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1
Yang, Lijie, Jinhua Wang, Liying Sun, Yisi Zhang, Peng Huang, and Junfeng Guo. "Comparison of Gold Nanospheres, Nanorods, Nanocages and Nanoflowers for Combined Photothermal-Radiotherapy of Cancer." Nano 16, no. 04 (March 10, 2021): 2150037. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1793292021500375.
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Gold nanoparticles are promising dual agents for combined photothermal-radiotherapy of cancer. Nevertheless, the shape effects of gold nanoparticles on photothermal conversion efficiency and radiosensitization have not been completely revealed. To address this knowledge gap, different shapes of gold nanoparticles including gold nanospheres (GNSs), gold nanorods (GNRs), gold nanocages (GNCs) and gold nanoflowers (GNFs) were synthesized. Despite being subjected to the same modification with poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG), these gold nanoparticles showed different cellular uptake efficiencies: GNFs[Formula: see text][Formula: see text][Formula: see text]GNSs[Formula: see text][Formula: see text][Formula: see text]GNCs[Formula: see text][Formula: see text][Formula: see text]GNRs. Moreover, GNRs, GNCs and GNFs could convert near-infrared (NIR) light to heat and GNFs displayed the highest photothermal conversion efficiency, whereas GNSs showed poor photothermal effects due to the weak NIR absorption. The highest uptake efficiency as well as the best photothermal conversion ability led to GNFs to exhibit the best photothermal therapeutic effect. Furthermore, all the gold nanoparticles could be used as radiosensitizers to improve radiotherapeutic effect. Among these nanoparticles, GNFs showed the best radiation enhancement effect because of their highest uptake efficiency. Furthermore, a higher accumulation of GNFs in tumor tissues was observed than those of other shaped gold nanoparticles. Importantly, our in vitro and in vivo comparative studies revealed that GNFs possessed the strongest anticancer effect in combined photothermal-radiotherapy. Hence, compared to gold nanoparticles with other shapes, the GNFs might be more desirable dual agents for highly efficient combined photothermal-radiotherapy.
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Yang, Guanglin, Weihua Bai, Jinsong Wang, Xiuqing Hu, Peng Zhang, Yueqiang Sun, Na Xu, et al. "FY3E GNOS II GNSS Reflectometry: Mission Review and First Results." Remote Sensing 14, no. 4 (February 17, 2022): 988. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14040988.
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FengYun-3E (FY3E), launched on 5 July 2021, is one of China’s polar-orbiting meteorological satellite series. The GNOS II onboard FY3E is an operational GNSS remote sensor that for the first time combines GNSS radio occultation (GNSS RO) and GNSS reflectometry (GNSS-R). It has eight reflection channels that can track eight specular points at the same time, receiving reflected signals from multiple GNSS systems, including GPS, BeiDou and Galileo. The basic GNSS-R output generated by GNOS II is a 122 × 20 non-uniform delay-Doppler map whose high resolution portion captures more information near the specular point. This paper introduces the GNSS-R aspect of the FengYun-3E GNOS II, including the instrument, power calibration and wind speed retrieval algorithm. Preliminary validation results for its first four months of data are also presented. After preliminary quality control, the overall wind speed error is less than 2 m/s at wind speeds below 20 m/s for data from both GPS satellites and BeiDou satellites when compared to the ECMWF reanalysis winds.
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Yasyukevich, Yury V., Baocheng Zhang, and Venkata Ratnam Devanaboyina. "Advances in GNSS Positioning and GNSS Remote Sensing." Sensors 24, no. 4 (February 12, 2024): 1200. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s24041200.
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Scientists and engineers use data utilize global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) for a multitude of tasks: autonomous navigation, transport monitoring, construction, GNSS reflectometry, GNSS ionosphere monitoring, etc [...]
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Wang, Xiaocui, Guohua Li, Yu Ding, and Shuqing Sun. "Understanding the photothermal effect of gold nanostars and nanorods for biomedical applications." RSC Adv. 4, no. 57 (2014): 30375–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c4ra02978j.
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Shan, Feng, Jingyi Huang, Yanyan Zhu, and Guohao Wei. "Photo-Thermal Conversion and Raman Sensing Properties of Three-Dimensional Gold Nanostructure." Molecules 29, no. 18 (September 10, 2024): 4287. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules29184287.
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Three-dimensional plasma nanostructures with high light–thermal conversion efficiency show the prospect of industrialization in various fields and have become a research hotspot in areas of light–heat utilization, solar energy capture, and so on. In this paper, a simple chemical synthesis method is proposed to prepare gold nanoparticles, and the electrophoretic deposition method is used to assemble large-area three-dimensional gold nanostructures (3D-GNSs). The light–thermal water evaporation monitoring and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) measurements of 3D-GNSs were performed via theoretical simulation and experiments. We reveal the physical processes of local electric field optical enhancement and the light–thermal conversion of 3D-GNSs. The results show that with the help of the efficient optical trapping and super-hydrophilic surface properties of 3D-GNSs, they have a significant effect in accelerating water evaporation, which was increased by nearly eight times. At the same time, the three-dimensional SERS substrates based on gold nanosphere particles (GNSPs) and gold nanostar particles (GNSTs) had limited sensitivities of 10−10 M and 10−12 M to R6G molecules, respectively. Therefore, 3D-GNSs show strong competitiveness in the fields of solar-energy-induced water purification and the Raman trace detection of organic molecules.
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Gu, Nianzu, Fei Xing, and Zheng You. "GNSS Spoofing Detection Based on Coupled Visual/Inertial/GNSS Navigation System." Sensors 21, no. 20 (October 12, 2021): 6769. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21206769.
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Spoofing attacks are one of the severest threats for global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs). This kind of attack can damage the navigation systems of unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) and other unmanned vehicles (UVs), which are highly dependent on GNSSs. A novel method for GNSS spoofing detection based on a coupled visual/inertial/GNSS positioning algorithm is proposed in this paper. Visual inertial odometry (VIO) has high accuracy for state estimation in the short term and is a good supplement for GNSSs. Coupled VIO/GNSS navigation systems are, unfortunately, also vulnerable when the GNSS is subject to spoofing attacks. The method proposed in this article involves monitoring the deviation between the VIO and GNSS under an optimization framework. A modified Chi-square test triggers the spoofing alarm when the detection factors become abnormal. After spoofing detection, the optimal estimation algorithm is modified to prevent it being deceived by the spoofed GNSS data and to enable it to carry on positioning. The performance of the proposed spoofing detection method is evaluated through a real-world visual/inertial/GNSS dataset and a real GNSS spoofing attack experiment. The results indicate that the proposed method works well even when the deviation caused by spoofing is small, which proves the efficiency of the method.
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Zubinaitė, Vilma, and George Preiss. "A PROPOSED SIMPLIFIED TECHNIQUE FOR CONFIRMING HIGH PRECISION GNSS ANTENNA OFFSETS." Aviation 14, no. 3 (September 30, 2010): 83–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/aviation.2010.13.
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The purpose of this research was to independently investigate and determine confirmatory calibration procedures for GNSS antennas. This paper focuses on the aspect of simplified techniques for confirming high precision GNSS antenna offsets. In the other words, the aim is to verify GNSS antenna offset parameters ‐ results, which will be used to find the consequences on ground positions of orbital distortions caused by solar activity. It is well known that the computation of GNSS observations using high precision GNSS antennas requires knowledge of the relevant antenna phase centre offsets. These offsets are the distance in three dimensions from the antenna's physical centre to the point in space at which the antenna ‘measures’ position. The calibration processes used by manufacturers appear to vary, and, where receivers of different models are to be used together, it is essential that the calibration parameters used are all produced using the same methods and by the same authoritative sources. Meanwhile, with the growth in the use of high precision GNSS systems, the likelihood of antennas being accidentally mishandled is possibly higher than previously. Finally, it is noted that it has long been the practise for surveyors to check their instruments to ensure that they are properly calibrated. In the modern electronic age, however, it seems that this practise has been allowed to lapse as far as GNSS instrumentation is concerned. With the above in mind, it has been decided to attempt to create a simplified procedure for calibrating high precision GNSS antennas. The aim is that it will be possible for the average surveyor to check his antenna without great effort or trouble. The objective can also be described as finding a simplified field procedure to determine whether a specific antenna's offset parameters are within reasonable agreement with published figures. Santrauka Straipsnyje analizuojamas supaprastintas metodas, kuriuo galima aprobuoti aukšto tikslumo globalines navigacines palydovines sistemos (GNPS) antenos nukrypimus. Siekiama patinkrinti GNPS antenos nukrypimo parametrus ‐ rezultatus, kurie bus naudojami nustatant GNPS palydovo orbitos iškraipymu padarinius. Nagrinejama procedūra, kai siekiama nustatyti, ar konkrečios GNPS antenos kalibravimo parametrai yra pagristi, palyginti su publikuotais duomenimis. Analizuojama problema yra aktuali, kai GNPS matavimams naudojamos aukšto tikslumo GNPS antenos ir reikalingos žinios, susijusios su antenos fazes centro nukrypimais.
