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1
Sachdeva, S. K. "Global Sourcing and Global Manufacturing Competitiveness." Paradigm 1, no. 2 (January 1998): 100–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0971890719980216.
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We are at the beginning of a major change in global economy. The decade will see increasing polarisation of super regional trade agreements. With increasing world trade great opportunities are developing thrust on global manufacturing competitiveness and formation of international, multinational and transnational firms percolating various aspects of glolml sourcing for achieving internationalisation in their operations with utilisation of local resources and creating source partnering throughout the world.
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Suranova, T. G., S. S. Zenin, and G. N. Suvorov. "PRINCIPLES AND PATTERNS OF LEGAL REGULATION OF GENOME-WIDE SEQUENCING IN THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA (PRC)." Issues of Law 20, no. 3 (2020): 81–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.14529/pro-prava200311.
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The global genome sequencing market is developing at a very fast pace, and this is happening most rapidly in China. Amid the economic boom, demand for advanced medical services is extremely high. In view of this, the principles and laws of normative regulation of this activity carried out using both legislative and administrative legal instruments deserve attention. For the domestic legislator, the Chinese experience in regulating the use of genetic resources in conducting international joint research, collecting, storing, using and providing external human genetic resources in China, and ethical principles in conducting biogenetic studies will be extremely useful.
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Oki, T., and S. Kanae. "Virtual water trade and world water resources." Water Science and Technology 49, no. 7 (April 1, 2004): 203–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2004.0456.
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Global virtual water trade was quantitatively estimated and evaluated. The basic idea of how to estimate unit requirement of water resources to produce each commodity is introduced and values for major agricultural and stock products are presented. The concept of virtual water and the quantitative estimates can help in assessing a more realistic water scarcity index in each country, projecting future water demand for food supply, increasing public awareness on water, and identifying the processes wasting water in the production. Really required water in exporting countries is generally smaller than virtually required water in importing countries, reflecting the comparative advantage of water use efficiency, and it is estimated to be 680 km3/y for 2000. On the contrary the virtually required water for the same year is estimated to be 1,130 km3/y, and the difference of 450 km3/y is virtually saved by global trade. However, solely virtual water should not be used for any decision making since the idea of virtual water implies only the usage and influence of water and no concerns on social, cultural, and environmental implications. Virtual water trade also does not consider other limiting factors than water.
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Fuse, Masaaki, Kenichi Nakajima, and Hiroshi Yagita. "Global Flow of Metal Resources in the Used Automobile Trade." Journal of the Japan Institute of Metals 74, no. 3 (2010): 171–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2320/jinstmet.74.171.
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Fuse, Masaaki, Kenichi Nakajima, and Hiroshi Yagita. "Global Flow of Metal Resources in the Used Automobile Trade." MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS 50, no. 4 (2009): 703–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.mbw200818.
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Chapagain, A. K., A. Y. Hoekstra, and H. H. G. Savenije. "Water saving through international trade of agricultural products." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 10, no. 3 (June 30, 2006): 455–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-10-455-2006.
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Abstract. Many nations save domestic water resources by importing water-intensive products and exporting commodities that are less water intensive. National water saving through the import of a product can imply saving water at a global level if the flow is from sites with high to sites with low water productivity. The paper analyses the consequences of international virtual water flows on the global and national water budgets. The assessment shows that the total amount of water that would have been required in the importing countries if all imported agricultural products would have been produced domestically is 1605 Gm3/yr. These products are however being produced with only 1253 Gm3/yr in the exporting countries, saving global water resources by 352 Gm3/yr. This saving is 28 per cent of the international virtual water flows related to the trade of agricultural products and 6 per cent of the global water use in agriculture. National policy makers are however not interested in global water savings but in the status of national water resources. Egypt imports wheat and in doing so saves 3.6 Gm3/yr of its national water resources. Water use for producing export commodities can be beneficial, as for instance in Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Brazil, where the use of green water resources (mainly through rain-fed agriculture) for the production of stimulant crops for export has a positive economic impact on the national economy. However, export of 28 Gm3/yr of national water from Thailand related to rice export is at the cost of additional pressure on its blue water resources. Importing a product which has a relatively high ratio of green to blue virtual water content saves global blue water resources that generally have a higher opportunity cost than green water.
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Chapagain, A. K., A. Y. Hoekstra, and H. H. G. Savenije. "Water saving through international trade of agricultural products." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 2, no. 6 (November 4, 2005): 2219–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-2-2219-2005.
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Abstract. Many nations save domestic water resources by importing water-intensive products and exporting commodities that are less water intensive. National water saving through the import of a product can imply saving water at a global level if the flow is from sites with high to sites with low water productivity. The paper analyses the consequences of international virtual water flows on the global and national water budgets. The assessment shows that the total amount of water that would have been required in the importing countries if all imported agricultural products would have been produced domestically is 1605 Gm3/yr. These products are however being produced with only 1253 Gm3/yr in the exporting countries, saving global water resources by 352 Gm3/yr. This saving is 28% of the international virtual water flows related to the trade of agricultural products and 6% of the global water use in agriculture. National policy makers are however not interested in global water savings but in the status of national water resources. Egypt imports wheat and in doing so saves 3.6 Gm3/yr of its national water resources. Water use for producing export commodities can be beneficial, as for instance in Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Brazil, where the use of green water resources (mainly through rain-fed agriculture) for the production of stimulant crops for export has a positive economic impact on the national economy. However, export of 28 Gm3/yr of national water from Thailand related to rice export is at the cost of additional pressure on its blue water resources. Importing a product which has a relatively high ratio of green to blue virtual water content saves global blue water resources that generally have a higher opportunity cost than green water.
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Klimek, Peter, Michael Obersteiner, and Stefan Thurner. "Systemic trade risk of critical resources." Science Advances 1, no. 10 (November 2015): e1500522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500522.
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In the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, the role of strongly interconnected markets in causing systemic instability has been increasingly acknowledged. Trade networks of commodities are susceptible to cascades of supply shocks that increase systemic trade risks and pose a threat to geopolitical stability. We show that supply risk, scarcity, and price volatility of nonfuel mineral resources are intricately connected with the structure of the worldwide trade networks spanned by these resources. At the global level, we demonstrate that the scarcity of a resource is closely related to the susceptibility of the trade network with respect to cascading shocks. At the regional level, we find that, to some extent, region-specific price volatility and supply risk can be understood by centrality measures that capture systemic trade risk. The resources associated with the highest systemic trade risk indicators are often those that are produced as by-products of major metals. We identify significant strategic shortcomings in the management of systemic trade risk, in particular in the European Union.
