Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'GIS 3D'

Att vilja lagra sina geografiska data i tre dimensioner har börjat bli allt vanligare bland de svenska kommunerna. Man vill utifrån dessa data skapa en 3D-modell över sina tätorter med realistiska byggnader och andra objekt. Detta ger ökade möjligheter inom planprocesser, bygglov, skuggstudier och andra kommunala ändamål för invånarna.Detta examensarbete hade till syfte att ta fram ett förslag till 3D-strategi för Skövde kommun. De har idag sina data lagrade i två dimensioner i en Oracle-databas och man har en del andra material som till exempel punktmoln från laserskanning som skulle kunna användas för att skapa en geografisk databas i tre dimensioner.Examensarbetet tar upp olika mjukvaror man kan använda för skapandet och användandet av 3D-modeller. Den tar även upp vilka standarder man kan använda för att lagra geografiska data i tre dimensioner och vilka databaser man kan använda för detta ändamål. Dessutom berörs hur man skulle kunna ajourföra data och hur långt några andra kommuner har kommit i deras arbete med en 3D-strategi.Som slutsats så ser man att det det är svårt att hitta information inom området. Men att det finns mycket information att hämta från andra kommuner som redan gjort en hel del arbete. Ett bra exempel är Göteborg som tagit fram en riktigt fin modell som man kan se som en förebild. Man kan också se att Oracle och CityGML är en bra lösning för lagring av data i 3D. Det finns också företag som tagit fram lösningar för skapandet av kompletta 3D-lösningar efter en automatisk process men att de kan behöva utvecklas mer för att användas i dessa ändamål.

Swedish municipalities increasingly want to store their spatial data in three dimensions. On the basis of these data they want to create a 3D model of their cities with realistic buildings and other items. This provides increased opportunities in planning, building applications, studies of shadows and other municipal purposes for the residents.The purpose of this degree project was to develop a proposal for a 3D strategy for Skövde municipality. For the moment they have their data stored in two dimensions in an Oracle database and they have a number of other materials such as point clouds from laser scanning that could be used to create a spatial database in three dimensions.The degree project points to various software that can be used for the creation and use of 3D models. It also shows standards that can be used for storing of spatial data in three dimensions and which databases can be used for this purpose. Furthermore the study deals with how the model can be updated and how far other municipalities have advanced in their work with 3D strategies.As a conclusion, we can notice that it is difficult to find information in this area. But there are a lot of information to require from other municipalities that already has done a lot of work. A great example is Göteborg who have created a really nice model that can be seen as a paragon. You can also see that Oracle and CityGML is a good solution for storage of data in 3D. There are also companies that have developed solutions for the creation of complete 3D solutions trough an automatic process but that they need to develop it more for making it able to use for this purposes.

Population growth, city expansion and the limitation of space is shifting construction into a vertical direction. Residential or public constructions as well as office buildings are growing vertically, especially in big cities. Along with the verticality, evacuation problems popped up. The higher buildings are rising the longer it takes to get people safely to the nearest exit. The primary concern for emergency response and rescue is the time needed to evacuate. Evacuation processes are highly contingent to building structure as built and not necessarily as designed. Throughout construction minor modifications are made and in evacuation planning it is eminent that the most accurate and up to date information is used.In this dissertation the focus is laid on the evacuation capability of the Munin building of the Hogkolan I Gävle. This research uses network analysis and network routing in an indoor three dimensional (3D) geographic information system. Exitability is defined as the ease to get to the nearest exit. This is a crucial factor in evacuation modelling and planning. In order to calculate the exitability a three dimensional model of the building is created along with a network dataset. The building model is analyzed based on three different scenarios, for different paces on the five different floor levels resulting into a matrix of evacuation paths. The easiest way out from each room in the building to the nearest exit is calculated and listed. By representing the exitability, the evacuation plan of the building can be revised and if needed adjusted. The created model can be used as a tool in decision making considering the time needed to get to the nearest exit.The importance of the implementation of network routing in GIS to improve evacuation plans can be found in development phase as well as whilst emergencies. During emergencies the shortest path for search and rescue can be found considering blocked paths. Throughout development the placement of exits and the amount of exits can be tested using the system. By simulating emergencies, bottlenecks and hazardous situations can be reconciled and doing so improve the evacuation plans. The influence of different scenarios on the exitability can be reduced to influence the scenarios have on the covered distance to the nearest exit. The different scenarios show a translation of linearity. The different scenarios give an insight in the congestion of the exits, which can be used for emergency planning. Future-minded it is preferable this theoretical model is compared to real-time results.