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Magny, Jean Pierre. "Application of Satellite Based Augmentation Systems to Altitude Separation." Journal of Navigation 52, no. 3 (September 1999): 313–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0373463399008413.
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This paper presents the application of GNSS1, or more precisely of Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS), to vertical separation for en-route, approach and landing operations. Potential improvements in terms of operational benefit and of safety are described for two main applications. First, vertical separation between en-route aircraft, which requires a system available across wide areas. SBAS (EGNOS, WAAS, and MSAS) are very well suited for this purpose before GNSS2 becomes available. And secondly, vertical separation from the ground during approach and landing, for which preliminary design principles of instrument approach procedures and safety issues are presented. Approach and landing phases are the subject of discussions within ICAO GNSS-P. En-route phases have been listed as GNSS-P future work and by RTCA for development of new equipments.
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Qiu, Tongsheng, Xianyi Wang, Yueqiang Sun, Fu Li, Zhuoyan Wang, Junming Xia, Qifei Du, et al. "An Innovative Signal Processing Scheme for Spaceborne Integrated GNSS Remote Sensors." Remote Sensing 15, no. 3 (January 27, 2023): 745. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15030745.
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The vigorous development of the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) has led to a boom in GNSS radio occultation (GNSS RO) and GNSS reflectometry (GNSS-R) techniques. Consequently, we have proposed an innovative signal processing scheme for spaceborne integrated GNSS remote sensors (SIGRS), combining a GNSS RO and a GNSS-R module. In the SIGRS, the GNSS-R module shares one precise orbit determination (POD) module with the GNSS RO module, and the GNSS-R module first achieves compatibility with GPS, BDS, and Galileo. Moreover, the programmable non-uniform delay resolution was introduced and first used by the SIGRS to generate the output DDM, which achieves a high delay resolution in the DDM central region around the specular point to improve the accuracy of basic observables but requires fewer delay bins than the conventional DDM with uniform delay resolution. The SIGRS has been successfully used to design the GNOS II onboard the Chinese FY-3E satellite, and the results of in-orbit operation validate the performance of the SIGRS, which means the SIGRS is an economically and technically efficient design and has become the first successful signal processing scheme for spaceborne integrated GNSS remote sensors around the world.
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Huang, Zhenchuan, Shuanggen Jin, Ke Su, and Xu Tang. "Multi-GNSS Precise Point Positioning with UWB Tightly Coupled Integration." Sensors 22, no. 6 (March 14, 2022): 2232. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22062232.
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Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) can provide high-precision positioning services, which can be applied to fields including navigation and positioning, autonomous driving, unmanned aerial vehicles and so on. However, GNSS signals are easily disrupted in complex environments, which results in a positioning performance with a significantly inferior accuracy and lengthier convergence time, particularly for the single GNSS system. In this paper, multi-GNSS precise point positioning (PPP) with tightly integrating ultra-wide band (UWB) technology is presented to implement fast and precise navigation and positioning. The validity of the algorithm is evaluated by a set of GNSS and UWB data. The statistics indicate that multi-GNSS/UWB integration can significantly improve positioning performance in terms of the positioning accuracy and convergence time. The improvement of the positioning performance for the GNSS/UWB tightly coupled integration mainly concerns the north and east directions, and to a lesser extent, the vertical direction. Furthermore, the convergence performance of GNSS/UWB solution is analyzed by simulating GNSS signal interruption. The reliability and robustness of GNSS/UWB solution during GNSS signal interruption is verified. The results show that multi-GNSS/UWB solution can significantly improve the accuracy and convergence speed of PPP.
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Guerova, Guergana, Jonathan Jones, Jan Douša, Galina Dick, Siebren de Haan, Eric Pottiaux, Olivier Bock, et al. "Review of the state of the art and future prospects of the ground-based GNSS meteorology in Europe." Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 9, no. 11 (November 8, 2016): 5385–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-5385-2016.
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Abstract. Global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) have revolutionised positioning, navigation, and timing, becoming a common part of our everyday life. Aside from these well-known civilian and commercial applications, GNSS is now an established atmospheric observing system, which can accurately sense water vapour, the most abundant greenhouse gas, accounting for 60–70 % of atmospheric warming. In Europe, the application of GNSS in meteorology started roughly two decades ago, and today it is a well-established field in both research and operation. This review covers the state of the art in GNSS meteorology in Europe. The advances in GNSS processing for derivation of tropospheric products, application of GNSS tropospheric products in operational weather prediction and application of GNSS tropospheric products for climate monitoring are discussed. The GNSS processing techniques and tropospheric products are reviewed. A summary of the use of the products for validation and impact studies with operational numerical weather prediction (NWP) models as well as very short weather prediction (nowcasting) case studies is given. Climate research with GNSSs is an emerging field of research, but the studies so far have been limited to comparison with climate models and derivation of trends. More than 15 years of GNSS meteorology in Europe has already achieved outstanding cooperation between the atmospheric and geodetic communities. It is now feasible to develop next-generation GNSS tropospheric products and applications that can enhance the quality of weather forecasts and climate monitoring. This work is carried out within COST Action ES1206 advanced global navigation satellite systems tropospheric products for monitoring severe weather events and climate (GNSS4SWEC, http://gnss4swec.knmi.nl).
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Bai, Weihua, Guojun Wang, Yueqiang Sun, Jiankui Shi, Guanglin Yang, Xiangguang Meng, Dongwei Wang, et al. "Application of the Fengyun 3 C GNSS occultation sounder for assessing the global ionospheric response to a magnetic storm event." Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 12, no. 3 (March 7, 2019): 1483–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-12-1483-2019.
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Abstract. The rapid advancement of global navigation satellite system (GNSS) occultation technology in recent years has made it one of the most advanced space-based remote sensing technologies of the 21st century. GNSS radio occultation has many advantages, including all-weather operation, global coverage, high vertical resolution, high precision, long-term stability, and self-calibration. Data products from GNSS occultation sounding can greatly enhance ionospheric observations and contribute to space weather monitoring, forecasting, modeling, and research. In this study, GNSS occultation sounder (GNOS) results from a radio occultation sounding payload aboard the Fengyun 3 C (FY3-C) satellite were compared with ground-based ionosonde observations. Correlation coefficients for peak electron density (NmF2) derived from GNOS Global Position System (GPS) and Beidou navigation system (BDS) products with ionosonde data were higher than 0.9, and standard deviations were less than 20 %. Global ionospheric effects of the strong magnetic storm event in March 2015 were analyzed using GNOS results supported by ionosonde observations. The magnetic storm caused a significant disturbance in NmF2 level. Suppressed daytime and nighttime NmF2 levels indicated mainly negative storm conditions. In two longitude section zones of geomagnetic inclination between 40 and 80∘, the results of average NmF2 observed by GNOS and ground-based ionosondes showed the same basic trends during the geomagnetic storm and confirmed the negative effect of this storm event on the ionosphere. The analysis demonstrates the reliability of the GNSS radio occultation sounding instrument GNOS aboard the FY3-C satellite and confirms the utility of ionosphere products from GNOS for statistical and event-specific ionospheric physical analyses. Future FY3 series satellites and increasing numbers of Beidou navigation satellites will provide increasing GNOS occultation data on the ionosphere, which will contribute to ionosphere research and forecasting applications.
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Zhao, Qingzhi, Kefei Zhang, and Wanqiang Yao. "Influence of station density and multi-constellation GNSS observations on troposphere tomography." Annales Geophysicae 37, no. 1 (January 14, 2019): 15–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/angeo-37-15-2019.
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Abstract. Troposphere tomography, using multi-constellation observations from global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs), has become a novel approach for the three-dimensional (3-D) reconstruction of water vapour fields. An analysis of the integration of four GNSSs (BeiDou, GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo) observations is presented to investigate the impact of station density and single- and multi-constellation GNSS observations on troposphere tomography. Additionally, the optimal horizontal resolution of the research area is determined in Hong Kong considering both the number of voxels divided, and the coverage rate of discretized voxels penetrated by satellite signals. The results show that densification of the GNSS network plays a more important role than using multi-constellation GNSS observations in improving the retrieval of 3-D atmospheric water vapour profiles. The root mean square of slant wet delay (SWD) residuals derived from the single-GNSS observations decreased by 16 % when the data from the other four stations are added. Furthermore, additional experiments have been carried out to analyse the contributions of different combined GNSS data to the reconstructed results, and the comparisons show some interesting results: (1) the number of iterations used in determining the weighting matrices of different equations in tomography modelling can be decreased when considering multi-constellation GNSS observations and (2) the reconstructed quality of 3-D atmospheric water vapour using multi-constellation GNSS data can be improved by about 11 % when compared to the SWD estimated with precise point positioning, but this was not as high as expected.
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Punzet, Stefan, and Thomas F. Eibert. "Impact of Additional Antenna Groundplanes on RTK-GNSS Positioning Accuracy of UAVs." Advances in Radio Science 20 (March 21, 2023): 23–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/ars-20-23-2023.