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Rastyannikova, Elizaveta. "GLOBAL NON-FERROUS METALLURGY RESOURCES MARKET." Eastern Analytics, no. 3 (2020): 109–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.31696/2227-5568-2020-03-109-130.
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Since the beginning of the XXI century, the raw material of non-ferrous metallurgy began to acquire new outlines. First, due to the growing demand for resources from the rapidly developing countries of Asia (China, India, South Korea), the volume of world production and international flows of both raw ore and ore dressing – concentrates have increased. Secondly, the concentration of countries that produce raw materials on the one hand and consume them on the other has increased. The article is devoted to comparative statistical analysis of international flows of raw materials of non-ferrous metals. The leading countries in the world exporting non-ferrous metal ores and countries importing them have been identified. The impact of new applications of non-ferrous metals on increasing international trade, such as the expansion of the production of batteries for electromobile and consumer electronics, the development of nuclear energy, etc., is highlighted.
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Shelley, Louise I. "Corruption & Illicit Trade." Daedalus 147, no. 3 (July 2018): 127–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_00506.
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Illicit trade in diverse commodities–including drugs, people, natural resources, and counterfeit goods–is a significant component of the global economy. And illicit trade could not be possible without both high- and low-level forms of corruption. Transnational corruption has facilitated the global growth of illicit trade, undermining governance, the economy, health, social order, and sustainability in all regions of the world. This essay explores the convergences of corruption, illicit trade markets, and the legitimate economy, and identifies strategies for combatting them.
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Barbosa Jr, Ricardo, and Matheus Hoffmann Pfrimer. "Global agricultural trade and genetic resources as a point of contention." Ateliê Geográfico 12, no. 3 (December 21, 2018): 6–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.5216/ag.v12i3.56711.
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International agricultural trade has greatly altered the way food is grown, negatively affecting peasant livelihood and the natural environment. While the literature on this is extensive, efforts to understand how genetic variety is effected within such a process is limited. Wherefore, in this paper we explore the factors that determine the place of genetic resources in international trade. This is done by creating a conceptual framework to analyse different forms of power, a process necessary due to its contemporary fungible nature, in an attempt to asses how biotechnology can disclose power’s other characteristics. We demonstrate how the instrumental use of biotechnology has become an apparatus to control food production globally and a means by which the international market homogenises food production. Through the use of a bio/geopolical gaze we identify that this course occurs within the realm of bioecnomics and geoeconomics.
Keywords: international agricultural trade; genetic resources; bio/geopolitics.
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Ali, Tariq, Jikun Huang, Jinxia Wang, and Wei Xie. "Global footprints of water and land resources through China's food trade." Global Food Security 12 (March 2017): 139–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.11.003.
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Semanur, Soyyigit, Topuz Hüseyin, and Özekicioğlu Halil. "An Alternative View to the Global Coal Trade: Complex Network Approach." Studies in Business and Economics 15, no. 1 (April 1, 2020): 270–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/sbe-2020-0020.
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AbstractThe role of energy for the developmental process of nations is a known fact due to being crucial input for any phase of production of goods and services. That’s the reason why countries that are rich in energy resources also have strategic power in terms of the international trade of these resources. On the other hand, it becomes important to provide energy security for countries that are resource-poor. Although green energy has become preferred one, fossil fuel energy keeps its place as one of the most used energy resources. That's why in this study it is aimed to determine major providers and users of coal as a type of fossil fuel energy resources. It is vital to investigate the structure of global coal trade structure to determine the weaknesses and strength of supply and use of coal. Network approach provides a holistic view to the system analyzed and presents more realistic (high-degree) indicators to analyze it. In this study, global trade network of coal is analyzed from 2000 to 2017 via network analysis. Changing structure and evolution of global coal trade has been revealed via some topological parameters which are specific to complex networks such as density, clustering, assortativity/disassortativity, centrality and degree distribution.
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Wang, Chun Yue, and Feng Li. "Game Analysis of Virtual Water Trade under the Perspective of International Trade." Advanced Materials Research 962-965 (June 2014): 2046–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.962-965.2046.
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As the global water resource is becoming more and more serious,a new way of solving the water resources problems with the idea of virtual water trade gains attention gradually.Using the prisoner’s dilemma in game theory model,analyzes the water resource game and international trade respectively.Combines the water resource and its security with the international trade,then build the game model of virtual water trade.Through analysis of these three games,find the water resources and the international trade game have equilibrium differences and complementarities returns,the implementation of virtual water trade will make both parties achieve even greater gains in terms of cooperation, increasing the possibility of breaking the prisoner's dilemma. Therefore,combine the water resources with the international trade will ensure a country’s water security in a larger extent and avoid producing high transfer cost and ecological destruction.
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Safriel, Uriel N., Sergei Volis, and Salit Kark. "CORE AND PERIPHERAL POPULATIONS AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE." Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 42, no. 4 (May 13, 1994): 331–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07929978.1994.10676584.
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Environmental conditions outside the periphery of a species' distribution prevent population persistence, hence peripheral populations live under conditions different from those of core populations. Peripheral areas are characterized by variable and unstable conditions, relative to core areas. Peripheral populations are expected to be genetically more variable, since the variable conditions induce fluctuating selection, which maintains high genetic diversity. Alternatively, due to marginal ecological conditions at the periphery, populations there are small and isolated; the within-population diversity is low, but the between-population genetic diversity is high due to genetic drift. It is also likely that peripheral populations evolve resistance to extreme conditions. Thus, peripheral populations rather than core ones may be resistant to environmental extremes and changes, such as global climate change induced by the anthropogenically emitted “greenhouse gases”. They should be treated as a biogenetic resource used for rehabilitation and restoration of damaged ecosystems. Climatic transition zones are characterized by a high incidence of species represented by peripheral populations, and therefore should be conserved now as repositories of these resources, to be used in the future for mitigating undesirable effects of global climate change. Preliminary research revealed high phenotypic variability and high genetic diversity in peripheral populations relative to core populations of wild barley and the chukar partridge, respectively.
