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Syaifuddin, Firman, Andri Dian Nugraha, Zulfakriza, and Shindy Rosalia. "Synthetic Modeling of Ambient Seismic Noise Tomography Data." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 873, no. 1 (October 1, 2021): 012096. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/873/1/012096.
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Abstract Ambient seismic noise tomography is one of the most widely used methods in seismological studies today, especially after a comprehensive Earth noise model was published and noise analysis was performed on the IRIS Global Seismographic Network. Furthermore, the Power Spectral Density technique was introduced to identify background seismic noise in the United States. Many studies have been carried out using the ambient seismic noise tomography method which can be broadly grouped into several groups based on the objectives and research targets, such as to determine the structure of the earth’s crust and the upper mantle, to know the thickness of the sedimentary basins, to know the tectonic settings and geological structures, to know volcanic systems and geothermal systems, knowing near-surface geological features and as a monitoring effort the Ambient Noise Tomography method carried out by repeated measurements or time lapse. In this study, we investigate the characteristics of the ambient noise seismic tomography method, both its advantages and limitations of the method by utilizing synthetic data modeling using a simple geological model. Synthetic data is generated based on 1D dispersion curve forward modelling and the forward modeling of surface waves travel time for each period, which is then convoluted with the wavelets of each periods, then doing reverse correlation using a reference signal to produce synthetic recording data. We found that the estimate target depth and vertical resolution depend on the recorded data periods and the synthetic data modeling can be used as a basis in determining the acquisition design.
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Yuan, Yanhua O., and Frederik J. Simons. "Multiscale adjoint waveform-difference tomography using wavelets." GEOPHYSICS 79, no. 3 (May 1, 2014): WA79—WA95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2013-0383.1.
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Full-waveform seismic inversions based on minimizing the distance between observed and predicted seismograms are, in principle, able to yield better-resolved earth models than those minimizing misfits derived from traveltimes alone. Adjoint-based methods provide an efficient way of calculating the gradient of the misfit function via a sequence of forward-modeling steps, which, using spectral-element codes, can be carried out in realistically complex media. Convergence and stability of full-waveform-difference adjoint schemes are greatly improved when data and synthetics are progressively presented to the algorithms in a constructive multiscale approximation using a (bi)orthogonal wavelet transform. Wavelets provide the nonredundant spectral decomposition that paves the way for the inversion to proceed successively from long-wavelength fitting to detailed exploration of the phases in the seismogram. The choice of wavelet class and type, the initial depth of the multiscale decomposition, and the minimization algorithms used at every level continue to play crucial roles in our procedure, but adequate choices can be made that test successfully on 2C elastic seismograms generated in toy models, as well as in the industry-standard 2D Marmousi model. Although for simplicity our inversion ignored surface waves by prior tapering and filtered removal, those also appeared to be very well matched in the final model.
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Peter, D., C. Tape, L. Boschi, and J. H. Woodhouse. "Surface wave tomography: global membrane waves and adjoint methods." Geophysical Journal International 171, no. 3 (September 15, 2007): 1098–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.2007.03554.x.
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Dufumier, Hugues, and Jeannot Trampert. "Contribution of seismic tomography in moment-tensor inversions using teleseismic surface-wave spectra." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 87, no. 1 (February 1, 1997): 114–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/bssa0870010114.
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Abstract The knowledge of lateral heterogeneities is crucial for path corrections in moment tensor inversions using surface waves. After some attempts to use regionalized Earth models for very long-period surface-wave moment-tensor inversions, recent tomographic Earth models offer the possibility to make short-period path corrections and therefore retrieve more reliable moment tensors for teleseismic earthquakes. First we try to evaluate the precision required for path corrections in comparison with source effects. Some selected Earth models are tested to evaluate how their results compare to those using multiple-frequency filtering techniques. Some real cases illustrate the sensitivity of moment-tensor solutions to the different path corrections, and it appears clearly that regionalized Earth models and tomographic models deduced from long-period data alone (greater than 150 sec) cannot lead to trustworthy broadband moment-tensor inversions. Recent tomographic models using phase velocities at much shorter periods (40 to 200 sec) offer a precision comparable to that of the multiple-frequency filtering technique. Both methods lead to acceptable source mechanisms, using a small number of stations, in more than two cases out of three. The use of recent global tomographic models based upon shorter-period surface waves might thus be a useful alternative to heavy multiple-frequency filtering techniques to automate source studies, especially for rapid determinations using a small number of stations.
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Gualtieri, Lucia, Etienne Bachmann, Frederik J. Simons, and Jeroen Tromp. "The origin of secondary microseism Love waves." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 47 (November 9, 2020): 29504–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2013806117.
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The interaction of ocean surface waves produces pressure fluctuations at the seafloor capable of generating seismic waves in the solid Earth. The accepted mechanism satisfactorily explains secondary microseisms of the Rayleigh type, but it does not justify the presence of transversely polarized Love waves, nevertheless widely observed. An explanation for two-thirds of the worldwide ambient wave field has been wanting for over a century. Using numerical simulations of global-scale seismic wave propagation at unprecedented high frequency, here we explain the origin of secondary microseism Love waves. A small fraction of those is generated by boundary force-splitting at bathymetric inclines, but the majority is generated by the interaction of the seismic wave field with three-dimensional heterogeneity within the Earth. We present evidence for an ergodic model that explains observed seismic wave partitioning, a requirement for full-wave field ambient-noise tomography to account for realistic source distributions.