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Abstract. Precise position information is important for terrestrial and airborne surveying systems, such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Those systems often rely on real-time kinematic (RTK) global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) for position determination, where the GNSS antenna mounting environment impacts the GNSS position accuracy to a great extent. This paper investigates the impact of different supplementary groundplane shapes, sizes, and materials on multi-band patch and helical GNSS antennas at both, the UAV rover and RTK base station with respect to the achievable position accuracy. The groundplanes consist of solid aluminum sheets or copper plated printed circuit boards (PCBs) and are mounted directly underneath the GNSS antennas. Appropriate supplementary groundplanes are found to significantly improve the GNSS position accuracy in the majority of test cases.
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Yin, Cong, Feixiong Huang, Junming Xia, Weihua Bai, Yueqiang Sun, Guanglin Yang, Xiaochun Zhai, et al. "Soil Moisture Retrieval from Multi-GNSS Reflectometry on FY-3E GNOS-II by Land Cover Classification." Remote Sensing 15, no. 4 (February 17, 2023): 1097. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15041097.
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The reflected GNSS signals at the L-band is significantly advantageous in soil moisture monitoring as they are sensitive to the dielectric properties determined by the volumetric water content of topsoil, and they can penetrate vegetation, except in very dense forests. The Global Navigation satellite system Occultation Sounder (GNOS-II) with a reflectometry technique onboard the Fengyun-3E (FY-3E) satellite, launched on 5 July 2021, is the first mission that can receive reflected Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signals from GPS, BeiDou and Galileo systems. This paper presents the soil moisture retrieval results from the FY-3E GNOS-II mission using 16 months of data. In this study, the reflectivity observations from different GNSS systems were firstly intercalibrated with some differences analyzed. Observations were also corrected by considering vegetation attenuation for 16 different land cover classifications. Finally, an empirical model was constructed for volumetric soil moisture (VSM) estimation, where the reflectivity of GNOS-II was linearly related to the SMAP reference soil moisture for each 36 km ease grid. The overall root-mean-square error of the retrieved soil moisture is 0.049 compared with the SMAP product, and 0.054 compared with the in situ data. The results of the three GNSS systems show similar levels of accuracy. This paper, for the first time, demonstrates the feasibility of global soil moisture retrieval using multiple GNSS signals.
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Yang, Guanglin, Xiaoyong Du, Lingyong Huang, Xuerui Wu, Ling Sun, Chengli Qi, Xiaoxin Zhang, Jinsong Wang, and Shaohui Song. "An Illustration of FY-3E GNOS-R for Global Soil Moisture Monitoring." Sensors 23, no. 13 (June 22, 2023): 5825. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23135825.
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An effective soil moisture retrieval method for FY-3E (Fengyun-3E) GNOS-R (GNSS occultation sounder II-reflectometry) is developed in this paper. Here, the LAGRS model, which is totally oriented for GNOS-R, is employed to estimate vegetation and surface roughness effects on surface reflectivity. Since the LAGRS (land surface GNSS reflection simulator) model is a space-borne GNSS-R (GNSS reflectometry) simulator based on the microwave radiative transfer equation model, the method presented in this paper takes more consideration on the physical scattering properties for retrieval. Ancillary information from SMAP (soil moisture active passive) such as the vegetation water content and the roughness coefficient are investigated for the final algorithm’s development. At first, the SR (surface reflectivity) data calculated from GNOS-R is calculated and then calibrated, and then the vegetation roughness factor is achieved and used to eliminate the effects on both factors. After receiving the Fresnel reflectivity, the corresponding soil moisture estimated from this method is retrieved. The results demonstrate good consistency between soil moisture derived from GNOS-R data and SMAP soil moisture, with a correlation coefficient of 0.9599 and a root mean square error of 0.0483 cm3/cm3. This method succeeds in providing soil moisture on a global scale and is based on the previously developed physical LAGRS model. In this way, the great potential of GNOS-R for soil moisture estimation is presented.
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Liu, Congliang, Yueqiang Sun, Weihua Bai, Qifei Du, Wei Li, Xi Wang, and Peixian Li. "Effect of Multiple GNSS Integration on the Number and Spatiotemporal Coverage of Radio Occultation Events." Atmosphere 13, no. 5 (April 20, 2022): 654. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/atmos13050654.
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The development of global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) and multi-system compatible radio occultation (RO) techniques provides favorable conditions and opportunities for increasing the number of occultation events and improving their spatiotemporal coverage. The performance of the multiple GNSS RO event number, spatiotemporal coverage, and uniformity need assessments by robust and functional approaches. Firstly, a simulation system of RO events, which took the orbit perturbations into account, was established, and the concepts of global coverage fraction and uniformity of RO events were defined. Secondly, numerical experiments were designed to analyze the GNSS RO performances of a single-receiving satellite and satellite constellations under the condition of using current multiple GNSSs as transmitting satellite systems, in which the Earth was divided into 400 × 400 km2 grids. Finally, the number, timeliness, global coverage fraction, and uniformity of GNSS RO events for a single-receiving satellite and receiving satellite constellations were numerically calculated and analyzed. The results showed that ➀ multiple GNSS integration improved the number of GNSS RO events and their global coverage for a single polar-orbit satellite significantly, e.g., the 24 h multiple GNSS RO event number was about 7.8 times that of the single GNSS system, BeiDou navigation satellite system-3, while the corresponding 24 h global coverage fraction increased nearly 3 times. ➁ In the multiple GNSS integration scenario, the constellation composed of 12 polar-orbit low-Earth-orbit satellites achieved 100% RO event global coverage fraction within 24 h, of which the RO detection capability was comparable to the 100 Spire weather satellites and global positioning system (GPS) RO system. ➂ More GNSS RO events of the polar-orbit constellations were distributed in the middle- and high-latitude zones. Therefore, multiple GNSS integration could increase the RO event number and global coverage significantly to benefit the global climate monitoring and global numerical weather prediction, and the polar-orbit constellations were more favorable to atmospheric detection in middle- and high-latitude regions.
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Ji, Gun-Hoon, Ki-Ho Kwon, and Jong-Hoon Won. "GNSS Signal Availability Analysis in SSV for Geostationary Satellites Utilizing multi-GNSS with First Side Lobe Signal over the Korean Region." Remote Sensing 13, no. 19 (September 26, 2021): 3852. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs13193852.
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This paper verifies the applicability of multiple Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) and side lobe signal utilization in Space Service Volume (SSV), especially for Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) missions over the Korean region. Unlike the ground or terrestrial systems, various constraints of space exploration in SSV cause a problem when estimating position using GNSS. This is mainly due to the limit of GNSS signal availability where its dominant variables include altitude, side lobe issues, as well as longitude because of different constellations of several GNSS. The numerical simulation shows the effectiveness of additional side lobe signals from multi-GNSS. In addition, the effect of non-MEO satellites’ signals in SSV for different longitudes is presented.
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Capuano, Vincenzo, Francesco Basile, Cyril Botteron, and Pierre André Farine. "GNSS-based Orbital Filter for Earth Moon Transfer Orbits." Journal of Navigation 69, no. 4 (November 26, 2015): 745–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0373463315000843.
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Numerous applications, not only Earth-based, but also space-based, have strengthened the interest of the international scientific community in using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) as navigation systems for space missions that require good accuracy and low operating costs. Indeed, already successfully used in Low Earth Orbits (LEOs), GNSS-based navigation systems can maximise the autonomy of a spacecraft while reducing the burden and the costs of ground operations. That is why GNSS is also attractive for applications in higher Earth orbits up to the Moon, such as in Moon Transfer Orbits (MTOs). However, the higher the altitude the receiver is above the GNSS constellations, the poorer and the weaker are the relative geometry and the received signal powers, respectively, leading to a significant navigation accuracy reduction. In order to improve the achievable GNSS performance in MTOs, we consider in this paper an adaptive orbital filter that fuses the GNSS observations with an orbital forces model. Simulation results show a navigation accuracy significantly higher than that attainable individually by a standalone GNSS receiver or by means of a pure orbital propagation.
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Sun, Yueqiang, Weihua Bai, Congliang Liu, Yan Liu, Qifei Du, Xianyi Wang, Guanglin Yang, et al. "The FengYun-3C radio occultation sounder GNOS: a review of the mission and its early results and science applications." Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 11, no. 10 (October 23, 2018): 5797–811. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-11-5797-2018.
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Abstract. The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Occultation Sounder (GNOS) is one of the new-generation payloads on board the Chinese FengYun 3 (FY-3) series of operational meteorological satellites for sounding the Earth's neutral atmosphere and ionosphere. FY-3C GNOS, on board the FY-3 series C satellite launched in September 2013, was designed to acquire setting and rising radio occultation (RO) data by using GNSS signals from both the Chinese BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and the US Global Positioning System (GPS). So far, the GNOS measurements and atmospheric and ionospheric data products have been validated and evaluated and then been used for atmosphere- and ionosphere-related scientific applications. This paper reviews the FY-3C GNOS instrument, RO data processing, data quality evaluation, and preliminary research applications according to the state-of-the-art status of the FY-3C GNOS mission and related publications. The reviewed data validation and application results demonstrate that the FY-3C GNOS mission can provide accurate and precise atmospheric and ionospheric GNSS (i.e., GPS and BDS) RO profiles for numerical weather prediction (NWP), global climate monitoring (GCM), and space weather research (SWR). The performance of the FY-3C GNOS product quality evaluation and scientific applications establishes confidence that the GNOS data from the series of FY-3 satellites will provide important contributions to NWP, GCM, and SWR scientific communities.