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Liu, Wenfeng, Marta Antonelli, Matti Kummu, Xu Zhao, Pute Wu, Junguo Liu, La Zhuo, and Hong Yang. "Savings and losses of global water resources in food‐related virtual water trade." Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water 6, no. 1 (September 10, 2018): e1320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1320.
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Khan, Rabnawaz. "Impact of Monetary Policies on the Exchange Rate and Global Trade Evidence from Ghana." American International Journal of Business and Management Studies 2, no. 1 (March 19, 2020): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.46545/aijbms.v2i1.143.
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The impact of monetary policies and their implementation by the exchange rate covered the economic condition of Ghana. The social inclusion and conversion factors change the implemented policies of nations, where the real price, trade, technology, a price rate, and price level of ratio take an important part of growth. The reform of the financial sector favors the free-floating of the exchange rate and global trade under the premise of flexible exchange rates. The tragedy of country growth and exchange rate toward a trajectory of growth with the growth-enhancing effect through social inclusion, conversion factors, price level ratio, exchange rate, merchant rate, export, and trade services. The research study is based on the secondary study and social inclusion equity indicators with public resources, building human resources and social protection for economic development has determined. Different evidence and trade indicators classify the monetary policies. The significant influence of growth and internal policies has affected trade and exchange rates with growth and reserve policies. The results have computed by linear regression and it proved that social inclusion and alternative conversion factors impact on global trade and create short term binary relationships.
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Muradov, K. "Russia–ASEAN: Trade and Global Value Chains." World Economy and International Relations, no. 8 (2015): 25–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.20542/0131-2227-2015-8-25-39.
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Traditional trade statistics that originate in customs records is inadequate to measure the complex interdependencies in today’s globalized economy, or what is known as the global value chains. The article focuses on Russia–ASEAN trade. The author applies innovative methods of measuring trade in value added terms in order to capture the unobserved bilateral linkages behind the officially recorded trade flows. First, customs and balance of payments sources of bilateral trade data are briefly reviewed. For user, there are at least two inherent problems in those data: the inconsistencies in “mirror” trade flows and the attribution of the origin of a traded product wholly to the exporting country. This results in large discrepancies between Russian and ASEAN “mirror” trade data and, arguably, their low importance as each other’s trade partners. Next, the author explores new data from inter-country input-output tables that necessarily reconcile bilateral differences and offer greater detail about the national and sectoral origin or destination of traded goods and services. Relevant data are derived from the OECD-WTO TiVA database and are rearranged to obtain various estimates of Russia–ASEAN trade in value added in 2009. The main finding is that sizable amount of the value added of Russian origin is embodied in third countries’ exports to ASEAN members and ASEAN members’ exports to third countries. As a result, the cumulative flow of Russia’s value added to ASEAN members is estimated to be 62% larger than the direct gross exports, whereas for China and South Korea it is, respectively, 21% and 23% smaller. The indirect, unobserved value added flows can be largely explained by the use of Russian energy resources, chemicals and metals as imported inputs in third countries (China, South Korea) and ASEAN members’ own production. The contribution of these inputs is then accumulated along the value chain. Finally, the most important sectoral value chains are visualized for readers’ convenience. So far, it’s apparent that Russia is linked to ASEAN countries through intricate production networks and indirectly contributes to their trade with third countries.
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Turner, James A., Joseph Buongiorno, and Shushuai Zhu. "Effects of the Free Trade Area of the Americas on Forest Resources." Agricultural and Resource Economics Review 34, no. 1 (April 2005): 104–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s106828050000160x.
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The effects of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) agreement on the forest sectors and resources of member countries are investigated. A model of wood supply within the spatial partial-equilibrium Global Forest Products Model is developed to link international trade and deforestation. The direct effects of tariff changes and the indirect effects of income changes induced by trade liberalization are considered. The FTAA has a small positive impact on the region's forest resources. Higher harvests of industrial roundwood in most countries are offset by increased afforestation due to the income effect of trade liberalization (captured by the environmental Kuznets curve).
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Suweis, Samir, Joel A. Carr, Amos Maritan, Andrea Rinaldo, and Paolo D’Odorico. "Resilience and reactivity of global food security." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 22 (May 11, 2015): 6902–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1507366112.
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The escalating food demand by a growing and increasingly affluent global population is placing unprecedented pressure on the limited land and water resources of the planet, underpinning concerns over global food security and its sensitivity to shocks arising from environmental fluctuations, trade policies, and market volatility. Here, we use country-specific demographic records along with food production and trade data for the past 25 y to evaluate the stability and reactivity of the relationship between population dynamics and food availability. We develop a framework for the assessment of the resilience and the reactivity of the coupled population–food system and suggest that over the past two decades both its sensitivity to external perturbations and susceptibility to instability have increased.
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Holland, Robert Alan, Kate A. Scott, Martina Flörke, Gareth Brown, Robert M. Ewers, Elizabeth Farmer, Valerie Kapos, et al. "Global impacts of energy demand on the freshwater resources of nations." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 48 (November 16, 2015): E6707—E6716. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1507701112.
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The growing geographic disconnect between consumption of goods, the extraction and processing of resources, and the environmental impacts associated with production activities makes it crucial to factor global trade into sustainability assessments. Using an empirically validated environmentally extended global trade model, we examine the relationship between two key resources underpinning economies and human well-being—energy and freshwater. A comparison of three energy sectors (petroleum, gas, and electricity) reveals that freshwater consumption associated with gas and electricity production is largely confined within the territorial boundaries where demand originates. This finding contrasts with petroleum, which exhibits a varying ratio of territorial to international freshwater consumption, depending on the origin of demand. For example, although the United States and China have similar demand associated with the petroleum sector, international freshwater consumption is three times higher for the former than the latter. Based on mapping patterns of freshwater consumption associated with energy sectors at subnational scales, our analysis also reveals concordance between pressure on freshwater resources associated with energy production and freshwater scarcity in a number of river basins globally. These energy-driven pressures on freshwater resources in areas distant from the origin of energy demand complicate the design of policy to ensure security of fresh water and energy supply. Although much of the debate around energy is focused on greenhouse gas emissions, our findings highlight the need to consider the full range of consequences of energy production when designing policy.