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deSilva, Susini, and Vernon F. Cormier. "The relative contributions of scattering and viscoelasticity to the attenuation of S waves in Earth's mantle." Solid Earth 11, no. 1 (January 29, 2020): 161–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/se-11-161-2020.
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Abstract. The relative contributions of scattering and viscoelastic attenuation to the apparent attenuation of seismic body waves are estimated from synthetic and observed S waves multiply reflected from Earth's surface and the core–mantle boundary. The synthetic seismograms include the effects of viscoelasticity and scattering from small-scale heterogeneity predicted from both global tomography and from thermodynamic models of mantle heterogeneity that have been verified from amplitude coherence measurements of body waves observed at dense arrays. Assuming thermodynamic models provide an estimate of the maximum plausible power of heterogeneity measured by elastic velocity and density fluctuations, we predict a maximum scattering contribution of 43 % to the total measured attenuation of mantle S waves having a dominant frequency of 0.05 Hz. The contributions of scattering in the upper and lower mantle to the total apparent attenuation are estimated to be roughly equal. The relative strength of the coda surrounding observed ScSn waves from deep focus earthquakes is not consistent with a mantle having zero intrinsic attenuation.
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Yordkayhun, Sawasdee. "Geophysical Characterization of a Sinkhole Region: A Study toward Understanding Geohazards in the Karst Geosites." Sains Malaysiana 50, no. 7 (July 31, 2021): 1871–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2021-5007-04.
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The outstanding geosites in Satun UNESCO Global Geopark, Thailand are mainly karst topography. Sinkhole which is originated from the dissolution of karst rocks by groundwater or acidic rainwater is one of the potential natural disasters in these geosites. To gain the confident among geotourism, detecting karst features, cavities and surficial dissolution is crucial in risk assessment and sustainable geopark management. As a part of geohazard assessment, non-invasive geophysical methods were applied for detecting near-surface defects and karst features. In this study, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), seismic tomography and multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) have been integrated to understand the mechanism of an existing sinkhole formation in Satun Geopark region. ERT appeared to be an effective approach to investigate the cavity development at shallow subsurface. MASW and seismic tomography were combined to help constrain the interpretation of lithology and karst features in vicinity of the sinkhole. The results indicated that the sinkhole occurrence in this area was probably developed by forming of cavity due to an increased dissolution of the fractured limestone bedrock. This carbonate layer is in contact with the overlying groundwater and weathering shale or cohesive soil layer. The changing of water table and infiltration of surface water by heavy rainfall allowed for a sudden vertical downward of overlying sediments into the empty voids, leading to the sinkhole hazard.
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Zahmatkesh, Homayoon, and Abbas Abedeni. "Non-Parametric Wavelet Functional Analysis for Horizontal and Vertical displacements Derived from GPS Stations in Western Alaska during the Year 2012." Earth Science Research 6, no. 2 (July 10, 2017): 112. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/esr.v6n2p112.
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In order to analyze the dynamic processes of the Earth interior and the effect of the propagation of the seismic waves to the surface, a comprehensive study of the Earth crust kinematics is necessary. Although the Global Positing System (GPS) is a powerful method to measure ground displacements and velocities both horizontally and vertically as well as to infer the tectonic stress regime generated by the subsurface processes (from local fault systems to huge tectonic plate movements and active volcanoes), the complexity of the deformation pattern generated during such movements is not always easy to be interpreted. Therefore, it is necessary to work on new methodologies and modifying the previous approaches in order to improve the current methods and better understand the crustal movements. In this paper, we focus on western Alaska area, where many complex faults and active volcanoes exist. In particular, we analyze the data acquired each 30 seconds by three GPS stations located in western Alaska (AC31, AB09 and AB11) from January 1, 2012 to December 31, 2012 in order to compute their displacements in horizontal and vertical components by vectorial summation of the average daily and annual velocities components. Furthermore, we design non-parametric DMeyer and Haar wavelets for horizontal and vertical velocities directions in order to identify significant and homogenous displacements during the year 2012. Finally, the non-parametric decomposition of total horizontal and vertical normalized velocities based on level 1 and level 2 coefficients have been applied to compute normal and cumulative probability histograms related to the accuracy and statistical evolution of each applied wavelet. The results present a very good agreement between the designed non-parametric wavelets and their decomposition functions for each of the three above mentioned GPS stations displacements and velocities during the year 2012.
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Simmons, N. A., S. C. Myers, C. Morency, A. Chiang, and D. R. Knapp. "SPiRaL: a multiresolution global tomography model of seismic wave speeds and radial anisotropy variations in the crust and mantle." Geophysical Journal International 227, no. 2 (July 20, 2021): 1366–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggab277.