The thesis has been made for NCC Teknik in Gothenburg. The NCC Corporation is one of the largest leading companies in Scandinavia within the construction industry. NCC is active throughout the whole construction process, where one part is to carry out soil investigations prior the construction of various buildings, for example residential buildings. NCC Technology wants to visualize the samples taken at the construction sites in 3D for clients, authorities and also internally to show in a simple and understandable way how contamination is spread out in the soil. The thesis includes the area of Limhamns läge in Malmö, previously an industrial area. The area has previously included a concrete factory and the contamination from that factory has lingered in the soil. Here, the old buildings will be demolished and will be replaced by residential area and parkland. The contaminated soil must first be transported away to enable people to inhabit in the area. The goal has been to develop a method that improves visualization of the soil remediation process by creating 3D models that could replace the visualization in 2D and tables with analysis results. The idea is that the method of 3D visualization can be applied to other soil remediation processes and some shafting. Limhamns läge has the been divided into the squares to be able to take samples, which in turn are divided into boxes in depth which is defined as 20x20x0,5m. After the samples have been analyzed it is possible to determine which boxes that can remain in place, which ones that can be reused in the area and which ones that need to be transported away for landfill. The created models are visualizations in 3D showing the distribution of soil contamination. One model is divided into half meter layers, making it possible to see the various levels of contaminants in the soil. A 3D model has also been created where the uncontaminated boxes have been separated from the other boxes and it allows visualization of the contaminated boxes. A model has been created that shows how the shafting work progresses by gradually remove boxes that have been shafted for each week. The models are designed to capture the results of analyzes by sieving. They are divided for each fraction, coarse, medium and fine. The models show what material can be reused and what should be transported to the landfill. The second version of the model shows the proportion of each fraction that was found in the sieved boxes.

The main problem that is addressed in this thesis is how to represent complex three-dimensional objects in GIS in order to render a more realistic representation of the real world. The goal is to present an approach for representing complex 3D objects in GIS. This is achieved by using commercial GIS (ArcGIS), applied to 3D properties. In order to get a clear overview of the state-of-the-art of 3D GIS and the current 3D cadastral situation a literature study was carried out. Based on this overview it can be concluded that 3D GIS still is in its initial phase. Current 3D GIS developments are mainly in the area of visualisation and animation, and almost nothing in the area of spatial analysis and attribute handling. Furthermore, the literature study reveals that no complete solution has been introduced that solves the problems involved in 3D cadastral registration. In several countries (e.g. Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Netherlands, Israel, and Australia) 3D properties exists in a juridical framework, but technical issues such as how to represent, store, and visualize 3D properties has not yet been solved. Some countries (Sweden, Norway, and Australia) visualize the footprints of 3D property units in a base map. This approach partly solves some technical issues, but can only represent 3D objects in a 2.5D environment. Therefore, research in how to represent complex objects in GIS as ‘true’ 3D objects is of great need.

This thesis will emphasize MultiPatch as a geographic representation method to represent complex 3D objects in GIS. A case study will demonstrate that complex objects can be visualized and analysed in a commercial GIS, in this case ArcGIS. Most commercial GIS software available on the market applies a 2.5D approach to represent 3D objects. The 2.5D approach has limitations for representing complex objects. There is therefore a need of finding new approaches to represent complex objects within GIS. The result shows that MultiPatch is not an answer to all the problems within 3D GIS but a solution to some of the problems. It still requires a lot of research in the field of 3D GIS, especially in development of spatial analysis capabilities.