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Liu, Wenfeng, Hong Yang, Yu Liu, Matti Kummu, Arjen Y. Hoekstra, Junguo Liu, and Rainer Schulin. "Water resources conservation and nitrogen pollution reduction under global food trade and agricultural intensification." Science of The Total Environment 633 (August 2018): 1591–601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.306.
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Holz, Franziska, Philipp M. Richter, and Ruud Egging. "A Global Perspective on the Future of Natural Gas: Resources, Trade, and Climate Constraints." Review of Environmental Economics and Policy 9, no. 1 (January 1, 2015): 85–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/reep/reu016.
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Livani, Talajeh, and Jennifer Solotaroff. "Promoting Women’s Participation in Cross-border Trade in South Asia." ANTYAJAA: Indian Journal of Women and Social Change 4, no. 1 (April 9, 2019): 9–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2455632719832208.
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Historically, practitioners and policymakers have overlooked gender issues in the trade space; however, research in recent decades strongly suggests that trade is not gender neutral. Cross-border trade produces changes in employment and prices, and these changes have different effects on women and men. Moreover, because women and men do not have equal access to education, networks, transportation and productive resources, their ability to seize trade-related opportunities differs. General trade barriers, such as deficient infrastructure and cumbersome regulatory and documentary requirements, also have gender-differentiated impacts. Drawing from the global literature, this article proposes policy recommendations to expand the benefits of trade to women in South Asia. The recommendations range from strengthening female-dominated export sectors and implementing trade facilitation measures to increasing women’s access to training, productive resources, information, transportation and trade networks.
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Yokoo, Hide-Fumi, and Thomas C. Kinnaman. "Global Reuse and optimal waste policy." Environment and Development Economics 18, no. 5 (May 10, 2013): 595–614. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355770x13000235.
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AbstractElectronic waste generated from the consumption of durable goods in developed countries is often exported to underdeveloped countries for reuse, recycling and disposal with unfortunate environmental consequences. The lack of efficient disposal policies within developing nations coupled with global free trade agreements make it difficult for consumers to internalize these costs. This paper develops a two-country model, one economically developed and the other underdeveloped, to solve for optimal tax policies necessary to achieve the efficient allocation of economic resources in an economy with a durable good available for global reuse without policy measures in the underdeveloped country. A tax in the developed country on purchases of the new durable good combined with a waste tax set below the domestic external cost of disposal is sufficient for global efficiency. The implication of allowing free global trade in electronic waste is also examined, where optimal policy resembles a global deposit-refund system.
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Niemi, Jyrki. "The significance of agricultural input trade in global food production." Suomen Maataloustieteellisen Seuran Tiedote, no. 28 (January 31, 2012): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.33354/smst.75562.
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During the last 40 years, we have seen that despite a doubling of global population, agricultural production has expanded faster still, suggesting that global food security has increased. The volume of cereals production has more than doubled and world meat production has more than quadrupled, for example. The traded volumes of food products have been expanding even more rapidly than world’s output. Since 1960, each 1 percent increase in food output has been accompanied by 3 percent trade increase. Consequently, the economic value of food products traded worldwide has increased almost thirtyfold since the 1960s to equal over USD 1,020 billion by 2010. In other words, agriculture’s worldwide dependence on trade has been increasing in spite of the impediments to agrifood trade erected over the years by national governments. Trade expansion in agricultural commodities and food products has been accompanied by significant increases in agricultural input trade, such as fertilizers, pesticides, farm machinery, feedstuffs and genetic material. This paper attempts to increase our understanding of the structure and characteristics of international trade in agricultural inputs and to provide a historical perspective on the extent and direction of global trade in agricultural inputs. A general discus sion of the factors which influence the magnitude and changes of agricultural input trade flows is also included. Global trade in agricultural inputs occupies a special niche in the discussion and analysis of international agricultural trade. Trade in agricultural inputs arises partly because of the geographic disparity between agricultural input manufacturing and mining activities and the production of agricultural commodities. Just as the location of agricultural cropland and the production of agricultural commodities are unevenly distributed around the world, so is the production of agricultural inputs. The specific agricultural inputs examined here are fertilizers, pesticides, feedstuffs and agricultural machinery. The empirical analysis of the study will be conducted with a sample of annual data that cover international trade flows in agricultural inputs from 1961 to 2009. Volume and value statistics by country on imports and exports of fertilizers, pesticides, agricultural machinery and foodstuffs are obtained from FAOSTAT and COMTRADE, supplemented with individual country sources as required to fill gaps. The results show that expansion of the global food market has resulted in a reshuffling of resources over the entire globe, providing food and livelihood possibilities where they may have been previously limited, unavailable or untenable (e.g. food provision to cities, or the development of animal production through imports of feed inputs). This market expansion has been accompanied by significant increases in agricultural input trade, such as fertilizers, pesticides, farm machinery, and genetic material. The major exporters of fertilizers are those countries with energyrich resources or mineral reserves. In the case of pesticides and farm machinery, the major developed countries of North America and Western Europe tend to be major input exporters. This is due to their manufacturing infrastructure and heavy commitment to public and private research and development expenditure.
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Martens, Deborah, Annelien Gansemans, Jan Orbie, and Marijke D'Haese. "Trade Unions in Multi-Stakeholder Initiatives: What Shapes Their Participation?" Sustainability 10, no. 11 (November 20, 2018): 4295. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10114295.
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There is a growing concern about the extent to which multi-stakeholder initiatives (MSIs), designed to improve social and environmental sustainability in global supply chains, give a meaningful voice to less powerful stakeholders. Trade unions are one particular civil society group whose participation in MSIs has received little scholarly attention so far. The objective of this paper is to examine the determinants that enable and constrain trade union participation in MSIs. Based on interviews, focus groups, observations and document analysis we determine local trade union participation in three MSIs, operating at company, national and transnational level respectively, in the Costa Rican pineapple industry. To explain the limited encountered trade union participation, an analytical framework is developed combining structural and agency dimensions, namely the MSI design and trade union’s power resources. The findings show shortcomings in the representativeness, procedural fairness and consensual orientation in the design and implementation of the MSIs. These are, however, not sufficient to explain weak trade union participation as trade union power resources also have an influence. Strong network embeddedness and improved infrastructural resources had a positive effect, whereas the lack of internal solidarity and unfavourable narrative resources constrained the unions’ participation.