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Han, Yi, Jia Luo, and Xiaohua Xu. "On the Constellation Design of Multi-GNSS Reflectometry Mission Using the Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm." Atmosphere 10, no. 12 (December 13, 2019): 807. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/atmos10120807.
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Due to the great success of the CYclone Global Navigation Satellite System (CYGNSS) mission, the follow-on GNSS Reflectometry (GNSS-R) missions are being planned. In the perceivable future, signal sources for GNSS-R missions can originate from multiple global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) including Global Positioning System (GPS), Galileo, GLONASS, and BeiDou. On the other hand, to facilitate the operational capability for sensing ocean, land, and ice features globally, multi-satellite low Earth orbit (LEO) constellations with global coverage and high spatio-temporal resolutions should be considered in the design of the follow-on GNSS-R constellation. In the present study, the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm was applied to seek the optimal configuration parameters of 2D-lattice flower constellations (2D-LFCs) composed of 8, 24, 60, and 120 satellites, respectively, for global GNSS-R observations, and the fitness function was defined as the length of the time for the percentage coverage of the reflection observations reaches 90% of the globe. The configuration parameters for the optimal constellations are presented, and the performances of the optimal constellations for GNSS-R observations including the visited and the revisited coverages, and the spatial and temporal distributions of the reflections were further compared. Although the results showed that all four optimized constellations could observe GNSS reflections with proper temporal and spatial distributions, we recommend the optimal 24- and 60-satellite 2D-LFCs for future GNSS-R missions, taking into account both the performance and efficiency for the deployment of the GNSS-R missions.
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Duong, Thanh Trung, Kai-Wei Chiang, and Dinh Thuan Le. "On-line Smoothing and Error Modelling for Integration of GNSS and Visual Odometry." Sensors 19, no. 23 (November 29, 2019): 5259. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19235259.
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Global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) are commonly used for navigation and mapping applications. However, in GNSS-hostile environments, where the GNSS signal is noisy or blocked, the navigation information provided by a GNSS is inaccurate or unavailable. To overcome these issues, this study proposed a real-time visual odometry (VO)/GNSS integrated navigation system. An on-line smoothing method based on the extended Kalman filter (EKF) and the Rauch-Tung-Striebel (RTS) smoother was proposed. VO error modelling was also proposed to estimate the VO error and compensate the incoming measurements. Field tests were performed in various GNSS-hostile environments, including under a tree canopy and an urban area. An analysis of the test results indicates that with the EKF used for data fusion, the root-mean-square error (RMSE) of the three-dimensional position is about 80 times lower than that of the VO-only solution. The on-line smoothing and error modelling made the results more accurate, allowing seamless on-line navigation information. The efficiency of the proposed methods in terms of cost and accuracy compared to the conventional inertial navigation system (INS)/GNSS integrated system was demonstrated.
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Zou, Zixuan, Guoshuai Wang, Zhenshuo Li, Rui Zhai, and Yonghua Li. "MFO-Fusion: A Multi-Frame Residual-Based Factor Graph Optimization for GNSS/INS/LiDAR Fusion in Challenging GNSS Environments." Remote Sensing 16, no. 17 (August 23, 2024): 3114. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs16173114.
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In various practical applications, such as autonomous vehicle and unmanned aerial vehicle navigation, Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) are commonly used for positioning. However, traditional GNSS positioning methods are often affected by disturbances due to external observational conditions. For instance, in areas with dense buildings, tree cover, or tunnels, GNSS signals may be obstructed, resulting in positioning failures or decreased accuracy. Therefore, improving the accuracy and stability of GNSS positioning in these complex environments is a critical concern. In this paper, we propose a novel multi-sensor fusion framework based on multi-frame residual optimization for GNSS/INS/LiDAR to address the challenges posed by complex satellite environments. Our system employs a novel residual detection and optimization method for continuous-time GNSS within keyframes. Specifically, we use rough pose measurements from LiDAR to extract keyframes for the global system. Within these keyframes, the multi-frame residuals of GNSS and IMU are estimated using the Median Absolute Deviation (MAD) and subsequently employed for the degradation detection and sliding window optimization of the GNSS. Building on this, we employ a two-stage factor graph optimization strategy, significantly improving positioning accuracy, especially in environments with limited GNSS signals. To validate the effectiveness of our approach, we assess the system’s performance on the publicly available UrbanLoco dataset and conduct experiments in real-world environments. The results demonstrate that our system can achieve continuous decimeter-level positioning accuracy in these complex environments, outperforming other related frameworks.
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Zmysłowski, Dariusz, Michał Kryk, and Jan Kelner. "TESTING GNSS RECEIVER ROBUSTNESS FOR JAMMING." Aviation and Security Issues 4, no. 2 (December 30, 2023): 139–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.55676/asi.v4i2.64.
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Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) providing positioning, navigation and synchronization, has become an important element of modern systems and devices that have a crucial impact on many economy branches and the life of an common person. Literature analysis and reports from recent armed conflicts show that the use of techniques for jamming and spoofing GNSS signals is becoming increasingly. This reduces the level of safety in transport and increases the risk of improper operation of GNSS-based systems, like cellular telephony or bank sector. This paper focuses on the methodology for testing the GNSS receiver robustness for jamming. For this purpose, a broadband jamming device was developed.
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Zhang, Pengfei, Rui Tu, Yuping Gao, Rui Zhang, and Na Liu. "Improving the Performance of Multi-GNSS Time and Frequency Transfer Using Robust Helmert Variance Component Estimation." Sensors 18, no. 9 (August 31, 2018): 2878. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s18092878.
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The combination of multiple Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) may improve the performance of time and frequency transfers by increasing the number of available satellites and improving the time dilution of precision. However, the receiver clock estimation is easily affected by the inappropriate weight of multi-GNSSs due to the different characteristics of individual GNSS signals as well as the outliers from observations. Thus, we utilised a robust Helmert variance component estimation (RVCE) approach to determine the appropriate weights of different GNSS observations, and to control for the influence of outliers in these observation in multi-GNSS time and frequency transfer. In order to validate the effectiveness of this approach, four time links were employed. Compared to traditional solutions, the mean improvement of smoothed residuals is 3.43% using the RVCE approach. With respect to the frequency stability of the time links, the RVCE solution outperforms the traditional solution, particularly in the short-term, and the mean improvement is markedly high at 14.89%.
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Zharkov, Maksim, Konstantin Veremeenko, Ivan Kuznetsov, and Andrei Pronkin. "Global Navigation Satellite System Spoofing Detection in Inertial Satellite Navigation Systems." Inventions 8, no. 6 (December 16, 2023): 158. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/inventions8060158.
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The susceptibility of global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) to interference significantly limits the possibility of their use. From the standpoint of possible consequences, the most dangerous interference is the so-called spoofing. Simultaneously, in most cases of GNSS use, an inertial navigation system (INS) or an attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) is also present on the board of mobile objects. In this regard, the research goal is to assess the possibility of detecting GNSS spoofing in inertial satellite navigation systems. This paper examines the method for detecting GNSS spoofing by combining a pair of commercially available GNSS receivers and antennas with an INS or AHRS. The method is based on a comparison of the double differences of GNSS carrier phase measurements performed by receivers under conditions of resolved integer ambiguity and the values of the range double differences predicted using an INS. GNSS carrier phase integer ambiguity can be resolved using a strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) or AHRS data. The mathematical model of GNSS phase difference measurements and the SINS-predicted satellite range differences model are given. The proposed algorithm calculates the moving average of the residuals between the SINS-predicted satellite range double differences and the measured GNSS carrier phase double differences. The primary criterion for spoofing detection is the specified threshold excess of the moving average of the double difference residuals. Experimental studies are performed using simulation and hardware-in-the-loop simulation. The experimental results allow us to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed approach and estimate the potential characteristics of the spoofing detection algorithm based on it.
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Luo, Yiran, Li-Ta Hsu, Yang Jiang, Baoyu Liu, Zhetao Zhang, Yan Xiang, and Naser El-Sheimy. "High-Accuracy Absolute-Position-Aided Code Phase Tracking Based on RTK/INS Deep Integration in Challenging Static Scenarios." Remote Sensing 15, no. 4 (February 17, 2023): 1114. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15041114.