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SUMMARY SPiRaL is a joint global-scale model of wave speeds (P and S) and anisotropy (vertical transverse isotropy, VTI) variations in the crust and mantle. The model is comprised of >2.1 million nodes with five parameters at each node that capture velocity variations for P- and S-waves travelling at arbitrary directions in transversely isotropic media with a vertical symmetry axis (VTI). The crust (including ice, water, sediments and crystalline layers) is directly incorporated into the model. The default node spacing is approximately 2° in the lower mantle and 1° in the crust and upper mantle. The grid is refined with ∼0.25° minimum node spacing in highly sampled regions of the crust and upper mantle throughout North America and Eurasia. The data considered in the construction of SPiRaL includes millions of body wave traveltimes (crustal, regional and teleseismic phases with multiples) and surface wave (Rayleigh and Love) dispersion. A multiresolution inversion approach is employed to capture long-wavelength heterogeneities commonly depicted in global-scale tomography images as well as more localized details that are typically resolved in more focused regional-scale studies. Our previous work has demonstrated that such global-scale models with regional-scale detail can accurately predict both teleseismic and regional body wave traveltimes, which is necessary for more accurate location of small seismic events that may have limited signal at teleseismic distances. SPiRaL was constructed to predict traveltimes for event location and long-period waveform dispersion for seismic source inversion applications in regions without sufficiently tuned models. SPiRaL may also serve as a starting model for full-waveform inversion (FWI) with the goal of fitting waves with periods 10–50 s over multiple broad regions (thousands of kilometres) and potentially the globe. To gain insight to this possibility, we simulated waveforms for a small set of events using SPiRaL and independent waveform-based models for comparison. For the events tested, the performance of the traveltime-based SPiRaL model is shown to be generally on par with regional 3-D waveform-based models in three regions (western United States, Middle East, Korean Peninsula) suggesting SPiRaL may serve as a starting model for FWI over broad regions.
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Porritt, Robert W., Thorsten W. Becker, Lapo Boschi, and Ludwig Auer. "Multiscale, radially anisotropic shear wave imaging of the mantle underneath the contiguous United States through joint inversion of USArray and global data sets." Geophysical Journal International 226, no. 3 (May 7, 2021): 1730–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggab185.
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SUMMARY EarthScope's USArray seismic component provided unprecedented coverage of the contiguous United States and has therefore spurred significant advances in tomographic imaging and geodynamic modelling. Here, we present a new global, radially anisotropic shear wave velocity tomography model to investigate upper mantle structure and North American Plate dynamics, with a focus on the contiguous United States. The model uses a data-adaptive mesh and traveltimes of both surface waves and body waves to constrain structure in the crust and mantle in order to arrive at a more consistent representation of the subsurface compared to what is provided by existing models. The resulting model is broadly consistent with previous global models at the largest scales, but there are substantial differences under the contiguous United States where we can achieve higher resolution. On these regional scales, the new model contains short wavelength anomalies consistent with regional models derived from USArray data alone. We use the model to explore the geometry of the subducting Farallon Slab, the presence of upper mantle high velocity anomalies, low velocity zones in the central and eastern United States and evaluate models of dynamic topography in the Cordillera. Our models indicate a single, shallowly dipping, discontinuous slab associated with the Farallon Plate, but there are remaining imaging challenges. Inferring dynamic topography from the new model captures both the long-wavelength anomalies common in global models and the short-wavelength anomalies apparent in regional models. Our model thus bridges the gap between high-resolution regional models within the proper uppermost mantle context provided by global models, which is crucial for understanding many of the fundamental questions in continental dynamics.
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Romanowicz, Barbara, Li-Wei Chen, and Scott W. French. "Accelerating full waveform inversion via source stacking and cross-correlations." Geophysical Journal International 220, no. 1 (October 21, 2019): 308–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggz437.
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SUMMARY Accurate synthetic seismic wavefields can now be computed in 3-D earth models using the spectral element method (SEM), which helps improve resolution in full waveform global tomography. However, computational costs are still a challenge. These costs can be reduced by implementing a source stacking method, in which multiple earthquake sources are simultaneously triggered in only one teleseismic SEM simulation. One drawback of this approach is the perceived loss of resolution at depth, in particular because high-amplitude fundamental mode surface waves dominate the summed waveforms, without the possibility of windowing and weighting as in conventional waveform tomography. This can be addressed by redefining the cost-function and computing the cross-correlation wavefield between pairs of stations before each inversion iteration. While the Green’s function between the two stations is not reconstructed as well as in the case of ambient noise tomography, where sources are distributed more uniformly around the globe, this is not a drawback, since the same processing is applied to the 3-D synthetics and to the data, and the source parameters are known to a good approximation. By doing so, we can separate time windows with large energy arrivals corresponding to fundamental mode surface waves. This opens the possibility of designing a weighting scheme to bring out the contribution of overtones and body waves. It also makes it possible to balance the contributions of frequently sampled paths versus rarely sampled ones, as in more conventional tomography. Here we present the results of proof of concept testing of such an approach for a synthetic 3-component long period waveform data set (periods longer than 60 s), computed for 273 globally distributed events in a simple toy 3-D radially anisotropic upper mantle model which contains shear wave anomalies at different scales. We compare the results of inversion of 10 000 s long stacked time-series, starting from a 1-D model, using source stacked waveforms and station-pair cross-correlations of these stacked waveforms in the definition of the cost function. We compute the gradient and the Hessian using normal mode perturbation theory, which avoids the problem of cross-talk encountered when forming the gradient using an adjoint approach. We perform inversions with and without realistic noise added and show that the model can be recovered equally well using one or the other cost function. The proposed approach is computationally very efficient. While application to more realistic synthetic data sets is beyond the scope of this paper, as well as to real data, since that requires additional steps to account for such issues as missing data, we illustrate how this methodology can help inform first order questions such as model resolution in the presence of noise, and trade-offs between different physical parameters (anisotropy, attenuation, crustal structure, etc.) that would be computationally very costly to address adequately, when using conventional full waveform tomography based on single-event wavefield computations.