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Zhang, Xufang, Changyou Sun, Jason Gordon, Cheng Li, and Ian A. Munn. "Antidumping Duty Investigations and Decisions in the Global Forest Products Industry." Forest Science 66, no. 6 (September 23, 2020): 666–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/forsci/fxaa022.
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Abstract Special tariffs have been increasingly adopted to protect domestic industries from potential injury caused by unfair international trade. In this study, a multinomial logit model is employed to examine the patterns and determinants of antidumping duty investigations in the global forest products industry. From 1995 to 2015, a total of 372 relevant cases are identified. The number of firms and the inclusion of unions as a petitioner generally improve the probability of an affirmative decision. The characteristics of petition countries have shown more impacts on the decisions than those of target countries. Developing countries have initiated a larger number of antidumping duty investigations in the global forest products industry, and furthermore, they are more inclined to adopt antidumping duties than developed countries. Countries with abundant forest resources and more forest products trade are more likely to make an affirmative decision. These findings will provide helpful information to industrial firms and government agencies in dealing with the challenges of global competition. Study Implications The findings reveal that getting more stakeholders involved in an antidumping duty investigation will increase the probability of trade intervention. The economic status in petition countries is the primary determinant of the decisions from antidumping duty investigations in the global forest products industry. Developing countries not only have initiated a large number of antidumping duty investigations in the forest products industry but also have been more inclined to adopt antidumping duties. Antidumping duty investigations offer an opportunity to countries with abundant forest resources and extensive forest products trade in case of unfair international competition.
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Ahmed, Hamna, and Farah Said. "Determinants of Export Performance in the Wake of the Global Financial Crisis: Evidence from South Asia." Pakistan Development Review 51, no. 4II (December 1, 2012): 227–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.30541/v51i4iipp.227-243.
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The idea that trade is important for economic growth dates back to the nineteenth century when classical economists like Adam Smith, Ricardo, John Stuart Mill etc. advocated the favourable effects of international trade on output. Since then a rich body of both theoretical and empirical literature has evolved with regards to exports and trade policy. Within this overall literature, two competing approaches that can be broadly identified are Import Substitution industrialisation (IS) and Export-Led (EL) growth. According to the EL growth hypothesis, exports can promote economic growth through three main channels that are as follows: (i) trade enables firms (at the micro level) and countries (at the macro level) to gain through specialisation and economies of scale. The most efficient producers witness increasing market shares, that in turn lead to aggregate productivity gains through a reallocation of resources [Taylor (1981) and Melitz (2003)], (ii) Exports are an important source of foreign exchange. These resources are important not just for the purchase of vital inputs such as capital and machinery but are extremely valuable where balance of payments constraints are widespread [Faridi (2012)]. (iii) Trade is an important source of knowledge and technological transfers. New growth theory has shown that trade with technologically innovative countries allows access to the technological know-how of trading partners, and also has the potential of encouraging innovative activity by increasing the returns to innovate as traders have access to a larger market relative to non-trading firms.
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Debaere, Peter. "The Global Economics of Water: Is Water a Source of Comparative Advantage?" American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 6, no. 2 (April 1, 2014): 32–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.6.2.32.
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With newly available data, I investigate to what extent countries' international trade exploits the very uneven water resources on a global scale. I find that water is a source of comparative advantage and that relatively water abundant countries export more water-intensive products. Additionally, water contributes significantly less to the pattern of exports than the traditional production factors labor and physical capital. This suggests relatively moderate disruptions to overall trade on a global scale due to changing precipitation in the wake of climate change. (JEL F14, O13, O19, Q15, Q25, Q54)
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Khalil, Samina, and Zeeshan Inam. "Is Trade Good for Environment? A Unit Root Cointegration Analysis." Pakistan Development Review 45, no. 4II (December 1, 2006): 1187–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.30541/v45i4iipp.1187-1196.
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One of the most debatable issues surrounding globalisation is the concern that trade hurts the environment, both locally and globally. Economists argue that expanding trade from domestic market to international market not only increases market share of each country but also rising competition among the nations and improve efficiency of utilising scarce resources because each country produces those goods in which she has comparative advantages. But on the other hand, environmental economists have opposed global trade and argue that the costs of spreading trade to international markets are depleting natural resources and rising pollution emissions that ultimately deteriorates environmental quality. [Copeland and Taylor (2001), Antweiler, Copeland and Taylor (2001), Chaudhuri and Pfaff (2002), Schmalensee, Stoker and Judson (1996).]
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Qiang, Wenli, Shuwen Niu, Xiang Wang, Cuiling Zhang, Aimin Liu, and Shengkui Cheng. "Evolution of the Global Agricultural Trade Network and Policy Implications for China." Sustainability 12, no. 1 (December 25, 2019): 192. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12010192.
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Global agricultural trade plays an essential role in balancing supply and demand regarding agricultural products worldwide. Based on complex network theory, two types of agricultural trade networks weighted by the physical quantity and monetary value were built. In both networks, eight groups of agricultural products showed diverse variation in time and space. During 1986 to 2016, the total physical trade increased by 2.55 times with a gradual growth process, and total monetary value increased 1.98 times with fluctuation. The cumulative distribution of node degree and strength followed power-law distribution. Scale expansion and structure complexity of both networks reflected heterogeneity between nodes and the trend of agricultural economic globalization. Meeting demand and seeking greater returns are the main drivers of global agricultural trade development. Mainly developed countries occupied the important positions in the global agricultural trade network, but some emerging economies such as China, Brazil, and India became important sources of demand and supply. China not only needs to fully use international resources to meet demand for agricultural products, but also needs to ensure its own food security through multiple countermeasures.
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Tamea, S., P. Allamano, J. A. Carr, P. Claps, F. Laio, and L. Ridolfi. "Local and global perspectives on the virtual water trade." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 17, no. 3 (March 19, 2013): 1205–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-1205-2013.
