Wessels, S Maritz, W P Pienaar, D J Stein83. The treatment of ADHD in adultsW Verbeeck

This paper examines the manner of reconciling the concepts of Public Administration as a discipline and the contemporary actual realities in the Philippines as carried out by the National College of Public Administration and Governance of the University of the Philippines, Diliman. As a center of academic excellence and bestowed with the mandate of advancing nation-building into which utterance of identity is an implicit element, there is no other academic institution where expectations to advance the development of a ‘grounded’ public policy is so high than the said College. The paper studies the research direction of the NCPAG vis a vis its role in strengthening Philippine Public Administration both as discipline and praxis by developing approaches that are culturally and socially grounded in the Philippine society. The paper however limited its scrutiny to the epistemological element of the researches. Through content analysis, the article analyzed the theoretical frameworks used in the dissertations covered by the study and tries to answer the question of whether or not there is an attempt to develop, let alone to utilize in its analysis of phenomena, an indigenous theory. Initial results of the study had been juxtaposed to the academic orientation, research interests, and history of the College. References Books: Abueva, J. (1995). The Presidency and the Nation-State. In P. Tapales & N. Pilar (Eds.), Public Administration by the Year 2000: Looking Back into the Future (pp. 575-582). Quezon City: College of Public Administration. Abueva, J. (2007). From IPA to NCPAG: Some Reflections. In C. Alfiler (Ed.), Public Administration plus Governance: Assessing the Past, Addressing the Future (pp. 675-684). Quezon City: National College of Public Administration and Governance. Alfiler, M. C. Public Administration plus Governance: Assessing the Past, Addressing the Future. Quezon City: National College of Public Administration and Governance, 2007. Cariño, L. (2007). Traditional Public Administration to Governance: Research in NCPAG, 1952-2002, Public Administration plusGovernance: Assessing the Past, Addressing the Future (pp. 685-706). Quezon City:National College of Public Administration and Governance. Reyes, D. (1995). Life Begins at Forty: An Inquiry on Administrative Theory in the Philippines and the Structure of Scientific Revelations. In P. Tapales & N. Pilar (Eds.), Public Administration by the Year 2000: Looking Back into the Future (pp. 18-73). Quezon City: College of Public Administration. Tapales, P. & Pilar, N. Public Administration by the Year 2000: Looking Back into the Future. Quezon City: National College of Public Administration and Governance, 1995. Journal Articles: Abueva, J. “Ideals and Practice in the Study of Public Administration and Governance.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 52, nos. 2-4 (2008): 119-138. Brillantes, A. & Fernandez, M. “Is There a Philippine Public Administration? Or Better Still For Whom is Philippines Public Administration.” Philipine Journal of Public Administration 52, nos. 2-4 (2008). Brillantes, A. & Fernandez, M. “Theory and Practice of Public Administration in the Philippines: Concerns for an Identity Crisis.” Asian Journal of Political Science 21, no. 1 (2013): 80-101. Brillantes, A. & Montes, R. “Federalism: Logical Step After Devolution?” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 51, nos. 1-4 (2007): 1-32. Cariño, L. “From Traditional Public Administration to Governance Tradition.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 50, nos. 1-4 (2006): 1-22. Cariño, L. “Is There a Philippine Public Administration?” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 30, no. 4 (1986): 375-381. Corpuz, O. “Is There a Philippine Public Administration?” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 30, no. 4 (1986): 368-374. Dela Cruz, L. “Research Directions and Trajectory of the University of the Philippines Asian Center.” Scientia 4, no. 1 (2015): 48-67. Dela Cruz, L. “The Language of the Self: A Critical Assessment of Filipino Philosophy Theses Exploring the Filipino Self in University of the Philippines – Diliman.” Scientia 4, no. 2 (2015): 144-171. De Guzman, R. “Is There a Philippine Public Administration?.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 30, no. 4 (1986): 375-382. Domingo, M.O. “Indigenous Leadership and Governance.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 48, nos. 1 & 2 (2004): 1-32. Englehart, J. “The Marriage between Theory and Practice.” Public Administration Review 61, no. 3 (2001): 371-374. Haque, M. S. “Theory and Practice of Public Administration in Southeast Asia: Traditions, Directions, and Impacts.” International Journal of Public Administration 30 (2007): 1297-1326. Hodder, R. “The Philippine Legislature and Social Relationships: Toward the Formalization of the Polity?” Philippine Studies 53, no. 4 (2005): 563-598. Llanera, T. “Ethnocentrism: Lessons from Richard Rorty to Randy David.” Philippine Sociological Review 65, special issue (2017): 135-149. Nolasco, L. “Prehistory and Early History of Philippine Public Administration.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 55, nos. 1 & 2 (2011): 21-46. Penalosa, M. C. “Administrative Reform and Indigenization.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 58, no. 2 (2014): 195-223. Rafael, E. “Philippine Problems are Problems of Modernity, Not of Transition.” Philippine Sociological Review 65, special issue (2017): 151-175. Reyes, D. “The Identity Crisis in Philippine Public Administration Revisited.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 23, no. 1 (1979): 1-19. Reyes, D. “The Study of Administrative History: Philippine Public Administration as an Historical Discipline.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 52, nos. 2-4 (2008). Ricote, E. “Philippine Public Administration as a Field of Study, Enduring and Emerging Areas, Challenges, and Prospects.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 52, nos. 2- 4 (2008): 167-194. Sampaco-Baddiri, M. “New Institutionalism and Public Administration.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 55, nos. 1 & 2 (2011): 1-20. Sto. Tomas, P. & Mangahas, J. “Public Administration and Governance.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration 50, nos. 1-4 (2006): 54-89. Thornhill, C. & Van Dijk, G. “Public Administration Theory: Justification for Conceptualisation.” Journal of Public Administration 45, no. 1.1 (2010): 95-110. Wilson, W. “The Study of Administration.” Political Science Quarterly 2, no. 2 (1887): 197-222. Unpublished Dissertations Abad-Sarmiento, L. (2005). An Assessment of the Administrative Capability of Local Governments in the National Capital Region in Implementing the Gender Mainstreaming Policy. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Abdon Jr., N.B. (November 2000). Religiosity, Ethical Practice and Performance: The Case of the Bureau of Internal Revenue. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Abdulrachman, S.M. (June 1991). The Relationship Between Religious Beliefs and Public Responsibility: A Case Study Among Maranao Muslim Public Administrators. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Alcid, R.G. (March 2007). E-Governance Perspective to Strengthen the Policy and Institutional Framework for ICT in the Philippines. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Ati, M.P. (December 1996). Process Assessment of the Implementation of Integrated Approach to Local Development Management in Davao City. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Bajao, A.R. (2009). Philippine Counterinsurgency Programs From Marcos to Arroyo: A Study in National Security Administration. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Bambalan, G.C. (2005). Elements of Sustainability in Philippine Forest Governance: An Analysis of the Community-Based Forest Management and Integrated Forest Management Programs in Isabela, Quirino, Aurora, and Negros Oriental, Philippines. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Bautista-Cruz, C. (April 2007). Strengthening Institutional Capacity for Disaster Reduction: The Cases of the Local Governments of Marikina, Pasig, and Pateros. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Boceta, N.M. (March 2003). The Development and Regulatory Functions of the Philippine Coconut Authority: 1973-2000. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Buendia, E.E. (May 2001). Democratizing Governance in the Philippines: Redefining and measuring the State of People’s Participation in Governance. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Caraan, H.S. (2010). Public-Private Sectors’ Role in the Clean Administration of Labor Justice: Transforming a Problematic Confluence into a Confluent Solution. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Carmona, C.V. (November 2003). Judicial Review of Economic Policies: Implications on Policymaking and Implementation. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Clavejo, L.A. (April 2008). Strategies for Crisis Management: The Responses of China to SARS and Avian Flu Pandemics and Lessons for the Philippines. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Co, E.A. (July 1997). Management Policy Formulation: The Generics Act of 1988. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Cuaresma, J.C. (April 13, 2008). Institutionalization of Geographic Information System for RPTA in Seven Philippine Local Government Units: Enabling and Hindering Factors. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Dimzon, C. (October 2003). An Evaluation of the Pre-Departure Orientation Seminar Program for Women Overseas Household Workers: Implications for Good Governance. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. De Vera III, J.E. (July 1999). A Comparative Study of Policy Decisions on Population Management in Selected Local Legislative Bodies in Pangasinan and Cebu. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Domingo, M.Z. (November 2004). Good Governance of Civil Society Organizations and the Role of Boards. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Domingo-Almase, A.D. (March 2007). A Saga of Administrative Thought in Presidential Rhetoric: An Analysis of the State of the Nation Addresses and Speeches of Philippine Presidents, 1935-2006. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Doncillo, H.V. (June 1995). Beneficiaries and Business Sector Participation, Administrative Capability and Effectiveness of a Solid Waste Management Service: The Case of Metro Cebu. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Dumrichob, S. (June 1990). An Assessment of a Rural Employment Program: The Case of the Program for Rural Employment Creation in Thailand. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Eclar, V.B. (April 1991). Analysis of Policies and Factors Affecting Successful Commercialization of Technologies. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Espinoza-Abadingo, L.M. (April 1990).The Administration of Elections in the Philippines: A Study of the Commission on Elections. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Ferrer, O.P. (May 2006). Community Governance: Understanding Community Processes and Initiatives. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Francisco, R.B. (March 2007). Sound Development Management in Urban Renewal and Slum Upgrading: The Case of National Government Center (West Side) Commonwealth Avenue, Quezon City. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Gaffud, R.B. (March 1995). Strengthening Market Leverage of People’s Enterprise and Promoting Self-Reliance: A Framework for Collaboration Between Cooperatives and Local Governments. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Garcia, J.G. (November 1995). Academe-Based Extension Services for Agricultural Development: A Study of the Administration of a Comprehensive UPLB Project. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Garcia Jr., M.F. (November 1995). Reorganization of the Philippine Fisheries Research System. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Gavino Jr., J.C. (1992). A Critical Study of the Regulation of the Telephone Utility: Some Options for Policy Development. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Genato-Rebullida, M.G. (April 1990). Church Development Perspective: Policy Formulation and Implementation. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Gonzales, B.V. (2009). The Development Promise of Corporate Social Responsibility in Education: Energy Development Corporation’s Role in Improving School Performance. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Gonzales, E. (1972-1990). The Philippine Agrarian Reform Program. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Hofer, D.K. (April 2005). Local Government Unit Bond Flotation for Financing Development in the Philippine Setting: Case Studies and Vital Lessons Learned. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Imdad, M.P. (2010). Dynamics and Perspectives of Aid Management in the Philippines: Achievements, Challenges, and the Way Forward. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Jimenez, G.P. (2005). Selected Credit Programs for Farmer-Based Postharvest Enterprise: An Assessment. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Lamarca, F.J. (April 1992). The Tobacco Contract Growing Project of the National Tobacco Administration in the Province of La Union: An Assessment of Administrative Capability, Participation, Trading Practices and Effectiveness. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Legaspi, P.E. (March 1990). The Genesis, Viability, and Effectiveness of Community Organizations: The Case of Pangasinan Credit Cooperatives. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Legayada, B.L. (October 1992). Career Advancement of Women Managers in the Philippine Bureaucracy: A Case Study of Region VI. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Librea, R.C. (January 2010). Mainstreaming Human Rights-Based Approach in Selected Development and Governance Projects. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Macaayong, H.W. (May 1992). Small and Medium Enterprises Development: A Study on Program Administration and Effectiveness in the Province of Lanao Del Sur. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Mallari, N.H. (1994). Political Economy of Philippine Public Enterprises. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Maxino-Yorobe, G.A. (November 1995). Administrative Factors in Agricultural R and D Projects. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Legaspi, P.E. (March 1990). The Genesis, Viability, and Effectiveness of Community Organizations: The Case of Pangasinan Credit Cooperatives. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Morato, E.A. (2004). Policies and Strategies for Promoting Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Development. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Moreno, F. (2004). Good Governance in Microcredit Strategy for Poverty Reduction: Focus on Western Mindanao. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Navarro, R.L. (April 1992). Public-Private Partnership in Development Administration: GO-NGO Collaboration in Agricultural Development. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Noval, M.G. (June 1994). Measuring and Accessing the Quality, Equity, and Efficiency of Public Hospitals in the Philippines. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Ogbinar, E.R. (1990). The Role of Government in the Development of the Philippine Maritime Industry and in the Promotion of Maritime Safety. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Oguejiofor, A.C. (March 2010). Challenges to Microfinance as a Poverty Reduction Strategy: Evidences from the Philippines. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Ortiz, J.I. (March 2002). Participatory Development Planning; The Bondoc Development Program Experience. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Paje, R.P. (June 1999). Decentralizing Philippine Environment and Natural Resources Management: An Analysis of the Devolution of Community-Based Upland Development Programs. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Panganiban, E.M. (1990). Toward a Democratic-Efficient Framework of Local Government in the Philippines: Some Policy Criteria. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Prakash, I.G. (October 2006). Partnership Among Government, Private Sector and Civil Society: Improving Services in the Philippine Disability Sector. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Pujiono (1998). An Assessment of the Administrative Capability for Disaster Preparedness of Three Municipalities. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. Reyes, D. (June 1995). A Search for Heritage. 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One of the first challenges faced by new Australian Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd, was what to do with the former government’s controversial citizenship test. While a quick evaluation of the test shows that 93 percent of those who have sat it ‘passed’ (Hoare), most media controversy has focussed less on the validity of such a test than whether questions relating to Australian cricketing legend, Don Bradman, are appropriate (Hawley). While the citizenship test seems nothing more that a crude and populist measure imposed by the former Howard government in its ongoing nationalistic agenda, which included paying schools to raise the Australian flag (“PM Unfurls Flag”), its imposition seems a timely reminder of the challenge of understanding citizenship today. For as the demographic structures around us continue to change, so must our understandings of ‘citizenship’. More importantly, this fluid understanding of citizenship is not limited to academics, and policy-makers, but new technologies, the processes of globalisation including a globalised media, changing demographic patterns including migration, as well as environmental challenges that place pressure on limited resources is altering the citizens understanding of their own role as well as those around them. This paper aims to sketch out a proposed new research agenda that seeks to investigate this fluid and heterogenous nature of citizenship. The focus of the research has so far been Sydney and is enveloped by a broader aim of promoting an increased level of citizen engagement both within formal and informal political structures. I begin by sketching the complex nature of Sydney before presenting some initial research findings. Sydney – A Complex City The so-called ‘emerald city’ of Sydney has been described in many ways: from a ‘global’ city (Fagan, Dowling and Longdale 1) to an ‘angry’ city (Price 16). Sarah Price’s investigative article included research from the University of Western Sydney’s Centre of Culture Research, the Bureau of Crime Statistics and interviews with Tony Grabs, the director of trauma at St Vincent’s Hospital in inner city Darlinghurst. Price found that both injuries from alcohol and drug-related violence had risen dramatically over the last few years and seemed to be driven by increasing frustrations of a city that is perceived to be lacking appropriate infrastructure and rising levels of personal and household debt. Sydney’s famous harbour and postcard landmarks are surrounded by places of controversy and poverty, with residents of very backgrounds living in close proximity: often harmoniously and sometimes less so. According to recent research by Griffith University’s Urban Research Program, the city is becoming increasingly polarised, with the wealthiest enjoying high levels of access to amenities while other sections of the population experiencing increasing deprivation (Frew 7). Sydney is often segmented into different regions: the growth corridors of the western suburbs which include the ‘Aspirational class’; the affluent eastern suburb; the southern beachside suburbs surrounding Cronulla affectionately known by local residents as ‘the Shire’, and so on. This, however, hides that fact that these areas are themselves complex and heterogenous in character (Frew 7). As a result, the many clichés associated with such segments lead to an over simplification of regional characteristics. The ‘growth corridors’ of Western Sydney, for example, have, in recent times, become a focal point of political and social commentary. From the rise of the ‘Aspirational’ voter (Anderson), seen to be a key ‘powerbroker’ in federal and state politics, to growing levels of disenfranchised young people, this region is multifaceted and should not be simplified. These areas often see large-scale, private housing estates; what Brendan Gleeson describes as ‘privatopias’, situated next to rising levels of homelessness (“What’s Driving”): a powerful and concerning image that should not escape our attention. (Chamberlain and Mackenzie pay due attention to the issue in Homeless Careers.) It is also home to a growing immigrant population who often arrive as business migrants and as well as a rising refugee population traumatised by war and displacement (Collins 1). These growth corridors then, seem to simultaneously capture both the ambitions and the fears of Sydney. That is, they are seen as both areas of potential economic boom as well as social stress and potential conflict (Gleeson 89). One way to comprehend the complexity associated with such diversity and change is to reflect on the proximity of the twin suburbs of Macquarie Links and Macquarie Fields situated in Sydney’s south-western suburbs. Separated by the clichéd ‘railway tracks’, one is home to the growing Aspirational class