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Many multi-sensor navigation systems urgently demand accurate positioning initialization from global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) in challenging static scenarios. However, ground blockages against line-of-sight (LOS) signal reception make it difficult for GNSS users. Steering local codes in GNSS basebands is a desirable way to correct instantaneous signal phase misalignment, efficiently gathering useful signal power and increasing positioning accuracy. Inertial navigation systems (INSs) have been used as effective complementary dead reckoning (DR) sensors for GNSS receivers in kinematic scenarios, resisting various forms of interference. However, little work has focused on whether INSs can improve GNSS receivers in static scenarios. Thus, this paper proposes an enhanced navigation system deeply integrated with low-cost INS solutions and GNSS high-accuracy carrier-based positioning. First, an absolute code phase is predicted from base station information and integrated solutions of the INS DR and real-time kinematic (RTK) results through an extended Kalman filter (EKF). Then, a numerically controlled oscillator (NCO) leverages the predicted code phase to improve the alignment between instantaneous local code phases and received ones. The proposed algorithm is realized in a vector-tracking GNSS software-defined radio (SDR). Results of the time-of-arrival (TOA) and positioning based on real-world experiments demonstrated the proposed SDR.
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Ziebold, Ralf, Daniel Medina, Michailas Romanovas, Christoph Lass, and Stefan Gewies. "Performance Characterization of GNSS/IMU/DVL Integration under Real Maritime Jamming Conditions." Sensors 18, no. 9 (September 5, 2018): 2954. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s18092954.
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Currently Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) are the primary source for the determination of absolute position, navigation, and time (PNT) for merchant vessel navigation. Nevertheless, the performance of GNSSs can strongly degrade due to space weather events, jamming, and spoofing. Especially the increasing availability and adoption of low cost jammers lead to the question of how a continuous provision of PNT data can be realized in the vicinity of these devices. In general, three possible solutions for that challenge can be seen: (i) a jamming-resistant GNSS receiver; (ii) the usage of a terrestrial backup system; or (iii) the integration of GNSS with other onboard navigation sensors such as a speed log, a gyrocompass, and inertial sensors (inertial measurement unit—IMU). The present paper focuses on the third option by augmenting a classical IMU/GNSS sensor fusion scheme with a Doppler velocity log. Although the benefits of integrated IMU/GNSS navigation system have been already demonstrated for marine applications, a performance evaluation of such a multi-sensor system under real jamming conditions on a vessel seems to be still missing. The paper evaluates both loosely and tightly coupled fusion strategies implemented using an unscented Kalman filter (UKF). The performance of the proposed scheme is evaluated using the civilian maritime jamming testbed in the Baltic Sea.
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Lackowski, Maciej, Kamil Kaźmierski, and Iwona Kudłacik. "Using GNSS Phase Observation Residuals and Wavelet Analysis to Detect Earthquakes." Artificial Satellites 58, no. 4 (December 1, 2023): 341–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/arsa-2023-0014.
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Abstract Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) are one of the techniques that can be used for the deformation monitoring caused by earthquakes. GNSSs enable the monitoring of specific areas affected by earthquakes in real-time and post-processing modes. This paper provides a novel method for the short-term displacement detection based on the phase residuals of GNSS observations. The study examines a natural earthquake from October 26, 2016, in Italy with Mw 6.1. In the proposed methodology, the residuals of the GNSS phase observations are derived using Precise Point Positioning. Then, residuals are transformed to the frequency domain using a wavelet transform, and the earthquake moment is identified using the anomalies detected in the scalogram, which do not appear in stable conditions. The described methodology allows for detecting the starting and ending moments of the earthquake. The methods described detected that the moment of the earthquake is visible in the residues 8 seconds after the seismic catalog time. The conducted experiments show that the use of signal analysis tools allows it to properly detect the ground vibrations in the residuals of GNSS phase observations and thus confirms the registration of ground vibrations in satellite observation data recorded by a GNSS receiver.
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Bai, W. H., Y. Q. Sun, Q. F. Du, G. L. Yang, Z. D. Yang, P. Zhang, Y. M. Bi, X. Y. Wang, C. Cheng, and Y. Han. "An introduction to the FY3 GNOS instrument and mountain-top tests." Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 7, no. 6 (June 24, 2014): 1817–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-7-1817-2014.
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Abstract. The FY3 (Feng-Yun-3) GNOS (GNSS Occultation Sounder) mission is a GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) radio occultation mission of China for remote sensing of Earth's neutral atmosphere and the ionosphere. GNOS will use both the global positioning system (GPS) and the Beidou navigation satellite systems on the China Feng-Yun-3 (FY3) series satellites. The first FY3-C was launched at 03:07 UTC on 23 September 2013. GNOS was developed by the Center for Space Science and Applied Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CSSAR). It will provide vertical profiles of atmospheric temperature, pressure, and humidity, as well as ionospheric electron density profiles on a global basis. These data will be used for numerical weather prediction, climate research, and ionospheric research and space weather. This paper describes the FY3 GNOS mission and the GNOS instrument characteristics. It presents simulation results of the number and distribution of GNOS occultation events with the regional Beidou constellation and the full GPS constellation, under the limitation of the GNOS instrument occultation channel number. This paper presents the instrument performance as derived from analysis of measurement data in laboratory and mountain-based occultation validation experiments at Mt. Wuling in Hebei Province. The mountain-based GNSS occultation validation tests show that GNOS can acquire or track low-elevation radio signal for rising or setting occultation events. The refractivity profiles of GNOS obtained during the mountain-based experiment were compared with those from radiosondes. The results show that the refractivity profiles obtained by GNOS are consistent with those from the radiosonde. The rms of the differences between the GNOS and radiosonde refractivities is less than 3%.
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Bai, W., Y. Sun, Q. Du, G. Yang, Z. Yang, P. Zhang, Y. Bi, X. Wang, C. Cheng, and Y. Han. "An introduction to FY3 GNOS instrument and its performace tested on ground." Atmospheric Measurement Techniques Discussions 7, no. 1 (January 27, 2014): 703–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amtd-7-703-2014.
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Abstract. The FY3 GNOS (GNSS Occultation Sounder) mission is a GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) radio occultation mission of China for remote sensing of Earth's neutral atmosphere and the ionosphere. GNOS will use both the Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Beidou navigation satellite systems on the China Feng-Yun-3 (FY3) series satellites. The first FY3-C was launched at 03:03 UTC, 23 September 2013. GNOS was developed by Center for Space Science and Applied Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CSSAR). It will provide vertical profiles of atmospheric temperature, pressure, and humidity, as well as ionospheric electron density profiles on a global basis. These data will be used for numerical weather prediction, climate research, and ionospheric research and space weather. This paper describes the FY3 GNOS mission and the GNOS instrument characteristics. It presents simulation results of the number and distribution of GNOS occultation events with the Regional Beidou constellation and the full GPS constellation, under the limitation of the GNOS instrument occultation channel number. This paper presents the instrument performance as derived from analysis of measurement data in laboratory and mountain-based occultation validation experiments at Mt. Wuling in Hebei Province. The mountain-based GNSS occultation validation tests show that GNOS can acquire or track lower elevation radio signal for rising or setting occultation events. The refractivity profiles of GNOS obtained during the mountain-based experiment were compared with those from radiosondes. The results show that the refractivity profiles obtained by GNOS are consistent with those from the radiosonde. The RMS of the differences between the GNOS and radiosonde refractivities is less than 3%.
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Retscher, Günther, Daniel Kiss, and Jelena Gabela. "Fusion of GNSS Pseudoranges with UWB Ranges Based on Clustering and Weighted Least Squares." Sensors 23, no. 6 (March 21, 2023): 3303. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23063303.
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Global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) and ultra-wideband (UWB) ranging are two central research topics in the field of positioning and navigation. In this study, a GNSS/UWB fusion method is investigated in GNSS-challenged environments or for the transition between outdoor and indoor environments. UWB augments the GNSS positioning solution in these environments. GNSS stop-and-go measurements were carried out simultaneously to UWB range observations within the network of grid points used for testing. The influence of UWB range measurements on the GNSS solution is examined with three weighted least squares (WLS) approaches. The first WLS variant relies solely on the UWB range measurements. The second approach includes a measurement model that utilizes GNSS only. The third model fuses both approaches into a single multi-sensor model. As part of the raw data evaluation, static GNSS observations processed with precise ephemerides were used to define the ground truth. In order to extract the grid test points from the collected raw data in the measured network, clustering methods were applied. A self-developed clustering approach extending density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (DBSCAN) was employed for this purpose. The results of the GNSS/UWB fusion approach show an improvement in positioning performance compared to the UWB-only approach, in the range of a few centimeters to the decimeter level when grid points were placed within the area enclosed by the UWB anchor points. However, grid points outside this area indicated a decrease in accuracy in the range of about 90 cm. The precision generally remained within 5 cm for points located within the anchor points.
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Nijak, Mateusz, Piotr Skrzypczyński, Krzysztof Ćwian, Michał Zawada, Sebastian Szymczyk, and Jacek Wojciechowski. "On the Importance of Precise Positioning in Robotised Agriculture." Remote Sensing 16, no. 6 (March 11, 2024): 985. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs16060985.