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Abstract. Recent studies on fluxes of virtual water are showing how the global food and goods trade interconnects the water resources of different and distant countries, conditioning the local water balances. This paper presents and discusses the assessment of virtual water fluxes between a single country and its network of trading partners, delineating a country's virtual water budget in space and time (years 1986–2010). The fluxes between the country under study and its importing/exporting partners are visualized with a geographical representation shaping the trade network as a virtual river/delta. Time variations of exchanged fluxes are quantified to show possible trends in the virtual water balance, while characterizing the time evolution of the trade network and its composition in terms of product categories (plant-based, animal-based, luxury food, and non-edible). The average distance traveled by virtual water to arrive to the place of consumption is also introduced as a new measure for the analysis of globalization of the virtual water trade. Using Italy as an example, we find that food trade has a steadily growing importance compared to domestic production, with a major component represented by plant-based products, and luxury products taking an increasingly larger share (26% in 2010). In 2010 Italy had an average net import of 55 km3 of virtual water (38 km3 in 1986), a value which poses the country among the top net importers in the world. On average each cubic meter of virtual water travels nearly 4000 km before entering Italy, while export goes to relatively closer countries (average distance: 2600 km), with increasing trends in time which are almost unique among the world countries. Analyses proposed for Italy are replicated for 10 other world countries, triggering similar investigations on different socio-economic actualities.
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Tamea, S., P. Allamano, J. A. Carr, P. Claps, F. Laio, and L. Ridolfi. "Local and global perspectives on the virtual water trade." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 9, no. 11 (November 14, 2012): 12959–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-9-12959-2012.
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Abstract. Recent studies on fluxes of virtual water are showing how the global food and goods trade interconnects the water resources of different and distant countries, conditioning the local water balances. This paper presents and discusses the assessment of virtual water fluxes between a single country and its network of trading partners, delineating a country's virtual water budget in space and time (years 1986–2010). The fluxes between the country under study and its importing/exporting partners are visualized with a geographical representation shaping the trade network as a virtual river/delta. Time variations of exchanged fluxes are quantified to show possible trends in the virtual water balance, while characterizing the time evolution of the trade network and its composition in terms of product categories (plant-based, animal-based, luxury and non-edible). The average distance traveled by virtual water to arrive to the place of consumption is also introduced as a new measure for the analysis of globalization of the virtual water trade. Using Italy as an example, we find that food trade has a steadily growing importance compared to domestic production, with a major component represented by plan-based products, and luxury products taking an increasingly larger share (26% in 2010). In 2010 Italy had an average net import of 55 km3 of virtual water (38 km3 in 1986), a value which poses the country among the top net importers in the world. On average each cubic meter of virtual water travels nearly 4000 km before entering Italy, while export goes to relatively closer countries (average distance: 2600 km), with increasing trends in time which are almost unique among the world countries. Analyses proposed for Italy are replicated for 10 other world countries, triggering similar investigations on different socio-economic actualities.
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Yang, H., L. Wang, K. C. Abbaspour, and A. J. B. Zehnder. "Virtual water highway: water use efficiency in global food trade." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 3, no. 1 (January 2, 2006): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-3-1-2006.
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Abstract. Amid an increasing water scarcity in many parts of the world, virtual water trade as both a policy instrument and practical means to balance the regional, national and global water budget has received much attention in recent years. Built upon the knowledge of virtual water accounting in the literature, this study examines the efficiency of the resource use embodied in the global virtual water trade from the perspectives of exporting and importing countries. Different characteristics between "green" and "blue" virtual water corresponding to rainfed and irrigated agriculture are elaborated. The investigation reveals that the virtual water flows primarily from countries of high water productivity to countries of low water productivity, generating a global saving of water resources. Meanwhile, the domination of green virtual water in the total virtual water trade constitutes low opportunity costs and environmental impacts as opposed to blue virtual water. The results suggest efficiency gains in the global food trade in terms of water resource utilization. The study raises awareness of negative impacts of increasing reliance on irrigation for food production in many countries, including food exporting countries. The findings of the study call for a greater emphasis on rainfed agriculture to improve global food security and environmental sustainability.
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Rosenberg, Robin L. "Trade and the Environment: Economic Development versus Sustainable Development." Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36, no. 3 (1994): 129–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/166530.
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It should come as no surprise that the environmentalist community in the Americas, whose expectations were raised by the bold, global “Agenda 21” of the 1992 Earth Summit, the informal title accorded the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), would be concerned that the forces of free market capitalism and the urgency for economic development have proven to be more powerful than the regional movement towards sustainable development. By virtue of the region's large share of the planet's environmental resources, the global environmental agenda, which includes, inter alia, such complex and daunting problems as biodiversity, global warming, and ozone depletion, should logically place the Western Hemisphere in the center of policy action. On the eve of the December 1994 Summit of the Americas in Miami, however, the general principles outlined in the “Agenda 21” and related initiatives, have not been translated into concrete or coherent intergovernmental policy actions.
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STONE, CHRISTOPHER D. "The crisis in global fisheries: can trade laws provide a cure?" Environmental Conservation 24, no. 2 (June 1997): 97–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0376892997000155.
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Fisheries, over-capacity and subsidiesA consensus is emerging regarding world fisheries.Overall, the world's living marine resources are being overexploited; in many major areas a reprieve in the level of fishing would assure larger and more valuable fish supplies in the long term. Less would be more.The system is uneconomical and unsustainable. We are paying an unnecessarily high price, in capture costs and environmental degradation, for a dwindling catch.Conventional management measures (including time, space and gear constraints) have not proved themselves capable of stanching excessive fishing effort. Indeed, many of the traditional measures, by prohibiting the most economical means of fishing, amplify inefficiencies, raising unit costs without compensatory benefits in catch reduction.Increasing blame is being placed on over-capacity. As long as investment in harvest capacity is excessive, in other words beyond the level required for efficient attainment of fisheries objectives, effective regulatory efforts are frustrated at the levels of both rule making and enforcement.
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Montanía, Claudia V., Teresa Fernández-Núñez, and Miguel A. Márquez. "The role of the leading exporters in the global soybean trade." Agricultural Economics (Zemědělská ekonomika) 67, No. 7 (July 14, 2021): 277–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/433/2020-agricecon.
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This paper examines the global soybean market in a holistic way, analyses the land use and other historical determinants of soybean exports, such as labour and capital endowments, soybean productivity, international prices and demand conditions through an empirical model. In addition, it pays particular attention to the role of leading exporters in the export changes and the nature of the connections between them in an interrelated system. The results suggest that the productivity per hectare and the land used to harvest soybeans are the main factors explaining soybean exports in a global context. The analysis also reveals that Brazil, the current market leader, positively influences the other exporters. On the contrary, minor exporters such as Ukraine, Paraguay, or Canada present competitive relationships with the major exporters. The nature of the relationships between the exporters and the pressure on natural resources highlight the importance of government involvement in developing joint strategies that ensure the growth of this sector and the achievement of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
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Sun, Jing, Harold Mooney, Wenbin Wu, Huajun Tang, Yuxin Tong, Zhenci Xu, Baorong Huang, et al. "Importing food damages domestic environment: Evidence from global soybean trade." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 21 (May 7, 2018): 5415–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718153115.