while the other continues to be plagued by the stigma of being, what David Burchell describes as, a ‘dysfunctional dumping ground’ whose plight became national headlines during the riots in 2005. The riots were sparked after a police chase involving a stolen car led to a crash and the death of a 17 year-old and 19 year-old passengers. Residents blamed police for the deaths and the subsequent riots lasted for four nights – involving 150 teenagers clashing with New South Wales Police. The dysfunction, Burchell notes is seen in crime statistics that include 114 stolen cars, 227 burglaries, 457 cases of property damage and 279 assaults – all in 2005 alone. Interestingly, both these populations are surrounded by exclusionary boundaries: one because of the financial demands to enter the ‘Links’ estate, and the other because of the self-imposed exclusion. Such disparities not only provide challenges for policy makers generally, but also have important implications on the attitudes that citizens’ experience towards their relationship with each other as well as the civic institutions that are meant to represent them. This is particular the case if civic institutions are seen to either neglect or favour certain groups. This, in part, has given rise to what I describe here as a ‘citizenship surplus’ as well as a ‘citizenship deficit’. Research Agenda: Investigating Citizenship Surpluses and Deficits This changing city has meant that there has also been a change in the way that different groups interact with, and perceive, civic bodies. As noted, my initial research shows that this has led to the emergence of both citizenship surpluses and deficits. Though the concept of a ‘citizen deficits and surpluses’ have not emerged within the broader literature, there is a wide range of literature that discusses how some sections of the population lack of access to democratic processes. There are three broad areas of research that have emerged relevant here: citizenship and young people (see Arvanitakis; Dee); citizenship and globalisation (see Della Porta; Pusey); and citizenship and immigration (see Baldassar et al.; Gow). While a discussion of each of these research areas is beyond the scope of this paper, a regular theme is the emergence of a ‘democratic deficit’ (Chari et al. 422). Dee, for example, looks at how there exist unequal relationships between local and central governments, young people, communities and property developers in relation to space. Dee argues that this shapes social policy in a range of settings and contexts including their relationship with broader civic institutions and understandings of citizenship. Dee finds that claims for land use that involve young people rarely succeed and there is limited, if any, recourse to civic institutions. As such, we see a democratic deficit emerge because the various civic institutions involved fail in meeting their obligations to citizens. In addition, a great deal of work has emerged that investigates attempts to re-engage citizens through mechanisms to promote citizenship education and a more active citizenship which has also been accompanied by government programs with the same goals (See for example the Western Australian government’s ‘Citizenscape’ program ). For example Hahn (231) undertakes a comparative study of civic education in six countries (including Australia) and the policies and practices with respect to citizenship education and how to promote citizen activism. The results are positive, though the research was undertaken before the tumultuous events of the terrorist attacks in New York, the emergence of the ‘war on terror’ and the rise of ‘Muslim-phobia’. A gap rises, however, within the Australian literature when we consider both the fluid and heterogenous nature of citizenship. That is, how do we understand the relationship between these diverse groups living within such proximity to each other overlayed by changing migration patterns, ongoing globalised processes and changing political environments as well as their relations to civic institutions? Further, how does this influence the way individuals perceive their rights, expectations and responsibilities to the state? Given this, I believe that there is a need to understand citizenship as a fluid and heterogenous phenomenon that can be in surplus, deficit, progressive and reactionary. When discussing citizenship I am interested in how people perceive both their rights and responsibilities to civic institutions as well as to the residents around them. A second, obviously related, area of interest is ‘civic engagement’: that is, “the activities of people in the various organisations and associations that make up what scholars call ‘civil society’” (Portney and Leary 4). Before describing these categories in more detail, I would like to briefly outline the methodological processes employed thus far. Much of the research to this point is based on a combination of established literature, my informal discussions with citizen groups and my observations as ‘an activist.’ That is, over the last few years I have worked with a broad cross section of community-based organisations as well as specific individuals that have attempted to confront perceived injustices. I have undertaken this work as both an activist – with organisations such as Aid/Watch and Oxfam Australia – as well as an academic invited to share my research. This work has involved designing and implementing policy and advocacy strategies including media and public education programs. All interactions begin with a detailed discussion of the aims, resources, abilities and knowledge of the groups involved, followed by workshopping campaigning strategies. This has led to the publication of an ‘activist handbook’ titled ‘From Sitting on the Couch to Changing the World’, which is used to both draft the campaign aims as well as design a systematic strategy. (The booklet, which is currently being re-drafted, is published by Oxfam Australia and registered under a creative commons licence. For those interested, copies are available by emailing j.arvanitakis (at) uws.edu.au.) Much research is also sourced from direct feedback given by participants in reviewing the workshops and strategies The aim of tis paper then, is to sketch out the initial findings as well as an agenda for more formalised research. The initial findings have identified the heterogenous nature of citizenship that I have separated into four ‘citizenship spaces.’ The term space is used because these are not stable groupings as many quickly move between the areas identified as both the structures and personal situations change. 1. Marginalisation and Citizenship Deficit The first category is a citizenship deficit brought on by a sense of marginalisation. This is determined by a belief that it is pointless to interact with civic institutions, as the result is always the same: people’s opinions and needs will be ignored. Or in the case of residents from areas such as Macquarie Fields, the relationship with civic institutions, including police, is antagonistic and best avoided (White par. 21). This means that there is no connection between the population and the civic institutions around them – there is no loyalty or belief that efforts to be involved in political and civic processes will be rewarded. Here groups sense that they do not have access to political avenues to be heard, represented or demand change. This is leading to an experience of disconnection from political processes. The result is both a sense of disengagement and disempowerment. One example here emerged in discussions with protesters around the proposed development of the former Australian Defence Industry (ADI) site in St Marys, an outer-western suburb of Sydney. The development, which was largely approved, was for a large-scale housing estate proposed on sensitive bushlands in a locality that resident’s note is under-serviced in terms of public space. (For details of these discussions, see http://www.adisite.org/.) Residents often took the attitude that whatever the desire of the local community, the development would go ahead regardless. Those who worked at information booths during the resident protests informed me that the attitude was one best summarised by: “Why bother, we always get stuffed around any way.” This was confirmed by my own discussions with local residents – even those who joined the resident action group. 2. Privatisation and Citizenship Deficit This citizenship deficit not only applies to the marginalised, however, for there are also much wealthier populations who also appear to experience a deficit that results from a lack of access to civic institutions. This tends to leads to a privatisation of decision-making and withdrawal from the public arena as well as democratic processes. Consequently, the residents in the pockets of wealth may not be acting as citizens but more like consumers – asserting themselves in terms of Castells’s ‘collective consumption’ (par. 25). This citizenship deficit is brought on by ongoing privatisation. That is, there is a belief that civic institutions (including government bodies) are unable or at least unwilling to service the local community. As a result there is a tendency to turn to private suppliers and believe that individualisation is the best way to manage the community. The result is that citizens feel no connection to the civic institutions around them, not because there is no desire, but there are no services. This group of citizens has often been described as the ‘Aspirationals’ and are most often found in the growth corridors of Sydney. There is no reason to believe that this group is this way because of choice – but rather a failure by government authorities to service their needs. This is confirmed by research undertaken as early as 1990 which found that the residents now labelled Aspirational, were demanding access to public infrastructure services including public schools, but have been neglected by different levels of government. (This was clearly stated by NSW Labor MP for Liverpool, Paul Lynch, who argued for such services as a way to ensure a functioning community particularly for Western Sydney; NSWPD 2001.) As a result there is a reliance on private schools, neighbourhoods, transport and so on. Any ‘why bother’ attitude is thus driven by a lack of evidence that civic institutions can or are not willing to meet their needs. There is a strong sense of local community – but this localisation limited to others in the same geographical location and similar lifestyle. 