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The precision of agro-technical operations is one of the main hallmarks of a modern approach to agriculture. However, ensuring the precise application of plant protection products or the performance of mechanical field operations entails significant costs for sophisticated positioning systems. This paper explores the integration of precision positioning based on the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) in agriculture, particularly in fieldwork operations, seeking solutions of moderate cost with sufficient precision. This study examines the impact of GNSSs on automation and robotisation in agriculture, with a focus on intelligent agricultural guidance. It also discusses commercial devices that enable the automatic guidance of self-propelled machinery and the benefits that they provide. This paper investigates GNSS-based precision localisation devices under real field conditions. A comparison of commercial and low-cost GNSS solutions, along with the integration of satellite navigation with advanced visual odometry for improved positioning accuracy, is presented. The research demonstrates that affordable solutions based on the common differential GNSS infrastructure can be applied for accurate localisation under real field conditions. It also underscores the potential of GNSS-based automation and robotisation in transforming agriculture into a more efficient and sustainable industry.
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Huang, Panpan, Chris Rizos, and Craig Roberts. "Airborne Pseudolite Distributed Positioning based on Real-time GNSS PPP." Journal of Navigation 72, no. 5 (April 22, 2019): 1159–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0373463319000213.
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Airborne-Pseudolite (A-PL) systems have been proposed to augment Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) in difficult areas where GNSS-only navigation cannot be guaranteed due to signal blockages, signal jamming, etc. One of the challenges in realising such a system is to determine the coordinates of the A-PLs to a high accuracy. The GNSS Precise Point Positioning (PPP) technique is a possible alternative to differential GNSS techniques such as those that generate Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) solutions. To enhance the A-PL positioning performance in GNSS challenged areas, it is assumed that inter-PL range measurements are also used in addition to GNSS measurements. When processing these new measurements, cross-correlations among A-PL estimated states introduced during measurement updates need to be accounted for so as to obtain consistent estimated states. In this paper, a distributed algorithm based on a Split Covariance Intersection Filter (SCIF) is proposed. Three commonly used means of implementing the SCIF algorithm are analysed. Another challenge is that real-time GNSS PPP relies on the use of precise satellite orbit and clock information. One problem is that these real-time orbit and satellite clock error corrections may not be always available, especially for moving A-PLs in challenging environments when signal outages occur. To maintain A-PL positioning accuracy using GNSS PPP, it is necessary to predict these error corrections during outages. Different prediction models for orbit and clock error corrections are discussed. A test was conducted to evaluate the A-PL positioning based on GNSS PPP and inter-PL ranges, as well as the performance of error prediction modelling. It was found that GNSS PPP combined with inter-PL ranges could achieve better converged positioning accuracy and a reduction in convergence time of GNSS PPP. However, the performance of GNSS PPP with inter-PL ranges was degraded by observing A-PLs with limited positioning accuracy. Although the performance improvement achieved by the SCIF-based distributed algorithms was smaller than that by the centralised algorithm, greater robustness in dealing with deteriorated observed A-PLs' trajectory data was demonstrated by the distributed algorithms. In addition, short-term prediction models were analysed, and their performance was shown to reduce the effect of error correction outages on A-PL positioning accuracy.
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Kim, Hanjin, Chang-Uk Hyun, Hyeong-Dong Park, and Jongmun Cha. "Image Mapping Accuracy Evaluation Using UAV with Standalone, Differential (RTK), and PPP GNSS Positioning Techniques in an Abandoned Mine Site." Sensors 23, no. 13 (June 24, 2023): 5858. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23135858.
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Global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) provide a common positioning method that utilizes satellite signals to determine the spatial location of a receiver. However, there are several error factors in standalone GNSS positioning due to instrumental, procedural, and environmental factors that arise during the signal transmission process, and the final positioning error can be up to several meters or greater in length. Thus, real-time kinematic (RTK) correction and post-mission precise point positioning (PPP) processing technologies are proposed to improve accuracy and accomplish precise position measurements. To evaluate the geolocation accuracy of mosaicked UAV images of an abandoned mine site, we compared each orthomosaic image and digital elevation model obtained using standalone GNSS positioning, differential (RTK) GNSS positioning, and post-mission PPP processing techniques. In the three types of error evaluation measure (i.e., relative camera location error, ground control points-based absolute image mapping error, and volumetric difference of mine tailings), we found that the RTK GNSS positioning method obtained the best performance in terms of the relative camera location error and the absolute image mapping error evaluations, and the PPP post-processing correction effectively reduced the error (69.5% of the average total relative camera location error and 59.3% of the average total absolute image mapping error) relative to the standalone GNSS positioning method. Although differential (RTK) GNSS positioning is widely used in positioning applications that require very high accuracy, post-mission PPP processing can also be used in various fields in which it is either not feasible to operate expensive equipment to receive RTK GNSS signals or network RTK services are unavailable.
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Zhang, Wang Xun, Hong Tao Hou, Pai Peng, and Wei Ping Wang. "Modeling and Analysis of the Threats to GNSS." Advanced Materials Research 694-697 (May 2013): 2587–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.694-697.2587.
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The vulnerability of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) makes it susceptible to a variety of threats, so it is significant to study the effects of each threat on GNSS performance. To analyze the impacts of different threats, a dynamic master logic diagram (DMLD) based modeling and analysis method was presented. First the relationships between threats and GNSS performance were built through a quadric associations by DMLD symbols, then qualitative and quantitative analysis was done via DMLDs great reasoning power, at last qualitative and quantitative analysis could show engineers and researchers the effects they concerned about and also could support the improvement of GNSSs defense and protection capability. The DMLD based method provides engineers a feasible way for threats modeling and analysis.
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Cui, Bingbo, Wu Chen, Duojie Weng, Xinhua Wei, Zeyu Sun, Yan Zhao, and Yufei Liu. "Observability-Constrained Resampling-Free Cubature Kalman Filter for GNSS/INS with Measurement Outliers." Remote Sensing 15, no. 18 (September 18, 2023): 4591. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15184591.
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Integrating global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) with inertial navigation systems (INSs) has been widely recognized as an ideal solution for autonomous vehicle navigation. However, GNSSs suffer from disturbances and signal blocking inevitably, making the performance of GNSS/INSs degraded in the occurrence of measurement outliers. It has been proven that the sigma points-based Kalman filter (KF) performs better than an extended KF in cases where large prior uncertainty is present in the state estimation of a GNSS/INS. By modifying the sigma points directly, the resampling-free sigma point update framework (SUF) propagates more information excepting Gaussian moments of prescribed accuracy, based on which the resampling-free cubature Kalman filter (RCKF) was developed in our previous work. In order to enhance the adaptivity and robustness of the RCKF, the resampling-free SUF depending on dynamic prediction residue should be improved by suppressing the time-varying measurement outlier. In this paper, a robust observability-constrained RCKF (ROCRCKF) is proposed based on adaptive measurement noise covariance estimation and outlier detection, where the occurrence of measurement outliers is modelled by the Bernoulli variable and estimated with the state simultaneously. Experiments based on car-mounted GNSS/INSs are performed to verify the effectiveness of the ROCRCKF, and result indicates that the proposed algorithm outperforms the RCKF in the presence of measurement outliers, where the heading error and average root mean square error of the position are reduced from 1.96° and 6.38 m to 0.27° and 5.95 m, respectively. The ROCRCKF is robust against the measurement outliers and time-varying model uncertainty, making it suitable for the real-time implementation of GNSS/INSs in GNSS-challenged environments.
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Goldberg, Dara E., and Kirstie L. Haynie. "Ready for Real Time: Performance of Global Navigation Satellite System in 2019 Mw 7.1 Ridgecrest, California, Rapid Response Products." Seismological Research Letters 93, no. 2A (January 26, 2022): 517–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0220210278.
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Abstract Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) have undergone notable advancement in the last few decades, leading to the availability of a dataset with capabilities well beyond its original intended purpose. The proliferation of high-rate (1 Hz or greater) GNSS receivers in areas of seismological interest now allows for routine consideration of dynamic earthquake ground motions, with centimeter-level displacement accuracy via precise point positioning methods. Real-time (RT) GNSS observations, from stations that are both telemetered and processed to displacement with minimal latency, have lower accuracy compared to post-processed (PP) GNSS displacements due to imprecise knowledge of atmospheric conditions, satellite clocks, and satellite orbits in RT. Whether the quality of RT high-rate GNSS is sufficient for use in rapid response products remains to be thoroughly examined. Here, we highlight RT GNSS displacement time series processed during the 2019 Mw 7.1 Ridgecrest, California, earthquake in the context of common rapid-response products, magnitude estimation, and kinematic fault-slip models. We discuss how these data can be used to supplement RT seismic data for rapid characterization of significant earthquakes. We find that kinematic fault-slip models using RT GNSS data retain the general spatiotemporal characteristics of those with PP data, with subtle differences in size and amplitude of modeled slip asperities. We demonstrate the effect of these rapid seismic source models using RT GNSS data on the U.S. Geological Survey product ShakeMap—a downstream ground-motion prediction algorithm informed by the rupture dimensions estimated in the slip model. Discrepancies in the ShakeMap estimate are minor, within ±12% change, with the most severe variation at the fault edges. Our analysis suggests that, when used in conjunction with available seismic data sources, RT GNSS is sufficient and valuable for rapid earthquake characterization.