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Protecting the environment and enhancing food security are among the world’s Sustainable Development Goals and greatest challenges. International food trade is an important mechanism to enhance food security worldwide. Nonetheless, it is widely concluded that in international food trade importing countries gain environmental benefits, while exporting countries suffer environmental problems by using land and other resources to produce food for exports. Our study shows that international food trade can also lead to environmental pollution in importing countries. At the global level, our metaanalysis indicates that there was increased nitrogen (N) pollution after much farmland for domestically cultivated N-fixing soybeans in importing countries was converted to grow high N-demanding crops (wheat, corn, rice, and vegetables). The findings were further verified by an intensive study at the regional level in China, the largest soybean-importing country, where the conversion of soybean lands to corn fields and rice paddies has also led to N pollution. Our study provides a sharp contrast to the conventional wisdom that only exports contribute substantially to environmental woes. Our results suggest the need to evaluate environmental consequences of international trade of all other major goods and products in all importing countries, which have significant implications for fundamental rethinking in global policy-making and debates on environmental responsibilities among consumers, producers, and traders across the world.
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Azhar, Usman, Samina Khalil, and Mohsin Hasnain Ahmed. "Environmental Effects of Trade Liberalisation: A Case Study of Pakistan." Pakistan Development Review 46, no. 4II (December 1, 2007): 645–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.30541/v46i4iipp.645-655.
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Within today’s global economy countries now trade more intensively and frequently than in the past. Trade has become an increasingly important global economic activity, with annual trade volumes increasing sixteen fold over the last fifty years and the ratio of world exports to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) now approaching twenty percent. With this recent acceleration of global trade, countries throughout the world have benefited from more investment, industrial development, and employment and income growth. Other positive effects include increased mobility of capital, increased ease of movement of goods and services (and information) across national borders as well as the diffusion of global norms and values, the spread of democracy and international environmental and human rights agreements. Critics of trade liberalisation argue that these much-acclaimed advantages of trade liberalisation (and globalisation) often underrate the impact of globalisation on widening the economic gap between the North and the South. Over the years, attention has been given to the advantages of trade liberalisation and globalisation to the detriment of the disadvantages. The major disadvantage that is always swept under the rug is the environmental problem. Recently, however, there has been an increasing concern over the potential negative impacts of trade liberalisation, particularly on the environmental and natural resources of developing countries.
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Konar, M., Z. Hussein, N. Hanasaki, D. L. Mauzerall, and I. Rodriguez-Iturbe. "Virtual water trade flows and savings under climate change." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 10, no. 1 (January 2, 2013): 67–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-10-67-2013.
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Abstract. The international trade of food commodities links water and food systems, with important implications for both water and food security. The embodied water resources associated with food trade are referred to as "virtual water trade". We present the first study of the impact of climate change on global virtual water trade flows and associated savings for the year 2030. In order to project virtual water trade under climate change, it is essential to obtain projections of both bilateral crop trade and the water-use efficiency of crops in each country of production. We use the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) to estimate bilateral crop trade flows under changes in agricultural productivity. We use the H08 global hydrologic model to estimate the water-use efficiency of each crop in each country of production and to transform crop flows into virtual water flows. We find that the total volume of virtual water trade is likely to go down under climate change. However, the staple food trade is projected to save more water across most climate impact scenarios, largely because the wheat trade re-organizes into a more water-efficient structure. These findings indicate that trade may be an adaptation measure to climate change with ramifications for policy.
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Danso, Sunkung. "Political Economy and Regional Policy: The Impact of US-China Trade Tension on the Global Economic Growth." Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Sciences 3, no. 3 (August 3, 2020): 2224–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.33258/birci.v3i3.1155.
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This paper uses a systematic literature review to discuss US-China trade tension. The study discusses the US-China trade tension and its impact on the global economy because the US-China trade war is imminent at the point in time since President Trump came to power in 2016. This research aims to examine how US-China trade tension is unfolding and the significant change of this trade tension on the world economy. The systematic literature review was engaged to capture the sequence of the event as they are happening between the US and China with regards to trade barriers. This research reviewed 19 peer-review journals and some news items and WTO resources relevant to this study. This study revealed that the US-China trade tension has affected consumer goods to some extent but it may not affect the global economy currently. However, it is evident that in the long-run; the US-China trade war will have an impact on the lives of people and the global economy if the issue continues to intensify. In conclusion, the economy of the US has declined drastically by 0.8% while China also experience 0.4% fall in the economy in 2019. The impact is currently not severe on the global economy but if the tension continues it might have a negative impact on the global economy. The trade deficit is getting wider between China and the US.
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Smith, Fiona. "Natural resources and global value chains: What role for the WTO?" International Journal of Law in Context 11, no. 2 (May 12, 2015): 135–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1744552315000038.
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AbstractNatural resources are critical to global value chains as minerals, good climate and fertile soil are commonly required for the beginning of the chain, with the consequence that any interruption in their supply threatens the chain's continued integrity. Trade in such resources provides a valuable source of income for resource-rich states. Yet exploitation of natural resources can result in their exhaustion and biodiversity loss, while their extraction can lead to environmental damage and human rights abuses, with the result that any positive contribution to sustainable development for resource-rich states is quickly undermined. Effective regulation is critical to maximise benefits and minimise potential harm. The WTO's rules seem ideally suited to allow the state to impose measures that militate against the overexploitation of the resource by corporations, whilst simultaneously ensuring that that regulation does not unnecessarily impede the flow of resources within the value chain. However, this paper will show that applying the WTO's rules to natural resource use in global value chains presents both substantive and normative challenges.
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Amineh, Mehdi Parvizi, and Henk Houweling. "II. Caspian Energy: Oil and Gas Resources and the Global Market." Perspectives on Global Development and Technology 2, no. 3 (2003): 391–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156915003322986325.