3. Citizenship Surplus – Empowered Not Engaged The third space of citizenship is based on a ‘surplus’ even if there is limited or no political engagement. This group has quite a lot in common with the ‘Aspirationals’ but may come from areas that are higher serviced by civic institutions: the choice not to engage is therefore voluntary. There is a strong push for self-sufficiency – believing that their social capital, wealth and status mean that they do not require the services of civic institutions. While not antagonistic towards such institutions, there is often a belief is that the services provided by the private sector are ultimately superior to public ones. Consequently, they feel empowered through their social background but are not engaged with civic institutions or the political process. Despite this, my initial research findings show that this group has a strong connection to decision-makers – both politicians and bureaucrats. This lack of engagement changes if there is a perceived injustice to their quality of life or their values system – and hence should not be dismissed as NIMBYs (not in my backyard). They believe they have the resources to mobilise and demand change. I believe that we see this group materialise in mobilisations around proposed developments that threaten the perceived quality of life of the local environment. One example brought to my attention was the rapid response of local residents to the proposed White City development near Sydney’s eastern suburbs that was to see tennis courts and public space replaced by residential and commercial buildings (Nicholls). As one resident informed me, she had never seen any political engagement by local residents previously – an engagement that was accompanied by a belief that the development would be stopped as well as a mobilisation of some impressive resources. Such mobilisations also occur when there is a perceived injustice. Examples of this group can be found in what Hugh Mackay (13) describes as ‘doctor’s wives’ (a term that I am not wholly comfortable with). Here we see the emergence of ‘Chilout’: Children out of Detention. This was an organisation whose membership was described to me as ‘north shore professionals’, drew heavily on those who believed the forced incarceration of young refugee children was an affront to their values system. 4. Insurgent Citizenship – Empowered and Engaged The final space is the insurgent citizen: that is, the citizen who is both engaged and empowered. This is a term borrowed from South Africa and the USA (Holston 1) – and it should be seen as having two, almost diametrically opposed, sides: progressive and reactionary. This group may not have access to a great deal of financial resources, but has high social capital and both a willingness and ability to engage in political processes. Consequently, there is a sense of empowerment and engagement with civic institutions. There is also a strong push for self-sufficiency – but this is encased in a belief that civic institutions have a responsibility to provide services to the public, and that some services are naturally better provided by the public sector. Despite this, there is often an antagonistic relationship with such institutions. From the progressive perspective, we see ‘activists’ promoting social justice issues (including students, academics, unionists and so on). Organisations such as A Just Australia are strongly supported by various student organisations, unions and other social justice and activist groups. From a reactionary perspective, we see the emergence of groups that take an anti-immigration stance (such as ‘anti-immigration’ groups including Australia First that draw both activists and have an established political party). (Information regarding ‘anti-refugee activists’ can be found at http://ausfirst.alphalink.com.au/ while the official website for the Australia First political part is at http://www.australiafirstparty.com.au/cms/.) One way to understand the relationship between these groups is through the engagement/empowered typology below. While a detailed discussion of the limitations of typologies is beyond the scope of this paper, it is important to acknowledge that any typology is a simplification and generalisation of the arguments presented. Likewise, it is unlikely that any typology has the ability to cover all cases and situations. This typology can, however, be used to underscore the relational nature of citizenship. The purpose here is to highlight that there are relationships between the different citizenship spaces and individuals can move between groups and each cluster has significant internal variation. Key here is that this can frame future studies. Conclusion and Next Steps There is little doubt there is a relationship between attitudes to citizenship and the health of a democracy. In Australia, democracy is robust in some ways, but many feel disempowered, disengaged and some feel both – often believing they are remote from the workings of civic institutions. It would appear that for many, interest in the process of (formal) government is at an all-time low as reflected in declining membership of political parties (Jaensch et al. 58). Democracy is not a ‘once for ever’ achievement – it needs to be protected and promoted. To do this, we must ensure that there are avenues for representation for all. This point also highlights one of the fundamental flaws of the aforementioned citizenship test. According to the Department of Immigration and Citizenship, the test is designed to: help migrants integrate and maximise the opportunities available to them in Australia, and enable their full participation in the Australian community as citizens. (par. 4) Those designing the test have assumed that citizenship is both stable and, once achieved, automatically ensures representation. This paper directly challenges these assumptions and offers an alternative research agenda with the ultimate aim of promoting high levels of engagement and empowerment. References Anderson, A. “The Liberals Have Not Betrayed the Menzies Legacy.” Online Opinion 25 Oct. 2004. < http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=2679 >. Arvanitakis, J. “Highly Affected, Rarely Considered: The International Youth Parliament Commission’s Report on the Impacts of Globalisation on Young People.” Sydney: Oxfam Australia, 2003. Baldassar, L., Z. Kamalkhani, and C. Lange. “Afghan Hazara Refugees in Australia: Constructing Australian Citizens.” Social Identities 13.1 (2007): 31-50. Burchell, D. “Dysfunctional Dumping Grounds.” The Australian 10 Feb. 2007. < http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,21199266-28737,00.html >. Burnley, I.H. The Impact of Immigration in Australia: A Demographic Approach. Melbourne: Oxford UP, 2001. Castells, M. “European Cities, the Informational Society, and the Global Economy.” New Left Review I/204 (March-April 1994): 46-57. Chamberlain, C., and D. Mackenzie. Homeless Careers: Pathways in and out of Homelessness. Melbourne: RMIT University, 2002. Chari, R., J. Hogan, and G. Murphy. “Regulating Lobbyists: A Comparative Analysis of the United States, Canada, Germany and the European Union.” The Political Quarterly 78.3 (2007): 423-438. Collins, J. “Chinese Entrepreneurs: The Chinese Diaspora in Australia.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research 8.1/2 (2002): 113-133. Dee, M. “Young People, Citizenship and Public Space.” International Sociological Association Conference Paper, Brisbane, 2002. Della Porta, D. “Globalisations and Democracy.” Democratizations 12.5 (2005): 668-685. Fagan, B., R. Dowling, and J. Longdale. “Suburbs in the ‘Global City’: Sydney since the Mid 1990s.” State of Australian cities conference. Parramatta, 2003. Frew, W. “And the Most Polarised City Is…” Sydney Morning Herald 16-17 Feb. 2008: 7. Gleeson, B. Australian Heartlands: Making Space for Hope in the Suburbs. Crows Nest: Allen and Unwin, 2006. Gleeson, B. “What’s Driving Suburban Australia?” Australian Policy Online 15 Jan. 2004. < http://www.apo.org.au/webboard/results.chtml?filename_num=00558 >. Gow, G. “Rubbing Shoulders in the Global City: Refugees, Citizenship and Multicultural Alliances in Fairfield, Sydney.” Ethnicities 5.3 (2005): 386-405. Hahn, C. L. “Citizenship Education: An Empirical Study of Policy, Practices and Outcomes.” Oxford Review of Education 25.1/2 (1999): 231-250. Hawley, S. “Sir Donald Bradman Likely to Be Dumped from Citizenship Test.” ABC Local Radio Online. 29 Jan. 2008. < http://www.abc.net.au/am/content/2007/s2148383.htm >. Hoare, D. “Bradman’s Spot in Citizenship Test under Scrutiny.” ABC Local Radio online. 29 Jan. 2008. < http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2008/s2149325.htm >. Holston, J. Insurgent Citizenship: Disjunctions of Democracy and Modernity in Brazil. California: Cloth, 2007. Jaensch, D., P. Brent, and B. Bowden. “Australian Political Parties in the Spotlight.” Democratic Audit of Australia Report 4. Australian National University, 2004. Mackay, H. “Sleepers Awoke from Slumber of Indifference.” Sydney Morning Herald 27 Nov. 2007: 13. NSWPD – New South Wales Parliamentary Debates. “South Western Sydney Banking Services.” Legislative Assembly Hansard, 52nd NSW Parliament, 19 Sep. 2001. Portney, K.E., and L. O’Leary. Civic and Political Engagement of America’s Youth: National Survey of Civic and Political Engagement of Young People. Medford, MA: Tisch College, Tufts University, 2007. Price, S. “Stress and Debt Make Sydney a Violent City.” Sydney Morning Herald 13 Jan. 2008: 16. Pusey, M. The Experience of Middle Australia: The Dark Side of Economic Reform. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003. White, R. “Swarming and the Social Dynamics of Group Violence.” Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 326 (Oct. 2006). < http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi2/tandi326t.html >. Wolfe, P. “Race and Citizenship.” Magazine of History 18.5 (2004): 66-72.