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Pipatprathanporn, Sirawich, and Frederik J. Simons. "One year of sound recorded by a mermaid float in the Pacific: hydroacoustic earthquake signals and infrasonic ambient noise." Geophysical Journal International 228, no. 1 (August 4, 2021): 193–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggab296.
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SUMMARY A fleet of autonomously drifting profiling floats equipped with hydrophones, known by their acronym mermaid, monitors worldwide seismic activity from inside the oceans. The instruments are programmed to detect and transmit acoustic pressure conversions from teleseismic P wave arrivals for use in mantle tomography. Reporting seismograms in near-real time, within hours or days after they were recorded, the instruments are not usually recovered, but if and when they are, their memory buffers can be read out. We present a unique 1-yr-long data set of sound recorded at frequencies between 0.1 and 20 Hz in the South Pacific around French Polynesia by a mermaid float that was, in fact, recovered. Using time-domain, frequency-domain and time-frequency-domain techniques to comb through the time-series, we identified signals from 213 global earthquakes known to published catalogues, with magnitudes 4.6–8.0, and at epicentral distances between 24° and 168°. The observed signals contain seismoacoustic conversions of compressional and shear waves travelling through crust, mantle and core, including P, S, Pdif, Sdif, PKIKP, SKIKS, surface waves and hydroacoustic T phases. Only 10 earthquake records had been automatically reported by the instrument—the others were deemed low-priority by the onboard processing algorithm. After removing all seismic signals from the record, and also those from other transient, dominantly non-seismic, sources, we are left with the infrasonic ambient noise field recorded at 1500 m depth. We relate the temporally varying noise spectral density to a time-resolved ocean-wave model, WAVEWATCH III. The noise record is extremely well explained, both in spectral shape and in temporal variability, by the interaction of oceanic surface gravity waves. These produce secondary microseisms at acoustic frequencies between 0.1 and 1 Hz according to the well-known frequency-doubling mechanism.
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Liu, Yiduo, Lun Li, Jolante van Wijk, Aibing Li, and Yuanyuan V. Fu. "Surface-wave tomography of the Emeishan large igneous province (China): Magma storage system, hidden hotspot track, and its impact on the Capitanian mass extinction." Geology 49, no. 9 (May 17, 2021): 1032–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g49055.1.
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Abstract Large igneous provinces (LIPs) are commonly associated with mass extinctions. However, the precise relations between LIPs and their impacts on biodiversity is enigmatic, given that they can be asynchronous. It has been proposed that the environmental impacts are primarily related to sill emplacement. Therefore, the structure of LIPs' magma storage system is critical because it dictates the occurrence and timing of mass extinction. We use surface-wave tomography to image the lithosphere under the Permian Emeishan large igneous province (ELIP) in southwestern China. We find a northeast-trending zone of high shear-wave velocity (Vs) and negative radial anisotropy (Vsv > Vsh; v and h are vertically and horizontally polarized S waves, respectively) in the crust and lithosphere. We rule out the possibilities of rifting or orogenesis to explain these seismic characteristics and interpret the seismic anomaly as a mafic-ultramafic, dike-dominated magma storage system of the ELIP. We further propose that the anomaly represents a hidden hotspot track that was emplaced before the ELIP eruption. A zone of higher velocity but less-negative radial anisotropy, on the hotspot track but to the northeast of the eruption center in the Panxi region, reflects an elevated proportion of sills emplaced at the incipient stage of the ELIP. Liberation of poisonous gases by the early sill intrusions explains why the mid-Capitanian global biota crisis preceded the peak ELIP eruption by 2–3 m.y.
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Weidner, Erik, Caroline Beghein, Quancheng Huang, and Nicholas Schmerr. "Upper mantle radial anisotropy under the Indian Ocean from higher mode surface waves and a hierarchical transdismensional approach." Geophysical Journal International 228, no. 1 (August 20, 2021): 78–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggab340.