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Sun, Yueqiang, Feixiong Huang, Junming Xia, Cong Yin, Weihua Bai, Qifei Du, Xianyi Wang, et al. "GNOS-II on Fengyun-3 Satellite Series: Exploration of Multi-GNSS Reflection Signals for Operational Applications." Remote Sensing 15, no. 24 (December 16, 2023): 5756. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15245756.
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The Global Navigation Satellite System Occultation Sounder II (GNOS-II) payload onboard the Chinese Fengyun-3E (FY-3E) satellite is the world’s first operational spaceborne mission that can utilize reflected signals from multiple navigation systems for Earth remote sensing. The satellite was launched into an 836-km early-morning polar orbit on 5 July 2021. Different GNSS signals show different characteristics in the observations and thus require different calibration methods. With an average data latency of less than 3 h, many near real-time applications are possible. This article first introduces the FY-3E/GNOS-II mission and instrument design, then describes the extensive calibration methods for the multi-GNSS measurements, and finally presents application results in the remote sensing of ocean surface winds, land soil moisture and sea ice extent. Especially, the ocean surface wind product has been used in operational applications such as assimilation in the numerical weather prediction model and monitoring of tropical cyclones. Currently, GNOS-II has been carried by FY-3E, FY-3F (launched in August 2023) and FY-3G (launched in April 2023). It will be also carried by future follow-on FY series and a more complete multi-GNSS reflectometry constellation will be established.
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Lu, Yangyang, Hu Yang, Bo Li, Jun Li, Aigong Xu, and Mingze Zhang. "Analysis of Characteristics for Inter-System Bias on Multi-GNSS Undifferenced and Uncombined Precise Point Positioning." Remote Sensing 15, no. 9 (April 24, 2023): 2252. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15092252.
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Multi Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Precise Point Positioning (PPP) has become the mainstream of PPP technology. Due to the differences in the coordinates and time references of each GNSS, multi-GNSS PPP must include additional Inter-System Bias (ISB) parameters to ensure compatibility between different GNSSs. Therefore, research on the characteristics of ISB is also essential. To analyze the short- and long-term time characteristics of multi-GNSS ISBs, as well as their relationship with receiver type and receiver antenna type, the Undifferenced and Uncombined (UDUC) PPP model of Global Positioning System (GPS), BeiDou navigation satellite system (BDS), and Galileo satellite navigation system (Galileo) was rigorously derived, and the physical of ISBs was elaborated in depth. ISB parameters were estimated and analyzed using 31 days of data from the 31 Multi-GNSS Experimental stations (MGEX). The results indicate that: (1) the ISB value is dependent on the station receiver type, receiver antenna type, analysis center product utilized, and GNSS system. (2) The short-term time characteristics of ISB-COM, ISB-WUM, and ISB-GBM are similar for the same station but not for the long term. In addition, ISBs are more stable in the short term. (3) There is little correlation between the ISB time characteristics, the receiver type, and the receiver antenna type, and the day-boundary discontinuity(DBD) on the ISB can be ignored for the concussive days’ process.
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Elhalawany, Noha Ragab, Brian Enders, Ersin Bahceci, and Munir Nayfeh. "Novel synthetic route for growth of gold nanorods via semiconductor procedure." Materials Physics and Chemistry 1, no. 2 (May 22, 2019): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.18282/mpc.v1i2.573.
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<p>We represent here a novel facile synthesis type route based on semiconductor procedure for growth of gold nanorods GNRs using infinitesimal silicon nanoparticles USSiN. The reaction takes place immediately upon mixing monodispersed hydrogen terminated USSiN of 2.9 nm diameter with auric acid HAuCl4 in presence and in absence of an emulsifier. The resulting colloids have been characterized via scanning electron microscope SEM, Energy dispersive spectrometry EDS and optical microscope OM. Photo-luminesence (PL) measurements have been also carried out. Our results show formation of gold nanorods GNRs, gold nanoplates GNPs, gold nanospheres GNSs and filaments. The formed GNRs have near uniform length of 1.5 µm and diameter of 300 nm (5 aspect ratio). The results are consistent with a seedless process in which the H-terminated silicon nanoparticles act as either the reducing as well as the directional growth agent, eliminating the need for toxic cetyl-trimethyl-ammonium bromide CTAB or, which is typically used as the directional growth agent. </p>
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Zhang, Jinglei, Xiaoming Wang, Zishen Li, Shuhui Li, Cong Qiu, Haobo Li, Shaotian Zhang, and Li Li. "The Impact of Different Ocean Tide Loading Models on GNSS Estimated Zenith Tropospheric Delay Using Precise Point Positioning Technique." Remote Sensing 12, no. 18 (September 20, 2020): 3080. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12183080.
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Global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) have become an important tool to derive atmospheric products, such as the total zenith tropospheric delay (ZTD) and precipitable water vapor (PWV) for weather and climate studies. The ocean tide loading (OTL) effect is one of the primary errors that affects the accuracy of GNSS-derived ZTD/PWV, which means the study and choice of the OTL model is an important issue for high-accuracy ZTD estimation. In this study, GNSS data from 1 January 2019 to 31 January 2019 are processed using precise point positioning (PPP) at globally distributed stations. The performance of seven widely used global OTL models is assessed and their impact on the GNSS-derived ZTD is investigated by comparing them against the ZTD calculated from co-located radiosonde observations. The results indicate that the inclusion or exclusion of the OTL effect will lead to a difference in ZTD of up to 3–15 mm for island stations, and up to 1–2 mm for inland stations. The difference of the ZTD determined with different OTL models is quite small, with a root-mean-square (RMS) value below 1.5 mm at most stations. The comparison between the GNSS-derived ZTD and the radiosonde-derived ZTD indicates that the adoption of OTL models can improve the accuracy of GNSS-derived ZTD. The results also indicate that the adoption of a smaller cutoff elevation, e.g., 3° or 7°, can significantly reduce the difference between the ZTDs determined by GNSS and radiosonde, when compared against a 15° cutoff elevation. Compared to the radiosonde-derived ZTD, the RMS error of GNSS-derived ZTD is approximately 25–35 mm at a cutoff elevation of 15°, and 15–25 mm when the cutoff elevation is set to 3°.
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Egea-Roca, Daniel, Antonio Tripiana-Caballero, José López-Salcedo, Gonzalo Seco-Granados, Wim De Wilde, Bruno Bougard, Jean-Marie Sleewaegen, and Alexander Popugaev. "Design, Implementation and Validation of a GNSS Measurement Exclusion and Weighting Function with a Dual Polarized Antenna." Sensors 18, no. 12 (December 18, 2018): 4483. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s18124483.
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Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) have become a ubiquitous tool for our modern society to carry out vital tasks such as transportation, civil engineering or precision agriculture. This breath has reached the realm of safety-critical applications such as time management of critical infrastructures or autonomous vehicles, in which GNSS is an essential tool nowadays. Unfortunately, current GNSS performance is not enough to fulfill the requirements of these professional and critical applications. For this reason, the FANTASTIC project was launched to boost the adoption of these applications. The project was funded by the European GNSS agency (GSA) in order to enhance the robustness and accuracy of GNSS in harsh environments. This paper presents the part related to the development of a weighting and exclusion function with a dual circularly polarized antenna. The idea is to reduce the effects of multipath by weighting and/or excluding those measurements affected by multipath. The observables and other metrics obtained from a dual polarized antenna will be exploited to define an exclusion threshold and to provide the weights. Real-world experiments will show the improvement in the positioning solution, using all available constellations, obtained with the developed technique.
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Yashchyshyn, Yevhen, Dmytro Vynnyk, Volodymyr Haiduchok, Ivan Solskii, Changying Wu, Grzegorz Bogdan, and Józef Modelski. "A Tunable and Electrically Small Antenna for Compact GNSS Receivers." Remote Sensing 13, no. 3 (January 29, 2021): 485. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs13030485.
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The electronic receivers of global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) are implemented in various handheld electronic devices such as laptops, smartphones, and smartwatches; therefore, their dimensions are of critical importance. Achieving a GNSS terminal of a small size is difficult due to its relatively low operational frequency (L-band), which is equivalent to a wavelength of approximately 24 cm. As an efficient half-wavelength antenna is too large for compact devices, in this paper, an electrically small antenna (ESA) for GNSS terminals is presented. The antenna was miniaturized by using a dielectric block with relatively high permittivity, making some parts virtual, and optimizing its geometry. The operational frequency of the ESA is tunable by means of metallic rods of variable heights inserted into a cylindrical cavity drilled inside the dielectric block. The results confirm the feasibility of the concept and the usability of the ESA for compact GNSS terminals.