Introduction One of the first challenges faced by new Australian Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd, was what to do with the former government’s controversial citizenship test. While a quick evaluation of the test shows that 93 percent of those who have sat it ‘passed’ (Hoare), most media controversy has focussed less on the validity of such a test than whether questions relating to Australian cricketing legend, Don Bradman, are appropriate (Hawley). While the citizenship test seems nothing more that a crude and populist measure imposed by the former Howard government in its ongoing nationalistic agenda, which included paying schools to raise the Australian flag (“PM Unfurls Flag”), its imposition seems a timely reminder of the challenge of understanding citizenship today. For as the demographic structures around us continue to change, so must our understandings of ‘citizenship’. More importantly, this fluid understanding of citizenship is not limited to academics, and policy-makers, but new technologies, the processes of globalisation including a globalised media, changing demographic patterns including migration, as well as environmental challenges that place pressure on limited resources is altering the citizens understanding of their own role as well as those around them. This paper aims to sketch out a proposed new research agenda that seeks to investigate this fluid and heterogenous nature of citizenship. The focus of the research has so far been Sydney and is enveloped by a broader aim of promoting an increased level of citizen engagement both within formal and informal political structures. I begin by sketching the complex nature of Sydney before presenting some initial research findings. Sydney – A Complex City The so-called ‘emerald city’ of Sydney has been described in many ways: from a ‘global’ city (Fagan, Dowling and Longdale 1) to an ‘angry’ city (Price 16). Sarah Price’s investigative article included research from the University of Western Sydney’s Centre of Culture Research, the Bureau of Crime Statistics and interviews with Tony Grabs, the director of trauma at St Vincent’s Hospital in inner city Darlinghurst. Price found that both injuries from alcohol and drug-related violence had risen dramatically over the last few years and seemed to be driven by increasing frustrations of a city that is perceived to be lacking appropriate infrastructure and rising levels of personal and household debt. Sydney’s famous harbour and postcard landmarks are surrounded by places of controversy and poverty, with residents of very backgrounds living in close proximity: often harmoniously and sometimes less so. According to recent research by Griffith University’s Urban Research Program, the city is becoming increasingly polarised, with the wealthiest enjoying high levels of access to amenities while other sections of the population experiencing increasing deprivation (Frew 7). Sydney, is often segmented into different regions: the growth corridors of the western suburbs which include the ‘Aspirational class’; the affluent eastern suburb; the southern beachside suburbs surrounding Cronulla affectionately known by local residents as ‘the Shire’, and so on. This, however, hides that fact that these areas are themselves complex and heterogenous in character (Frew 7). As a result, the many clichés associated with such segments lead to an over simplification of regional characteristics. The ‘growth corridors’ of Western Sydney, for example, have, in recent times, become a focal point of political and social commentary. From the rise of the ‘Aspirational’ voter (Anderson), seen to be a key ‘powerbroker’ in federal and state politics, to growing levels of disenfranchised young people, this region is multifaceted and should not be simplified. These areas often see large-scale, private housing estates; what Brendan Gleeson describes as ‘privatopias’, situated next to rising levels of homelessness (“What’s Driving”): a powerful and concerning image that should not escape our attention. (Chamberlain and Mackenzie pay due attention to the issue in Homeless Careers.) It is also home to a growing immigrant population who often arrive as business migrants and as well as a rising refugee population traumatised by war and displacement (Collins 1). These growth corridors then, seem to simultaneously capture both the ambitions and the fears of Sydney. That is, they are seen as both areas of potential economic boom as well as social stress and potential conflict (Gleeson 89). One way to comprehend the complexity associated with such diversity and change is to reflect on the proximity of the twin suburbs of Macquarie Links and Macquarie Fields situated in Sydney’s south-western suburbs. Separated by the clichéd ‘railway tracks’, one is home to the growing Aspirational class while the other continues to be plagued by the stigma of being, what David Burchell describes as, a ‘dysfunctional dumping ground’ whose plight became national headlines during the riots in 2005. The riots were sparked after a police chase involving a stolen car led to a crash and the death of a 17 year-old and 19 year-old passengers. Residents blamed police for the deaths and the subsequent riots lasted for four nights – involving 150 teenagers clashing with New South Wales Police. The dysfunction, Burchell notes is seen in crime statistics that include 114 stolen cars, 227 burglaries, 457 cases of property damage and 279 assaults – all in 2005 alone. Interestingly, both these populations are surrounded by exclusionary boundaries: one because of the financial demands to enter the ‘Links’ estate, and the other because of the self-imposed exclusion. Such disparities not only provide challenges for policy makers generally, but also have important implications on the attitudes that citizens’ experience towards their relationship with each other as well as the civic institutions that are meant to represent them. This is particular the case if civic institutions are seen to either neglect or favour certain groups. This, in part, has given rise to what I describe here as a ‘citizenship surplus’ as well as a ‘citizenship deficit’. Research Agenda: Investigating Citizenship Surpluses and Deficits This changing city has meant that there has also been a change in the way that different groups interact with, and perceive, civic bodies. As noted, my initial research shows that this has led to the emergence of both citizenship surpluses and deficits. Though the concept of a ‘citizen deficits and surpluses’ have not emerged within the broader literature, there is a wide range of literature that discusses how some sections of the population lack of access to democratic processes. There are three broad areas of research that have emerged relevant here: citizenship and young people (see Arvanitakis; Dee); citizenship and globalisation (see Della Porta; Pusey); and citizenship and immigration (see Baldassar et al.; Gow). While a discussion of each of these research areas is beyond the scope of this paper, a regular theme is the emergence of a ‘democratic deficit’ (Chari et al. 422). Dee, for example, looks at how there exist unequal relationships between local and central governments, young people, communities and property developers in relation to space. Dee argues that this shapes social policy in a range of settings and contexts including their relationship with broader civic institutions and understandings of citizenship. Dee finds that claims for land use that involve young people rarely succeed and there is limited, if any, recourse to civic institutions. As such, we see a democratic deficit emerge because the various civic institutions involved fail in meeting their obligations to citizens. In addition, a great deal of work has emerged that investigates attempts to re-engage citizens through mechanisms to promote citizenship education and a more active citizenship which has also been accompanied by government programs with the same goals (See for example the Western Australian government’s ‘Citizenscape’ program ). For example Hahn (231) undertakes a comparative study of civic education in six countries (including Australia) and the policies and practices with respect to citizenship education and how to promote citizen activism. The results are positive, though the research was undertaken before the tumultuous events of the terrorist attacks in New York, the emergence of the ‘war on terror’ and the rise of ‘Muslim-phobia’. A gap rises, however, within the Australian literature when we consider both the fluid and heterogenous nature of citizenship. That is, how do we understand the relationship between these diverse groups living within such proximity to each other overlayed by changing migration patterns, ongoing globalised processes and changing political environments as well as their relations to civic institutions? Further, how does this influence the way individuals perceive their rights, expectations and responsibilities to the state? Given this, I believe that there is a need to understand citizenship as a fluid and heterogenous phenomenon that can be in surplus, deficit, progressive and reactionary. When discussing citizenship I am interested in how people perceive both their rights and responsibilities to civic institutions as well as to the residents around them. A second, obviously related, area of interest is ‘civic engagement’: that is, “the activities of people in the various organisations and associations that make up what scholars call ‘civil society’” (Portney and Leary 4). Before describing these categories in more detail, I would like to briefly outline the methodological processes employed thus far. Much of the research to this point is based on a combination of established literature, my informal discussions with citizen groups and my observations as ‘an activist.’ That is, over the last few years I have worked with a broad cross section of community-based organisations as well as specific individuals that have attempted to confront perceived injustices. I have undertaken this work as both an activist – with organisations such as Aid/Watch and Oxfam Australia – as well as an academic invited to share my research. This work has involved designing and implementing policy and advocacy strategies including media and public education programs. All interactions begin with a detailed discussion of the aims, resources, abilities and knowledge of the groups involved, followed by workshopping campaigning strategies. This has led to the publication of an ‘activist handbook’ titled ‘From Sitting on the Couch to Changing the World’, which is used to both draft the campaign aims as well as design a systematic strategy. (The booklet, which is currently being re-drafted, is published by Oxfam Australia and registered under a creative commons licence. For those interested, copies are available by emailing j.arvanitakis (at) uws.edu.au.) Much research is also sourced from direct feedback given by participants in reviewing the workshops and strategies The aim of tis paper then, is to sketch out the initial findings as well as an agenda for more formalised research. The initial findings have identified the heterogenous nature of citizenship that I have separated into four ‘citizenship spaces.’ The term space is used because these are not stable groupings as many quickly move between the areas identified as both the structures and personal situations change. 