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SUMMARY We investigated the likelihood of radial anisotropy in the shallow and deep upper mantle, including the mantle transition zone (MTZ) under the Indian Ocean. Seismic anisotropy can be an indicator of mantle deformation through lattice preferred orientation of anisotropic crystals in the mantle. It has thus the potential to illuminate Earth’s dynamic interior, but previous seismic tomography studies have not achieved consensus on the existence of radial anisotropy below ∼250 km depth. We developed a fully nonlinear transdimensional hierarchical Bayesian Markov Chain Monte Carlo approach to invert fundamental and higher mode surface wave dispersion data and applied it to a subset of a global Love and Rayleigh wave data set. We obtained posterior model parameter distributions for shear wave velocity (VS) and radial anisotropy ξ under the Indian Ocean. These posterior model distributions were used to calculate the probability of having radial anisotropy at different depths. We demonstrated that separate inversions of Love and Rayleigh waves yield models compatible with the results of joint inversions within uncertainties. The obtained pattern of VS anomalies agrees with most previous studies. They display negative anomalies along ridges in the uppermost mantle, but those are stronger than for regularized inversions. The Central Indian Ridge and the Southeastern Indian Ridge present velocity anomalies that extend to ∼200 km depth, whereas the Southwestern Indian Ridge seems to have a shallower origin. Weaker, laterally variable velocity perturbations were found at larger depths. The anisotropy models differ more strongly from regularized inversion results and their uncertainties were rather large. We found that anisotropy models from regularized inversions also depend on the chosen parametrization, which is consistent with the existence of a large model null-space. Apart from a fast horizontally polarized shear wave signal in the top 100 km, likely reflecting the horizontal plate motion due to asthenospheric deformation, no clear relation to surface geology was detected in the anisotropy models. We found that, although the anisotropy model uncertainties are rather large, and lateral variations are present, the data generally prefer at least 1 per cent anisotropy in the MTZ with fast vertically polarized shear waves, within errors. Incorporating group velocity data did not help better constrain deep structure by reducing parameter trade-offs. We also tested the effect of prior constraints on the 410- and 660-km topography and found that the undulations of these discontinuities had little effect on the resulting models in our study region.
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Guo, Zhen, and Ying Zhou. "Finite-frequency imaging of the global 410- and 660-km discontinuities using SS precursors." Geophysical Journal International 220, no. 3 (December 2, 2019): 1978–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggz546.
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SUMMARY We report finite-frequency imaging of the global 410- and 660-km discontinuities using boundary sensitivity kernels for traveltime measurements made on SS precursors. The application of finite-frequency sensitivity kernels overcomes resolution limits in previous studies associated with large Fresnel zones of SS precursors and their interferences with other seismic phases. In this study, we calculate the finite-frequency sensitivities of SS waves and their precursors based on a single-scattering (Born) approximation in the framework of travelling-wave mode summation. The global discontinuity surface is parametrized using a set of triangular gridpoints with a lateral spacing of about 4°, and we solve the linear finite-frequency inverse problem (2-D tomography) based on singular value decomposition (SVD). The new global models start to show a number of features that were absent (or weak) in ray-theoretical back-projection models at spherical harmonic degree l > 6. The thickness of the mantle transition zone correlates well with wave speed perturbations at a global scale, suggesting dominantly thermal origins for the lateral variations in the mantle transition zone. However, an anticorrelation between the topography of the 410-km discontinuity and wave speed variations is not observed at a global scale. Overall, the mantle transition zone is about 2–3 km thicker beneath the continents than in oceanic regions. The new models of the 410- and 660-km discontinuities show better agreement with the finite-frequency study by Lawrence & Shearer than other global models obtained using SS precursors. However, significant discrepancies between the two models exist in the Pacific Ocean and major subduction zones at spherical harmonic degree >6. This indicates the importance of accounting for wave interactions in the calculations of sensitivity kernels as well as the use of finite-frequency sensitivities in data quality control.
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Celli, N. L., S. Lebedev, A. J. Schaeffer, M. Ravenna, and C. Gaina. "The upper mantle beneath the South Atlantic Ocean, South America and Africa from waveform tomography with massive data sets." Geophysical Journal International 221, no. 1 (January 6, 2020): 178–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggz574.
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SUMMARY We present a tomographic model of the crust, upper mantle and transition zone beneath the South Atlantic, South America and Africa. Taking advantage of the recent growth in broadband data sampling, we compute the model using waveform fits of over 1.2 million vertical-component seismograms, obtained with the automated multimode inversion of surface, S and multiple S waves. Each waveform provides a set of linear equations constraining perturbations with respect to a 3-D reference model within an approximate sensitivity volume. We then combine all equations into a large linear system and solve it for a 3-D model of S- and P-wave speeds and azimuthal anisotropy within the crust, upper mantle and uppermost lower mantle. In South America and Africa, our new model SA2019 reveals detailed structure of the lithosphere, with structure of the cratons within the continents much more complex than seen previously. In South America, lower seismic velocities underneath the transbrasilian lineament (TBL) separate the high-velocity anomalies beneath the Amazon Craton from those beneath the São Francisco and Paraná Cratons. We image the buried portions of the Amazon Craton, the thick cratonic lithosphere of the Paraná and Parnaíba Basins and an apparently cratonic block wedged between western Guyana and the slab to the west of it, unexposed at the surface. Thick cratonic lithosphere is absent under the Archean crust of the São Luis, Luis Álves and Rio de La Plata Cratons, next to the continental margin. The Guyana Highlands are underlain by low velocities, indicating hot asthenosphere. In the transition zone, we map the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Chile Rise under Patagonia. Cratonic lithosphere beneath Africa is more fragmented than seen previously, with separate cratonic units observed within the West African and Congo Cratons, and with cratonic lithosphere absent beneath large portions of Archean crust. We image the lateral extent of the Niassa Craton, hypothesized previously and identify a new unit, the Cubango Craton, near the southeast boundary of the grater Congo Craton, with both of these smaller cratons unexposed at the surface. In the South Atlantic, the model reveals the patterns of interaction between the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) and the nearby hotspots. Low-velocity anomalies beneath major hotspots extend substantially deeper than those beneath the MAR. The Vema Hotspot, in particular, displays a pronounced low-velocity anomaly under the thick, high-velocity lithosphere of the Cape Basin. A strong low velocity anomaly also underlies the Cameroon Volcanic Line and its offshore extension, between Africa and the MAR. Subtracting the global, age-dependent VS averages from those in the South Atlantic Basins, we observe areas where the cooling lithosphere is locally hotter than average, corresponding to the location of the Tristan da Cunha, Vema and Trindade hotspots. Beneath the anomalously deep Argentine Basin, we image unusually thick, high-velocity lithosphere, which suggests that its anomalously great depth can be explained, at least to a large extent, by isostatic, negative lithospheric buoyancy.