Det huvudsakliga problemet i denna uppsats är hur komplexa tre-dimensionella objekt kan representeras i GIS för att återge verkligheten mer realistiskt. Målet är att presentera ett tillvägagångssätt för att representera komplexa 3D-objekt i GIS. Detta har uppnåtts genom att använda ett kommersiellt GIS tillämpat på 3D-fastigheter. En litteraturstudie har genomförts för att erhålla en klar översikt över det senaste inom 3D-GIS och över den aktuella situationen inom 3D-fastigheter. Grundat på översikten kan slutsatsen dras att 3D-GIS bara är i sin begynnelsefas. Den aktuella utvecklingen inom 3D-GIS har huvudsakligen fokuserat på visualisering och animering och nästan ingenting inom rumsliga analysmetoder och hantering av attribut. Litteraturstudien visar också att ingen fullständig lösning för de problem som finns inom 3D-fastighetsregistrering har introducerats. I flera länder, t.ex. Sverige, Danmark, Norge, Nederländerna, Israel och Australien, existerar 3D-fastigheter idag i juridiska termer, men de tekniska problemen som t.ex. hur 3D-fastigheter ska representeras, lagras och visualiseras har inte ännu lösts. Vissa länder (Sverige, Norge och Australien) visualiserar idag en projektion av 3D-fastigheterna på en fastighetskarta. Den här metoden löser endast några av de tekniska problemen och kan endast representera 3D-objekt i en 2,5D-miljö. Därför är forskning inom hur komplexa objekt kan representeras i GIS som s.k. ”sann” 3D av betydelse.

Den här uppsatsen framhäver MultiPatch som en datatyp för att representera komplexa 3D-objekt i GIS. En fallstudie visar att komplexa objekt kan visualiseras och analyseras i ett kommersiellt GIS, i det här fallet ArcGIS. De flesta kommersiella GIS som är tillgängliga på marknaden använder 2,5D-metoden för att representera 3D-objekt. 2,5D-metoden har vissa begränsningar för att representera komplexa objekt och därför finns det ett behov att finna nya tillvägagångssätt för att representera komplexa objekt inom GIS. Resultaten kommer att visa att MultiPatch inte är någon fullständig lösning till alla problem inom 3D-GIS men en lösning på några av problemen. Det krävs fortfarande mycket forskning inom 3D-GIS, särskilt inom utveckling av rumsliga analysmetoder.

A growing number of cities and municipalities in Sweden begin to work with city models in 3D. For the most part the models are used for visualizations of ongoing planning processes, but also for the analysis of noise, shadow studies and environmental disaster simulations. Gothenburg continues to develop the use of 3D maps in municipal operations and is demanding a way to create building elements (walls), which generates in 3D buildings, from roof constructions that are mapped from the primary map. A method has been investigated in the present study. The results are then presented as a 3D model of buildings, along with a terrain map that will facilitate the localization of the area. The created 3D buildings are then compared with roof-data from the primary map to see how well they harmonize with each other. Then also the handling and storage of three-dimensional data with the information model CityGML is investigated. A specification of the requirements and characteristics that the customer, the City Planning in Gothenburg, looks are essential for building modeling in 3D has also been established. The final result shows of 4% increase in the plane of 3D buildings compared to primary map. The increase would be slightly greater if the comparison is made on the volume instead. The results also revealed that the increase in plan is something that has occurred during the creation of the roof constructions, which was something that I couldn’t have affected during the work. The results also show that the CityGML is an appropriate information model for storage and handling of 3D. Gothenburg still have insufficient knowledge of CityGML, which is also one of the reasons why the information model hasn’t been implemented in the municipality work with 3D models.

Presented in this work is a visualization in 3D of building interiors. Fields such asfacility management is of interest for this concept. Data that is to be visualized has,unlike most previous GIS, access to the third dimension to describe floors of abuilding in a realistic manner. Tests to determine strengths and weaknesses of 3Dconcepts compared to widely known 2D concepts is being performed. Factors toconsider in visualization theory is taken into context to combine visualization andGIS. The results is expected to have positive effects for users interested in facilitymanagement.

The work deals with the modeling of the parameters of solar power plants and the issue of solar energy with its use in the photovoltaic power plants. It uses the geographic information system named ArcGIS. In the beginning of the work, there is the theory. This theory is necessary to understanding the function of the photovoltaic cells, from the beginning to the photovoltaic panels construction. There were analyzed the conditions of the location of the photovoltaic panels in the Czech Republic. Furthermore, the work approaches the ArcGIS and its 3D modeling possibilities. The part of the work deals with the proposal for the selection process of the most suitable location to the photovoltaic panels installing. The main part of the work is the visualization of the 3D models of the locations of interest.