1. Marginalisation and Citizenship Deficit The first category is a citizenship deficit brought on by a sense of marginalisation. This is determined by a belief that it is pointless to interact with civic institutions, as the result is always the same: people’s opinions and needs will be ignored. Or in the case of residents from areas such as Macquarie Fields, the relationship with civic institutions, including police, is antagonistic and best avoided (White par. 21). This means that there is no connection between the population and the civic institutions around them – there is no loyalty or belief that efforts to be involved in political and civic processes will be rewarded. Here groups sense that they do not have access to political avenues to be heard, represented or demand change. This is leading to an experience of disconnection from political processes. The result is both a sense of disengagement and disempowerment. One example here emerged in discussions with protesters around the proposed development of the former Australian Defence Industry (ADI) site in St Marys, an outer-western suburb of Sydney. The development, which was largely approved, was for a large-scale housing estate proposed on sensitive bushlands in a locality that resident’s note is under-serviced in terms of public space. (For details of these discussions, see http://www.adisite.org/.) Residents often took the attitude that whatever the desire of the local community, the development would go ahead regardless. Those who worked at information booths during the resident protests informed me that the attitude was one best summarised by: “Why bother, we always get stuffed around any way.” This was confirmed by my own discussions with local residents – even those who joined the resident action group. 2. Privatisation and Citizenship Deficit This citizenship deficit not only applies to the marginalised, however, for there are also much wealthier populations who also appear to experience a deficit that results from a lack of access to civic institutions. This tends to leads to a privatisation of decision-making and withdrawal from the public arena as well as democratic processes. Consequently, the residents in the pockets of wealth may not be acting as citizens but more like consumers – asserting themselves in terms of Castells’s ‘collective consumption’ (par. 25). This citizenship deficit is brought on by ongoing privatisation. That is, there is a belief that civic institutions (including government bodies) are unable or at least unwilling to service the local community. As a result there is a tendency to turn to private suppliers and believe that individualisation is the best way to manage the community. The result is that citizens feel no connection to the civic institutions around them, not because there is no desire, but there are no services. This group of citizens has often been described as the ‘Aspirationals’ and are most often found in the growth corridors of Sydney. There is no reason to believe that this group is this way because of choice – but rather a failure by government authorities to service their needs. This is confirmed by research undertaken as early as 1990 which found that the residents now labelled Aspirational, were demanding access to public infrastructure services including public schools, but have been neglected by different levels of government. (This was clearly stated by NSW Labor MP for Liverpool, Paul Lynch, who argued for such services as a way to ensure a functioning community particularly for Western Sydney; NSWPD 2001.) As a result there is a reliance on private schools, neighbourhoods, transport and so on. Any ‘why bother’ attitude is thus driven by a lack of evidence that civic institutions can or are not willing to meet their needs. There is a strong sense of local community – but this localisation limited to others in the same geographical location and similar lifestyle. 3. Citizenship Surplus – Empowered Not Engaged The third space of citizenship is based on a ‘surplus’ even if there is limited or no political engagement. This group has quite a lot in common with the ‘Aspirationals’ but may come from areas that are higher serviced by civic institutions: the choice not to engage is therefore voluntary. There is a strong push for self-sufficiency – believing that their social capital, wealth and status mean that they do not require the services of civic institutions. While not antagonistic towards such institutions, there is often a belief is that the services provided by the private sector are ultimately superior to public ones. Consequently, they feel empowered through their social background but are not engaged with civic institutions or the political process. Despite this, my initial research findings show that this group has a strong connection to decision-makers – both politicians and bureaucrats. This lack of engagement changes if there is a perceived injustice to their quality of life or their values system – and hence should not be dismissed as NIMBYs (not in my backyard). They believe they have the resources to mobilise and demand change. I believe that we see this group materialise in mobilisations around proposed developments that threaten the perceived quality of life of the local environment. One example brought to my attention was the rapid response of local residents to the proposed White City development near Sydney’s eastern suburbs that was to see tennis courts and public space replaced by residential and commercial buildings (Nicholls). As one resident informed me, she had never seen any political engagement by local residents previously – an engagement that was accompanied by a belief that the development would be stopped as well as a mobilisation of some impressive resources. Such mobilisations also occur when there is a perceived injustice. Examples of this group can be found in what Hugh Mackay (13) describes as ‘doctor’s wives’ (a term that I am not wholly comfortable with). Here we see the emergence of ‘Chilout’: Children out of Detention. This was an organisation whose membership was described to me as ‘north shore professionals’, drew heavily on those who believed the forced incarceration of young refugee children was an affront to their values system. 4. Insurgent Citizenship – Empowered and Engaged The final space is the insurgent citizen: that is, the citizen who is both engaged and empowered. This is a term borrowed from South Africa and the USA (Holston 1) – and it should be seen as having two, almost diametrically opposed, sides: progressive and reactionary. This group may not have access to a great deal of financial resources, but has high social capital and both a willingness and ability to engage in political processes. Consequently, there is a sense of empowerment and engagement with civic institutions. There is also a strong push for self-sufficiency – but this is encased in a belief that civic institutions have a responsibility to provide services to the public, and that some services are naturally better provided by the public sector. Despite this, there is often an antagonistic relationship with such institutions. From the progressive perspective, we see ‘activists’ promoting social justice issues (including students, academics, unionists and so on). Organisations such as A Just Australia are strongly supported by various student organisations, unions and other social justice and activist groups. From a reactionary perspective, we see the emergence of groups that take an anti-immigration stance (such as ‘anti-immigration’ groups including Australia First that draw both activists and have an established political party). (Information regarding ‘anti-refugee activists’ can be found at http://ausfirst.alphalink.com.au/ while the official website for the Australia First political part is at http://www.australiafirstparty.com.au/cms/.) One way to understand the relationship between these groups is through the engagement/empowered typology below. While a detailed discussion of the limitations of typologies is beyond the scope of this paper, it is important to acknowledge that any typology is a simplification and generalisation of the arguments presented. Likewise, it is unlikely that any typology has the ability to cover all cases and situations. This typology can, however, be used to underscore the relational nature of citizenship. The purpose here is to highlight that there are relationships between the different citizenship spaces and individuals can move between groups and each cluster has significant internal variation. Key here is that this can frame future studies. Conclusion and Next Steps There is little doubt there is a relationship between attitudes to citizenship and the health of a democracy. In Australia, democracy is robust in some ways, but many feel disempowered, disengaged and some feel both – often believing they are remote from the workings of civic institutions. It would appear that for many, interest in the process of (formal) government is at an all-time low as reflected in declining membership of political parties (Jaensch et al. 58). Democracy is not a ‘once for ever’ achievement – it needs to be protected and promoted. To do this, we must ensure that there are avenues for representation for all. This point also highlights one of the fundamental flaws of the aforementioned citizenship test. According to the Department of Immigration and Citizenship, the test is designed to: help migrants integrate and maximise the opportunities available to them in Australia, and enable their full participation in the Australian community as citizens. (par. 4) Those designing the test have assumed that citizenship is both stable and, once achieved, automatically ensures representation. This paper directly challenges these assumptions and offers an alternative research agenda with the ultimate aim of promoting high levels of engagement and empowerment. References Anderson, A. “The Liberals Have Not Betrayed the Menzies Legacy.” Online Opinion 25 Oct. 2004. http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=2679>. Arvanitakis, J. “Highly Affected, Rarely Considered: The International Youth Parliament Commission’s Report on the Impacts of Globalisation on Young People.” Sydney: Oxfam Australia, 2003. Baldassar, L., Z. Kamalkhani, and C. Lange. “Afghan Hazara Refugees in Australia: Constructing Australian Citizens.” Social Identities 13.1 (2007): 31-50. Burchell, D. “Dysfunctional Dumping Grounds.” The Australian 10 Feb. 2007. http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,21199266-28737,00.html>. Burnley, I.H. The Impact of Immigration in Australia: A Demographic Approach. Melbourne: Oxford UP, 2001. Castells, M. “European Cities, the Informational Society, and the Global Economy.” New Left Review I/204 (March-April 1994): 46-57. Chamberlain, C., and D. Mackenzie. Homeless Careers: Pathways in and out of Homelessness. Melbourne: RMIT University, 2002. Chari, R., J. Hogan, and G. Murphy. “Regulating Lobbyists: A Comparative Analysis of the United States, Canada, Germany and the European Union.” The Political Quarterly 78.3 (2007): 423-438. Collins, J. “Chinese Entrepreneurs: The Chinese Diaspora in Australia.