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Gimbert, Florent, Ugo Nanni, Philippe Roux, Agnès Helmstetter, Stéphane Garambois, Albanne Lecointre, Andréa Walpersdorf, et al. "A Multi-Physics Experiment with a Temporary Dense Seismic Array on the Argentière Glacier, French Alps: The RESOLVE Project." Seismological Research Letters 92, no. 2A (February 3, 2021): 1185–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0220200280.
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Abstract Recent work in the field of cryo-seismology demonstrates that high-frequency (>1 Hz) seismic waves provide key constraints on a wide range of glacier processes, such as basal friction, surface crevassing, or subglacial water flow. Establishing quantitative links between the seismic signal and the processes of interest, however, requires detailed characterization of the wavefield, which, at high frequencies, necessitates the deployment of large and dense seismic arrays. Although dense seismic array monitoring has recently become increasingly common in geophysics, its application to glaciated environments remains limited. Here, we present a dense seismic array experiment made of 98 three-component seismic stations continuously recording during 35 days in early spring 2018 on the Argentière Glacier, French Alps. The seismic dataset is supplemented with a wide range of complementary observations obtained from ground-penetrating radar, drone imagery, Global Navigation Satellite Systems positioning, and in situ measurements of basal glacier sliding velocities and subglacial water discharge. We present first results through conducting spectral analysis, template matching, matched-field processing, and eikonal-wave tomography. We report enhanced spatial resolution on basal stick slip and englacial fracturing sources as well as novel constraints on the heterogeneous nature of the noise field generated by subglacial water flow and on the link between crevasse properties and englacial seismic velocities. We outline in which ways further work using this dataset could help tackle key remaining questions in the field.
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Tronicke, Jens, and Göran Hamann. "Vertical radar profiling: Combined analysis of traveltimes, amplitudes, and reflections." GEOPHYSICS 79, no. 4 (July 1, 2014): H23—H35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2013-0428.1.
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Vertical radar profiling (VRP) is a single-borehole geophysical technique, in which the receiver antenna is located within a borehole and the transmitter antenna is placed at one or various offsets from the borehole. Today, VRP surveying is primarily used to derive 1D velocity models by inverting the arrival times of direct waves. Using field data collected at a well-constrained test site in Germany, we evaluated a VRP workflow relying on the analysis of direct-arrival traveltimes and amplitudes as well as on imaging reflection events. To invert our VRP traveltime data, we used a global inversion strategy resulting in an ensemble of acceptable velocity models, and thus, it allowed us to appraise uncertainty issues in the estimated velocities as well as in porosity models derived via petrophysical translations. In addition to traveltime inversion, the analysis of direct-wave amplitudes and reflection events provided further valuable information regarding subsurface properties and architecture. The used VRP amplitude preprocessing and inversion procedures were adapted from ray-based crosshole ground-penetrating radar (GPR) attenuation tomography and resulted in an attenuation model, which can be used to estimate variations in electrical resistivity. Our VRP reflection imaging approach relied on corridor stacking, which is a well-established processing sequence in vertical seismic profiling. The resulting reflection image outlines bounding layers and can be directly compared to surface-based GPR reflection profiling. Our results of the combined analysis of VRP, traveltimes, amplitudes, and reflections were consistent with independent core and borehole logs as well as GPR reflection profiles, which enabled us to derive a detailed hydrostratigraphic model as needed, for example, to understand and model groundwater flow and transport.
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Wilcock, William S. D., Spahr C. Webb, and Ingi Th Bjarnason. "The effect of local wind on seismic noise near 1 Hz at the MELT site and in iceland." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 89, no. 6 (December 1, 1999): 1543–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/bssa0890061543.