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AbstractThis article develops several concepts of critical geopolitics and relates them to the energy resources of the Caspian Region. Energy resources beyond borders may be accessed by trade, respectively by conquest, domination and changing property rights. These are the survival strategies of human groups in the international system. The article differentiates between demand-induced scarcity, supply-induced scarcity, structural scarcity and the creation, respectively, transfer of property rights. Together, the behaviors referred to by these concepts create a field of social forces that cross state borders involving state and a variety of non-state actors. During World War II, the US began to separate the military borders of the country from its legal-territorial borders. By dominating the world's oceans, the Anglo-Saxon power presided over the capacity to induce scarcity by interdicting maritime supplies to allies and enemies alike. Today, overland transport increasingly connects economies and energy supplies on the Eurasian continent. The US has therefore to go on land in order to pre-empt the land-based powers from unifying their economies and energy supplies.
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Ray, Subrata Ray. "Globalization and its impact on Human Resource Management practice of India." Journal of Global Economy 6, no. 3 (September 30, 2010): 213–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1956/jge.v6i3.62.
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The approaching of the 21 century globalization poses unique HRM challenges to business chiefly those functioning across countrywide boundaries as transnational or global enterprises. Global trade is considered by the open flow of human and economic resources particularly in the developed economies of European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), other regional groupings such as the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Southern African Development Community, etc. Competing in global markets require loads of factors and centralization of its human resource practices is definitely imperative to get better global competitiveness and authorize workforce for global assignments. These developments are opening up new markets in a mode that has certainly not been seen earlier than. This accentuates the requirement to deal with human resources efficiently to increase aggressive benefit in the global market place. To attain this, organizations need an understanding of the factors that can decide the efficacy of different HR practices and approaches. This is because countries like India diverge down a number of scopes that persuade the attractiveness of direct overseas investments in every nation.Â
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Hazell, Peter, and Stanley Wood. "Drivers of change in global agriculture." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363, no. 1491 (July 26, 2007): 495–515. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2166.
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As a result of agricultural intensification, more food is produced today than needed to feed the entire world population and at prices that have never been so low. Yet despite this success and the impact of globalization and increasing world trade in agriculture, there remain large, persistent and, in some cases, worsening spatial differences in the ability of societies to both feed themselves and protect the long-term productive capacity of their natural resources. This paper explores these differences and develops a country×farming systems typology for exploring the linkages between human needs, agriculture and the environment, and for assessing options for addressing future food security, land use and ecosystem service challenges facing different societies around the world.
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Anderer, Christina, Andreas Dür, and Lisa Lechner. "Trade policy in a “GVC World”: Multinational corporations and trade liberalization." Business and Politics 22, no. 4 (May 8, 2020): 639–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/bap.2020.4.
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AbstractThe globalization of production is changing the political economy of trade policymaking: Traditional supporters of free trade (exporters seeking market access in foreign countries) are joined by new actors (companies needing intermediates from abroad for their production processes) in their lobbying efforts for trade liberalization. Multinational corporations (MNCs) play a crucial role in this new alliance due to their strong involvement in international trade and endowment with resources that can be used to lobby policymakers. We derive an argument from these premises that leads to the expectation of variation in trade policy outcomes across industries depending on their degree of integration in a global network of multinational corporations. Disaggregated data on the level of tariffs and speed of tariff cuts in preferential trade agreements, international mergers and acquisitions at the firm level, and MNC imports of intermediates by sector allow us to test the argument. The findings support our theoretical expectations. The paper sheds light on the processes and outcomes of trade policymaking in a globalized economy by further developing an existing argument about GVCs and trade policy outcomes as well as expanding on it by adding data on international corporate connections.
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Erokhin, Vasily, and Anna Ivolga. "How to Ensure Sustainable Development of Agribusiness in the Conditions of Trade Integration." International Journal of Sustainable Economies Management 1, no. 2 (April 2012): 12–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijsem.2012040102.
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The World Trade Organization (WTO) is currently the leading international organization regulating the issues of liberalization of international trade. In October 2011 the long process of Russia-WTO negotiations was completed. The problem is that the Russian accession into WTO is more related to the general unification of Russian trade policy, not to the effective development of agricultural production. Russian agricultural producers are against integration into the global trade system in the frameworks of WTO. National agricultural production would not be able to compete effectively with foreign producers in the conditions of free market. The complex of supportive measures for Russian agribusiness is needed from the national government, but the situation is worsened by the global financial crisis and lack of budget resources. The paper discusses an overview of the WTO principles in agriculture and possible support measures for the Russian agriculture in the conditions of trade integration.
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Rapoport, G., and A. Guerts. "Global Economic Crisis of 2008-2009: Sources and Roots." Voprosy Ekonomiki, no. 11 (November 20, 2009): 18–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2009-11-18-31.
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In the article the global crisis of 2008-2009 is considered as superposition of a few regional crises that occurred simultaneously but for different reasons. However, they have something in common: developed countries tend to maintain a strong level of social security without increasing the real production output. On the one hand, this policy has resulted in trade deficit and partial destruction of market mechanisms. On the other hand, it has clashed with the desire of several oil and gas exporting countries to receive an exclusive price for their energy resources.
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Ramirez-Vallejo, J., and P. Rogers. "Virtual water flows and trade liberalization." Water Science and Technology 49, no. 7 (April 1, 2004): 25–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2004.0407.
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The linkages between agricultural trade and water resources need to be identified and analyzed to better understand the potential impacts that a full liberalization, or lack thereof, will have on water resources. This paper examines trade of virtual water embodied in agricultural products for most countries of the world. The main purpose of the paper, however, is to examine the impact of trade liberalization on virtual-water trade in the future. Based on a simulation of global agricultural trade, a scenario of full liberalization of agriculture was used to assess the net effect of virtual water flows from the relocation of meat and cereals’ trade. The paper also identifies the main reasons behind the changes in the magnitude and direction of the net virtual water trade over time, and shows that virtual water trade flows are independent of water resource endowments, contrary to what the Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem states. Finally, based on a formal model, some input demand functions at the country level are estimated. The estimates of the income and agricultural support elasticities of demand for import of virtual water have the expected sign, and are statistically significant. Variables found to have some explanatory power of the variance of virtual water imports are average income; population; agriculture as value added; irrigated area, and exports of goods and services.