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Ibrahim, Ahmed, Ashraf Abosekeen, Ahmed Azouz, and Aboelmagd Noureldin. "Enhanced Autonomous Vehicle Positioning Using a Loosely Coupled INS/GNSS-Based Invariant-EKF Integration." Sensors 23, no. 13 (July 2, 2023): 6097. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23136097.
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High-precision navigation solutions are a main requirement for autonomous vehicle (AV) applications. Global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) are the prime source of navigation information for such applications. However, some places such as tunnels, underpasses, inside parking garages, and urban high-rise buildings suffer from GNSS signal degradation or unavailability. Therefore, another system is required to provide a continuous navigation solution, such as the inertial navigation system (INS). The vehicle’s onboard inertial measuring unit (IMU) is the main INS input measurement source. However, the INS solution drifts over time due to IMU-associated errors and the mechanization process itself. Therefore, INS/GNSS integration is the proper solution for both systems’ drawbacks. Traditionally, a linearized Kalman filter (LKF) such as the extended Kalman filter (EKF) is utilized as a navigation filter. The EKF deals only with the linearized errors and suppresses the higher orders using the Taylor expansion up to the first order. This paper introduces a loosely coupled INS/GNSS integration scheme using the invariant extended Kalman filter (IEKF). The IEKF state estimate is independent of the Jacobians that are derived in the EKF; instead, it uses the matrix Lie group. The proposed INS/GNSS integration using IEKF is applied to a real road trajectory for performance validation. The results show a significant enhancement when using the proposed system compared to the traditional INS/GNSS integrated system that uses EKF in both GNSS signal presence and blockage cases. The overall trajectory 2D-position RMS error reduced from 19.4 m to 3.3 m with 82.98% improvement and the 2D-position max error reduced from 73.9 m to 14.2 m with 80.78% improvement.
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Cățeanu, Mihnea, and Maria Alexandra Moroianu. "Performance Evaluation of Real-Time Kinematic Global Navigation Satellite System with Survey-Grade Receivers and Short Observation Times in Forested Areas." Sensors 24, no. 19 (October 2, 2024): 6404. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s24196404.
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The Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) method is currently the most widely used method for positioning using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) due to its accuracy, efficiency and ease of use. In forestry, position is a critical factor for numerous applications, with GNSS currently being the preferred solution for obtaining such data. However, the decreased performance of GNSS observations in challenging environments, such as under the forest canopy, must be considered. This paper analyzes the performance of a survey-grade GNSS receiver under coniferous/deciduous tree cover. Unlike most previous research concerning this topic, the focus here is on employing a methodology that is as close as possible to real working conditions in the field of forestry. To achieve this, short observation times of 30 s were used, with corrections received directly in the field from a Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS) of the national RTK network in Romania. In total, 84 test points were determined, randomly distributed under the canopy, with reference data collected by topographical surveys using total station equipment. In terms of the overall horizontal accuracy, an RMSE of 2.03 m and MAE of 1.63 m are found. Meanwhile, the overall vertical accuracy is lower, as expected, with an RMSE of 4.85 m and MAE of 4.01 m. The variation in GNSS performance under the different forest compositions was found to be statistically significant, while GNSS-specific factors such as DOP values only influenced the precision and not the accuracy of observations. We established that this methodology offers sufficient accuracy, which is application-dependent, even if the majority of GNSS solutions were code-based, rather than carrier-phase-based, due to strong interference from the vegetation.
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Mirmohammadian, Farinaz, Jamal Asgari, Sandra Verhagen, and Alireza Amiri-Simkooei. "Improvement of Multi-GNSS Precision and Success Rate Using Realistic Stochastic Model of Observations." Remote Sensing 14, no. 1 (December 23, 2021): 60. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14010060.
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With the advancement of multi-constellation and multi-frequency global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs), more observations are available for high precision positioning applications. Although there is a lot of progress in the GNSS world, achieving realistic precision of the solution (neither too optimistic nor too pessimistic) is still an open problem. Weighting among different GNSS systems requires a realistic stochastic model for all observations to achieve the best linear unbiased estimation (BLUE) of unknown parameters in multi-GNSS data processing mode. In addition, the correct integer ambiguity resolution (IAR) becomes crucial in shortening the Time-To-Fix (TTF) in RTK, especially in challenging environmental conditions. In general, it is required to estimate various variances for observation types, consider the correlation between different observables, and compensate for the satellite elevation dependence of the observable precision. Quality control of GNSS signals, such as GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou can be performed by processing a zero or short baseline double difference pseudorange and carrier phase observations using the least-squares variance component estimation (LS-VCE). The efficacy of this method is investigated using real multi-GNSS data sets collected by the Trimble NETR9, SEPT POLARX5, and LEICA GR30 receivers. The results show that the standard deviation of observations depends on the system and the observable type in which a particular receiver could have the best performance. We also note that the estimated variances and correlations among different observations are also dependent on the receiver type. It is because the approaches utilized for the recovery techniques differ from one type of receiver to another kind. The reliability of IAR will improve if a realistic stochastic model is applied in single or multi-GNSS data processing. According to the results, for the data sets considered, a realistic stochastic model can increase the computed empirical success rate to 100% in multi-GNSS as well as a single system. As mentioned previously, the realistic precision of the solution can be achieved with a realistic stochastic model. However, using the estimated stochastic model, in fact, leads to better precision and accuracy for the estimated baseline components, up to 39% in multi-GNSS.
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Spravil, Julian, Christian Hemminghaus, Merlin von Rechenberg, Elmar Padilla, and Jan Bauer. "Detecting Maritime GPS Spoofing Attacks Based on NMEA Sentence Integrity Monitoring." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 11, no. 5 (April 26, 2023): 928. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse11050928.
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Today’s maritime transportation relies on global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) for accurate navigation. The high-precision GNSS receivers on board modern vessels are often considered trustworthy. However, due to technological advances and malicious activities, this assumption is no longer always true. Numerous incidents of tampered GNSS signals have been reported. Furthermore, researchers have demonstrated that manipulations can be carried out even with inexpensive hardware and little expert knowledge, lowering the barrier for malicious attacks with far-reaching consequences. Hence, exclusive trust in GNSS is misplaced, and methods for reliable detection are urgently needed. However, many of the proposed solutions require expensive replacement of existing hardware. In this paper, therefore, we present MAritime Nmea-based Anomaly detection (MANA), a novel low-cost framework for GPS spoofing detection. MANA monitors NMEA-0183 data and advantageously combines several software-based methods. Using simulations supported by real-world experiments that generate an extensive dataset, we investigate our approach and finally evaluate its effectiveness.
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Grunwald, Grzegorz, Adam Ciećko, Kamil Krasuski, and Dariusz Tanajewski. "Optimal Global Positioning System/European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service Positioning Model Using Smartphone." Applied Sciences 14, no. 5 (February 23, 2024): 1840. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app14051840.
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The potential for the use of smartphones in GNSSs (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) positioning has increased in recent years due to the emergence of the ability of Android-based devices used to process raw satellite data. This paper presents the results of a study on the use of SBAS data transmitted by the EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service) system in GNSS positioning using a Xiaomi Mi8 smartphone. Raw data recorded at a fixed point were used in post-processing calculations in GPS/EGNOS positioning by determining the coordinates for every second of a session of about 5 h and comparing the results to those obtained with a Septentrio AsteRx2 GNSS receiver operating at the same time at a distance of about 3 m. The calculations were performed using the assumptions of the GNSS/SBAS positioning algorithms, which were modified with carrier-phase smoothed code observations and the content of the corrections transmitted by EGNOS.
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Xu, Changhui, Jingkui Zhang, Zhiyou Zhang, Jianning Hou, and Xujie Wen. "Data and Service Security of GNSS Sensors Integrated with Cryptographic Module." Micromachines 14, no. 2 (February 15, 2023): 454. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi14020454.
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Navigation and positioning are of increasing importance because they are becoming a new form of infrastructure. To ensure both development and security, this study designed a technical innovation structure to upgrade the GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) data transmission and real-time differential correction service system and proposed a new multiple cryptographic fusion algorithm to achieve the encryption and decryption of GNSS data and services. First, a GNSS station encrypts GNSS data with an encryption key and obtains a public key from a GNSS data center to encrypt the GNSS data encryption key. After that, identity authentication of a GNSS station is carried out, and an SSL VPN is established between the GNSS station and a GNSS data center before GNSS data are transmitted to the GNSS data center. Then, the GNSS data center decrypts the received GNSS data. The process of an intelligent terminal for real-time differential corrections is similar to that of the GNSS station and the GNSS data center. A GNSS sensor integrated with a cryptographic module was developed to validate the structure in an open environment. The results showed that the developed GNSS sensor was successful in encrypting the data, and the GNSS data center was able to decrypt the data correctly. For the performance test, a cryptography server was able support the requirements of GNSS applications. However, a cryptography server was optimal in supporting 40~50 GNSS stations simultaneously, whereas a cluster was suggested to be configured if the number of GNSS stations was more than 60. In conclusion, the method was able to ensure the validity, confidentiality, integrity, and non-repudiation of GNSS data and services. The proposed upgrading technology was suitable for coordinating GNSS development and security.