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Abstract The mantle electromagnetic and tomography (MELT) experiment on the east Pacific rise near 17°S was the first large teleseismic experiment on a midocean ridge. During the six-month deployment, no compressional arrivals were well recorded above 0.5 Hz. In comparison, the ICEMELT experiment in Iceland recorded compressional arrivals at 1-2 Hz from about 2 earthquakes per month. We compare noise spectra from the two experiments and show that this difference in detection is at least in part a result of noise. Near 1 Hz, seismic noise in the oceans is produced locally by wind-generated waves. At both experiment sites, 1-Hz noise levels are well correlated with local sea-surface-wind speeds derived from satellite observations. For a given wind speed, 1-Hz noise levels are about 10-20 dB lower in Iceland. At the MELT site, cross-correlations of wind speed with the logarithm of noise in a narrow-frequency band yield correlation coefficients exceeding 0.7 at frequencies between 0.4 Hz and 2 Hz. Noise levels at 1 Hz increase with wind by 1.3-1.4 dB per m/sec for wind speeds less than 10 m/sec. For the ICEMELT experiment, high correlation coefficients extend to markedly higher frequencies for coastal stations, and there is a 10-dB drop in 1-Hz noise levels 100-km inland. Noise levels increase by about 0.8 dB per m/sec. The strong correlation between wind speed and 1-Hz seismic noise provides justification for using satellite wind speed data to search for locations on the global spreading system where there is a better probability of recording high-frequency arrivals. The calmest sites are found on the northern east Pacific rise, near the equator in all oceans, and near 34° N and 22° S on the mid-Atlantic ridge.
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Ringler, Adam T., Robert E. Anthony, Colleen A. Dalton, and David C. Wilson. "Rayleigh-Wave Amplitude Uncertainty across the Global Seismographic Network and Potential Implications for Global Tomography." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, March 30, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120200255.
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ABSTRACT The Global Seismographic Network (GSN) is a multiuse, globally distributed seismic network used by seismologists, to both characterize earthquakes and study the Earth’s interior. Most stations in the network have two collocated broadband seismometers, which enable network operators to identify potential metadata and sensor issues. In this study, we investigate the accuracy with which surface waves can be measured across the GSN, by comparing waveforms of vertical-component Rayleigh waves from Mw 6 and larger events between collocated sensor pairs. We calculate both the amplitude deviation and correlation coefficient between waveforms at sensor pairs. In total, we make measurements on over 670,000 event–station pairs from events that occurred from 1 January 2010 to 1 January 2020. We find that the average sensor-pair amplitude deviation, and, therefore, GSN calibration level, is, approximately, 4% in the 25–250 s period band. Although, we find little difference in sensor-pair amplitude deviations as a function of period across the entire network, the amount of useable data decreases rapidly as a function of increasing period. For instance, we determined that just over 12% of records at 250 s period provided useable recordings (e.g., sensor-pair amplitude deviations of less than 20% and sensor-pair correlation greater than 0.95). We then use these amplitude-estimate deviations to identify how data coverage and quality could be limiting our ability to invert for whole Earth 3D attenuation models. We find an increase in the variance of our attenuation models with increasing period. For example, our degree 12 attenuation inversion at 250 s period shows 32% more variance than our degree 12 attenuation model at 25 s. This indicates that discrepancies of deep-mantle tomography between studies could be the result of these large uncertainties. Because these high uncertainties arise from limited, high-quality observations of long-period (>100 s) surface waves, improving data quality at remote GSN sites could greatly improve ray-path coverage, and facilitate more accurate and higher resolution models of deep Earth structure.
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Magrini, Fabrizio, Sebastian Lauro, Emanuel Kästle, and Lapo Boschi. "Surface-wave tomography using SeisLib: a Python package for multi-scale seismic imaging." Geophysical Journal International, June 22, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggac236.
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Summary To improve our understanding of the Earth’s interior, seismologists often have to deal with enormous amounts of data, requiring automatic tools for their analyses. It is the purpose of this study to present SeisLib, an open-source Python package for multi-scale seismic imaging. At present, SeisLib includes routines for carrying out surface-wave tomography tasks based on seismic ambient noise and teleseismic earthquakes. We illustrate here these functionalities, both from the theoretical and algorithmic point of view and by application of our library to seismic data from North America. We first show how SeisLib retrieves surface-wave phase velocities from the ambient noise recorded at pairs of receivers, based on the zero crossings of their normalized cross-spectrum. We then present our implementation of the two-station method, to measure phase velocities from pairs of receivers approximately lying on the same great-circle path as the epicenter of distant earthquakes. We apply these methods to calculate dispersion curves across the conterminous United States, using continuous seismograms from the transportable component of USArray and earthquake recordings from the permanent networks. Overall, we measure 144,272 ambient-noise and 2,055 earthquake-based dispersion curves, that we invert for Rayleigh-wave phase-velocity maps. To map the lateral variations in surface-wave velocity, SeisLib exploits a least-squares inversion algorithm based on ray theory. Our implementation supports both equal-area and adaptive parameterizations, with the latter allowing for a finer resolution in the areas characterized by high density of measurements. In the broad period range 4-100 s, the retrieved velocity maps of North America are highly correlated (on average, 96%) and present very small average differences (0.14$\pm 0.1\%$) with those reported in the literature. This points to the robustness of our algorithms. We also produce a global phase-velocity map at the period of 40 s, combining our dispersion measurements with those collected at global scale in previous studies. This allows us to demonstrate the reliability and optimized computational speed of SeisLib, even in presence of very large seismic inverse problems and strong variability in the data coverage. The last part of the manuscript deals with the attenuation of Rayleigh waves, which can be estimated through SeisLib based on the seismic ambient noise recorded at dense arrays of receivers. We apply our algorithm to produce an attenuation map of the United States at the period of 4 s, which we find consistent with the relevant literature.