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research 8.1/2 (2002): 113-133. Dee, M. “Young People, Citizenship and Public Space.” International Sociological Association Conference Paper, Brisbane, 2002. Della Porta, D. “Globalisations and Democracy.” Democratizations 12.5 (2005): 668-685. Fagan, B., R. Dowling, and J. Longdale. “Suburbs in the ‘Global City’: Sydney since the Mid 1990s.” State of Australian cities conference. Parramatta, 2003. Frew, W. “And the Most Polarised City Is…” Sydney Morning Herald 16-17 Feb. 2008: 7. Gleeson, B. Australian Heartlands: Making Space for Hope in the Suburbs. Crows Nest: Allen and Unwin, 2006. Gleeson, B. “What’s Driving Suburban Australia?” Australian Policy Online 15 Jan. 2004. http://www.apo.org.au/webboard/results.chtml?filename_num=00558>. Gow, G. “Rubbing Shoulders in the Global City: Refugees, Citizenship and Multicultural Alliances in Fairfield, Sydney.” Ethnicities 5.3 (2005): 386-405. Hahn, C. L. “Citizenship Education: An Empirical Study of Policy, Practices and Outcomes.” Oxford Review of Education 25.1/2 (1999): 231-250. Hawley, S. “Sir Donald Bradman Likely to Be Dumped from Citizenship Test.” ABC Local Radio Online. 29 Jan. 2008. http://www.abc.net.au/am/content/2007/s2148383.htm>. Hoare, D. “Bradman’s Spot in Citizenship Test under Scrutiny.” ABC Local Radio online. 29 Jan. 2008. http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2008/s2149325.htm>. Holston, J. Insurgent Citizenship: Disjunctions of Democracy and Modernity in Brazil. California: Cloth, 2007. Jaensch, D., P. Brent, and B. Bowden. “Australian Political Parties in the Spotlight.” Democratic Audit of Australia Report 4. Australian National University, 2004. Mackay, H. “Sleepers Awoke from Slumber of Indifference.” Sydney Morning Herald 27 Nov. 2007: 13. NSWPD – New South Wales Parliamentary Debates. “South Western Sydney Banking Services.” Legislative Assembly Hansard, 52nd NSW Parliament, 19 Sep. 2001. Portney, K.E., and L. O’Leary. Civic and Political Engagement of America’s Youth: National Survey of Civic and Political Engagement of Young People. Medford, MA: Tisch College, Tufts University, 2007. Price, S. “Stress and Debt Make Sydney a Violent City.” Sydney Morning Herald 13 Jan. 2008: 16. Pusey, M. The Experience of Middle Australia: The Dark Side of Economic Reform. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003. White, R. “Swarming and the Social Dynamics of Group Violence.” Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 326 (Oct. 2006). http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi2/tandi326t.html>. Wolfe, P. “Race and Citizenship.” Magazine of History 18.5 (2004): 66-72. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Arvanitakis, James. "The Heterogenous Citizen: How Many of Us Care about Don Bradman’s Average?." M/C Journal 10.6/11.1 (2008). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0804/07-arvanitakis.php>. APA Style Arvanitakis, J. (Apr. 2008) "The Heterogenous Citizen: How Many of Us Care about Don Bradman’s Average?," M/C Journal, 10(6)/11(1). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0804/07-arvanitakis.php>.

Introduction In a period marked by the pervasiveness of new mobile technologies saturating urban areas of the Asia-Pacific region, it can be easy to forget the realities of life in the rural areas. In a location such as Australia, in which 80% of the population lives in urban areas, one must be reminded of the sociotechnological realities of rural existence where often-newer mobile communication devices cease to function. This paper focuses on these black spots – and often forgotten areas – where examples of older, mediated technologies such as UHF Citizen Band (CB) radios can be found as integral to practices of everyday rural life. As Anderson notes, constructs of the nation are formed through contested notions of what individuals and communities imagine and project as a sense of place. In Australia, one of the dominant contested imageries can be found in the urban and rural divide, a divide that is not just social and cultural but technological; it is marked by a digital divide. This divide neatly corresponds to the images of Australia experienced by Australians (predominantly living in urban areas) and exported tourist images of the rugged vast rural landscapes. The remote Australia Outback is a popular destination for domestic tourists. Its sparsely populated and rough terrain attracts tourists seeking a quintessentially Australian experience. Roads are often unmade and in poor condition. Fuel and food supplies and health services are widely separated and there is almost no permanent accommodation. Apart from a small number of regional centres there is no access to mobile phones or radio broadcasts. As a consequence tourists must be largely self sufficient. While the primary roads carry significant road traffic it is possible to drive all day on secondary roads without seeing another person. Isolation and self-sufficiency are both an attraction and a challenge. Travelling in campervans, towing caravans or camper trailers and staying in caravan parks, national parks, roadside stops or alone in the bush, tourists spend extended times in areas where there are few other tourists. Many tourists deal with this isolation by equipping their vehicles with CB radios. Depending on the terrain, they are able to listen to, and participate in conversations with other CB users within a 10-20 kilometre range. In some areas where there are repeater stations, the range of radio transmissions can be extended. This paper examines the role of these CB radios in the daily life of tourists in the Australian Outback. Theoretical Issues The links between travel, the new communications technologies and the diminished spatial-time divide have been explored by John Urry. According to Urry, mobile electronic devices make it possible for people “to leave traces of their selves in informational space” (266). Using these informational traces, mobile communication technologies ‘track’ the movements of travellers, enabling them to communicate synchronously. People become ’nodes in multiple networks of communication and mobility’ (266). Another consequence of readily available communication independent of location is for the meaning of social connections. Social encounters provide tourists with the opportunity to develop and affirm understandings of their shared common occupation of unfamiliar social and cultural landscapes (Harrison). Both transitory and enduring relationships provide information, companionship and resources that allow tourists to create, share and give meaning to their experiences (Stokowski). Communication technology also enables individuals to enter and remain part of social networks while physically absent and distant from them (Johnsen; Makimoto and Manners, Urry). The result is a “nomadic intimacy” in an everyday social and physical environment characterised by extended spaces and individual freedom to move around in these spaces (Fortunati). For travellers in the Australian Outback, this “nomadic intimacy” is both literal and metaphorical. Research has shown that travellers use mobile communications services and a range of other communication strategies to maintain a “symbolic proximity” with family, friends and colleagues (Wurtzel and Turner) and to promote a sense of “presence while absent”, or ‘co-presence’ (Gergen; Lury; Short, Williams and Christie; White and White, “Keeping Connected”; White and White, “Home and Away”). Central to the original notion of co-presence was that it was contingent on those involved in a given communication both being and feeling close enough to perceive each other and to be perceived in the course of their activities (Goffman). That is, the notion of co-presence initially referred to physical presence in face-to-face contact and interactions. However, increasing use of mobile phones in particular has meant that this sense of connection can be affirmed at a distance. But what happens when travellers do not have access to mobile phones and the Internet, and as a consequence, do not have access to their networks of family, friends and colleagues? How do they deal with travel and isolation in a harsh environment? These issues are the starting point for the present paper, which examines travellers’ experience of CB radio in the remote Australian Outback. This exploration of how the CB radio has been incorporated into the daily lives of these travellers can be seen as a contribution to an understanding of the domestication of mobile communications (Haddon). Methodology People were included in the study if they used CB radios while travelling in remote parts of Western Australian and the Northern Territory. The participants were approached in caravan parks, camping grounds and at roadside stops. Most were travelling in caravans while others were using camper trailers and campervans. Twenty-four travellers were interviewed, twelve men and twelve women. All were travelling with partners or spouses, and one group of two couples was travelling together. They ranged in age from twenty five to seventy years, and all were Australian residents. The duration of their travels varied from six weeks to eleven months. Participants were interviewed using a semi-structured interview schedule. The interviews were transcribed and then thematically coded with respect to regularly articulated points of view. Where points of view were distinctive, they were noted during the coding process as contrasting instances. While the relatively small sample size limits generalizability, the issues raised by the respondents provide insights into the meaning of CB radio use in the daily life of travellers in the Australian Outback. Findings Staying Safe The primary reason given for travelling with a CB radio was personal safety. The tourists interviewed were aware of the risks associated with travelling in the Outback. Health emergencies, car accidents and problems with tyres in a harsh and hot environment without ready access to water were often mentioned. ‘If you call a May Day someone will come out and answer…” (Female, 55). Another interviewee reported that: Last year we helped some folk who were bogged in the sand right at the end of the road in the middle of nowhere. The wife just started calling the various channels explaining that they were bogged and asking whether there was anyone out there….We went and towed them out. …. It would have been a long walk for them to get help. (Female, 55) Even though most interviewees had not themselves experienced a personal emergency, many recounted stories about how CB radio had been used to come to the aid of someone in distress. Road conditions were another concern. Travellers were often rightly very concerned about hazards ahead. One traveller noted: You are always going to hear someone who gives you an insight as to what is happening up ahead on the road. If there’s an accident up ahead someone’s going to get on the radio and let people know. Or there could be road works or the road could be shitty. (Male, 50) Safety arose in another context. Tourists share the rough and often dusty roads with road trains towing up to three trailers. These vehicles can be 50 metres long. A road train creates wind turbulence when it passes a car and trailer or caravan and the dust it raises reduces visibility. Because of this car drivers and caravanners need to be extremely careful when they pass or are passed by one. Passing a road train at 100 km can take 2.5km. Interviewees reported that they communicated with road train drivers to negotiate a safe time and place to pass. One caravanner noted: Sometimes you see a road train coming up behind you. You call him up and say ” I’ll pull over for you mate and slow down and you go”. You use it a lot because it’s safer. We are not in a hurry. Road trains are working and they are in a hurry and he (sic.) is bigger, so he has the right of way. (Male, 50) As with the dominant rationale for installing and using a CB radio, Rice and Katz showed that concern about safety is the primary motive for women acquiring a mobile phone, and safety was also important for men. The social contact enabled by CB radio provided a means of tracking the movements of other travellers who were nearby. This tracking ability engendered a sense of comfort and enabled them to communicate and exchange information synchronously in a potentially dangerous environment. As a consequence, a ‘metaworld’ (Suvantola) of ‘informational traces’ (Urry) was created. Making Oneself Known All interactions entail conventions and signals that enable a conversation to commence. These conventions were also seen to apply to CB conversations. Driving in a car or truck involves being physically enclosed with the drivers and passengers being either invisible or only partially visible to other travellers. Caravanners deal with this lack of visibility in a number of ways. Many have their first names, the name of their caravan and the channel they use on the rear of their van. A typical sign was “Bill and Rose, Travelling Everywhere, Channel 18” or “Harry and Mary, Bugger Work, Gone Fishing”, Channel 18” clearly visible to anyone coming from behind. (The male partner’s name was invariably first.) A sign that identified the occupants was seen as an invitation to chat by other travellers. One traveller said that if he saw such a sign he would call up by saying: “Hello Harry and Mary”. From then on who knows where it goes. It depends on the people. If someone comes back really cheery and a bit cheeky I can be cheery and cheeky back. (Male, 50) The names of caravans were used in other more personal ways. One couple from South Africa had given their van a Zulu name and that was seen as a way of identifying their origins and encouraging a specific kind of conversation while they were on the road. This couple reported that People call us up and ask us what it means. We have lots of calls about that. We’ve had more conversations about that than anything else. (Male, 67) Another caravanner reported that he had seen a van with “Nanna and Poppa’ on the back. They used that as a cue to start a conversation about their grandchildren. But caravan names linked to their CB radio channel can have a deeper personal meaning. One couple had their first names and the number 58 on the rear of their van. (The number 58 is beyond the range of CB channels.) On further questioning the number 58 was revealed to be the football club number of a daughter who had died. The sign was an attempt to deal with their grief and its public display a way of entering into a conversation about grief and loss. It has probably backfired because it puts people back into their shell because they think “We don’t want to talk about death”. But because of the sign we’ve met people who’ve lost a child too. (Male, 50) As Featherstone notes, drivers develop competence in switching between a range of communicative modes while they are travelling. These range from body gestures to formal signalling devices on other cars. Signage on caravans designed to invite conversation was a specialised signalling device specific to the CB user. Talking Loneliness was another theme emerging from the interviews. One of the attractions of the Outback is its sparse population. As one interviewee noted ‘You can travel all day and not see another soul’ (Female, 35). But this loneliness can be a challenge. Some of these roads are pretty lonely, the radio lets you know that there’s somebody else out there. (Male, 54) Hearing other travellers talk was comforting. As with previous research showing that travellers use mobile communications services to maintain a “symbolic proximity” (Gergen; Lury; Short, Williams and Christie; White and White, “Keeping Connected”) the CB conversations enabled the travellers to feel this sense of connection. These interactions also offered them the possibility of converting mediated relationships into face-to-face encounters along the road. That is, some travellers reported that CB-based chats with people while they were driving would lead to a decision to stop along the road for a shared morning tea or lunch. Conventions governed the use of specific channels. Some of these are government regulated, while others are user generated. For instance, Channels 18 and 40, were seen as ‘working channels’. Some interviewees felt very strongly about people who ‘cluttered up’ these channels and moved to another unused channel when they wanted to have an extended conversation. One couple was unaware of the local convention and could not understand why no one was calling them up. They later discovered that they were on the ‘wrong channel’. Interviewees travelling in a convoy would use the standard channel for travellers and then agree to move to another channel of their choice. When we travelling in a convoy we go off Channel 18 and use another channel to talk. The girls love it to talk about their knitting and work out what they’ve done wrong. We sometimes tell jokes. Also we work out what we are going to do in the next town. (Male, 67) These extended conversations parallel the lengthy conversations between drivers equipped with CB radio in the United States during the 1970’s which Dannaher described as ‘as diverse as those found at a cocktail party’. They also provided a sense of the “nomadic intimacy” described by Fortunati. Eavesdropping While travellers used Channel 18 for conversations they set their radio to automatically scan all forty channels. When a conversation was located the radio would stop scanning and they could listen to what was being said. This meant that travellers would overhear conversations between strangers. We scan all the channels so you can hear anyone coming up behind, especially trucks and you can hear them say “that damn caravan” and you can say ’ that damn caravan will pull over at the first opportunity.” (Female, 44) But the act of listening in to other people’s conversations created moral dilemmas for some travellers. One interviewee described it as “voyeurism for the ears”. While she described listening to farm conversations as giving her an insight into daily life on huge cattle station she was tempted to butt into one conversation that she was listening to. On reflection she decided against entering the conversation. She said: I didn’t want them to know that we were eavesdropping on their conversation. I’d be embarrassed if a third-party knew that we were listening in. I guess that I’ve been taught that you shouldn’t listen in to other people’s conversations. It’s not good manners… (Female, 35) When travellers overheard conversations between road train or truck drivers they had mixed responses. These conversations were often sexually loaded and seen as coarse by the middle class travellers. Some were forgiving of the conversational excesses, distinguishing themselves from the rough and tumble world of the ‘truckies’. One traveller noted that the truck drivers use a lot of bad language, but you’ve got to go with that, because that’s the type of people they are. But you have to go with the flow. We know that we are ‘playing’ and the truckies are ‘working’ so you have to be considerate to them. (Female, 50) While the language of the truck drivers was often threatening to middle class travellers, overhearing their conversations was also seen as a comfort. One traveller remarked that sometimes you hear truckies talking about their families and they obviously know each other. It’s kind of nice to see how they think. (Female, 50) Travellers had similar feelings when they overheard conversations from cattle stations. Also, local cattle station workers and their families would use CB radios for their social and working communications. Travellers would often overhear these conversations. One traveller noted that when we are driving through a cattle station we work out which channel they are using, and we lock it on that one. And then we listen until they are out of range. We are city people and listening to the station chatter gives us a bit of an insight into what it must be like as a farmer working land out here. And then we talk about the farmers’ conversations. (Female, 35) Another traveller noted: If you are travelling and there’s nothing you can see you can listen to the farmer talking to his wife or the kids. It’s absolutely awesome to hear conversations on radio. (Female, 67) This empathic listening allows the travellers to imagine the lives of others in settings quite different from those with which they are familiar. Furthermore, hearing farmers talking about fixing the fence in the left paddock or rounding up strays makes ‘you feel that you’re not alone’. The networking of the travellers’ social life arising from listening in to others meant that they were able to learn about the environment in which they found themselves, as well as enabling them to feel that they continued to remain embedded or ‘co-present’ in social relationships in circumstances of considerable physical isolation. Conclusions The accounts provided by tourists illustrated the way communications technologies – in this case, CB radio – enabled people to become ’nodes in multiple networks of communication and mobility’ described by Urry and to maintain ‘co-presence’. The CB radio allowed tourists to remain part of social networks while being physically absent from them (Gergen). Their responses also demonstrated the significance of CB radio in giving meaning to the experience of travel. The CB radio was shown to be an important part of the travel experience in the remote Australian Outback. 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Ithiel de Sola Pool. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1977. 246-61. Citation reference for this article MLA Style White, Peter B., and Naomi White. "Staying Safe and Guilty Pleasures: Tourists and CB Radio in the Australian Outback." M/C Journal 10.1 (2007). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0703/11-white-white.php>. APA Style White, P., and N. White. (Mar. 2007) "Staying Safe and Guilty Pleasures: Tourists and CB Radio in the Australian Outback," M/C Journal, 10(1). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0703/11-white-white.php>.