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Simon, Joel D., Frederik J. Simons, and Jessica C. E. Irving. "A MERMAID Miscellany: Seismoacoustic Signals beyond the P Wave." Seismological Research Letters, June 30, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0220210052.
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Abstract Mobile Earthquake Recorder in Marine Areas by Independent Divers (MERMAID) is a passively drifting oceanic diving float that transmits acoustic pressure records from global earthquakes within hours or days of their rupture. The onboard algorithm used for the detection and identification of signals from the hydrophone prioritizes the recovery of ∼1 Hz teleseismic P waves, which are useful for seismic imaging of Earth’s mantle. Two years into a mission that launched 50 MERMAIDs to map 3D mantle wavespeed anomalies with high resolution under the Pacific in French Polynesia, it is clear that the data returned contain much information beyond the first-arriving seismic P phases. These include acoustic conversions from S waves, surface waves, T waves, and inner- and outer-core phases, generated by earthquakes heard across the globe—and sounds from otherwise unidentified events occurring in remote and uninstrumented parts of the world’s oceans. Our growing database of automatically accumulating ∼240 s long-triggered segments contains a treasure trove for geophysicists interested in seismology beyond P-wave tomography. Furthermore, equipped with two-way communication capabilities, MERMAID can entertain requests to deliver data from its 1 yr buffer. In this article, we highlight the data classes and categories in MERMAID’s “extended-utility” catalog.
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Restelli, F., P. Koelemeijer, and A. M. G. Ferreira. "Normal mode observability of radial anisotropy in the Earth’s mantle." Geophysical Journal International, December 1, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggac474.
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Summary Observations of seismic anisotropy provide useful information to infer directions of mantle flow. However, existing global anisotropic tomography models are not consistent, particularly in the lower mantle. Therefore, the interpretation of seismic anisotropy in terms of mantle dynamics and evolution remains difficult. While surface and body waves are commonly used to build radially anisotropic tomography models, they provide heterogeneous data coverage and the radial anisotropy structure retrieved using these data may be biased by the use of imperfect crustal corrections. Normal modes, the free oscillations of the Earth, automatically provide global data coverage and their sensitivity to shear-wave (vs) and compressional-wave (vp) velocity makes them suitable to study both vs and vp anisotropy in the mantle. In this study, we assess whether current normal mode splitting data have sufficient sensitivity to lower mantle anisotropy to potentially constrain it. We consider the uncertainties in the data and the effect of inaccuracies in crustal thickness corrections and the assumed scaling between vp and vs. We perform forward modelling of normal mode data using six different 3-D global radially anisotropic tomography models to document how strong and widespread anisotropy has to be to be observable in current normal mode data. We find that, on average 50 per cent of the spheroidal and 55 per cent of the toroidal modes investigated show significant sensitivity to vs anisotropy, while roughly 57 per cent of the spheroidal modes also have strong sensitivity to vp anisotropy. Moreover, we find that the normal mode data fit varies substantially for the various anisotropic tomography models considered, with the addition of anisotropy not always improving the data fit. While we find that crustal thickness corrections do not strongly impact modes that are sensitive to the lower mantle, we observe a trade-off between radial anisotropy and vp scaling for these modes. As long as this is taken into consideration, our findings suggest that existing normal mode data sets can provide valuable information on both vs and vp anisotropy in the mantle.
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Dalętka, Andrzej Michał. "Selected aspects of modern seismic imaging and near-surface velocity model building in the area of Carpathian fold and thrust belt." Geology, Geophysics and Environment 47, no. 2 (May 3, 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.7494/geol.2021.47.2.71.
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Despite the increasing technological level of the reflection seismic method, the imaging of fold and thrust belts remains a demanding task, and usually leaves some questions regarding the dips, the shape of the subthrust structures or the most correct approach to velocity model building. There is no straightforward method that can provide structural representation of the near-surface geological boundaries and their velocities. The in-terpretation of refracted waves frequently remains the only available technique that may be used for this purpose, although one must be aware of its limitations which appear in the complex geological settings. In the presented study, the analysis of velocity values obtained in the shallow part of Carpathian orogenic wedge by means of various geophysical methods was carried out. It revealed the lack of consistency between the results of 3D refraction tomography and both the sonic log and uphole velocities. For that reason, instead of the indus-try-standard utilization of tomography, a novel, geologically-consistent method of velocity model building is pro-posed. In the near-surface part, the uphole velocities are assigned to the formations, documented by the surface geologic map. Interpreted time-domain horizons, supplemented by main thrusts, are used to make the velocity field fully-compatible with the litho-stratigraphic units of the Carpathians. The author demonstrates a retrospective overview of seismic data imaging in the area of the Polish Carpathian orogenic wedge and discusses the most recent global innovations in seismic methodology which are the key to successful hydrocarbon exploration in fold and thrust regions.