The aim of this Master’s Thesis is noise map creation and processing of measured data using ArcView 9.2 and its extensions. One - year Student Edition of ArcView 9.2 and its extensions have been provided by ARCDATA PRAHA, s.r.o. Noise maps are created from measured data in the neighborhood of the faculty building and the Moravian Square in Brno. Measurement of geographic position of measuring points is realized by GPS. For creation of noise maps, analysis and processing of measured data ArcGIS extensions - Spatial Analyst and Geostatistical Analyst were used. The last part of this Master’s Thesis is specialized on creation of 3D landscape model using ArcGIS 3D Analyst extension.

Il risultato di più di mezzo secolo di attività di ricerca a livello nazionale e internazionale sulla documentazione dei beni culturali ha prodotto un progressivo allargamento del concetto di bene culturale e dei compiti della tutela. A partire dalle prime formulazioni si è giunti ad una definizione più ampia che tiene conto della complessità del fenomeno e della sua stretta integrazione con il territorio. Quest'evoluzione ha portato anche ad un mutamento delle politiche di tutela e alla nascita del concetto di valorizzazione. Da una visione basata esclusivamente sulla salvaguardia del bene si è passati ad una visione che fa del bene stesso il centro delle politiche di sviluppo. Questo cambiamento nell'atteggiamento di fronte alle politiche di tutela ha portato ad una maggiore attenzione all'attività di documentazione degli interventi sui beni culturali e ad un sempre maggiore sviluppo dei sistemi per una gestione integrata dei dati. Lo sviluppo tecnologico che ha segnato il passaggio alla società dell'informazione ha rivoluzionato profondamente il campo della Geomatica sia sul versante dei sistemi di acquisizione che di quelli di gestione dei dati. I sistemi di posizionamento satellitare, scansione laser e gli sviluppi della fotogrammetria digitale ci metteno a disposizione un'ampia gamma di supporti metrici che necessitano di una corretta integrazione nei sistemi di gestione (GIS). Questi ultimi hanno conosciuto una diffusione sempre maggiore grazie allo sviluppo delle tecnologie informatiche che hanno contribuito a trasformarli da strumenti cartografici a sistemi che permettono elaborate analisi spaziali e tematiche. Un' importante caratteristica dei GIS, resa evidente dall'esigenza di documentare i sempre più diffusi interventi di trasformazione urbana, è quella di integrare le funzioni di rappresentazione e analisi tridimensionale del dato metrico al livello di dettaglio richiesto dalle esigenze di documentazione dei beni culturali. Questo livello di dettaglio implica la capacità dei DBMS, ovvero dei GIS 3D, di svolgere operazioni di analisi spaziale sulle coordinate , oltre che di integrare le funzioni di rappresentazione dei sistemi CAD. A queste esigenze si cercherà di dare risposta attraverso la progettazione e realizzazione di un modello 3D semantico, multiscala e multivalente. L'implementazione del modello in un database tridimensionale consentirà di sperimentare le analisi ed elaborazioni di dati spaziali caratterizzati da un elevato contenuto geometrico ad una scala che va dalla cartografia urbana alla progettazione architettonica di dettaglio. L'organizzazione dei dati terrà conto dei più recenti sviluppi della ricerca nel campo dei modelli spaziali 3D e dei principali standard nazionali e internazionali nel campo dell'informazione geografica e della documentazione dei beni culturali. Una particolare attenzione sarà dedicata all'analisi della rispondenza del modello implementato con le necessità di questo tipo di documentazione: la complessità del valore semantico, la possibilità di estendere e adattare il modello a diversi contesti applicativi e la possibilità di personalizzare la rappresentazione dei dati.

Behovet av att skapa en digital detaljplan anses bland aktörer som ett måste i framtiden. Detaljplanen bör utvecklas för att kunna visualisera och förklara detaljplanens bestämmelser på ett tydligare sätt än vad det görs idag. Tidigare studier belyser att BIM och GIS kan tillämpas i detaljplanen, detta gör då att detaljplanen kan tillhandahålla nya funktioner och förbättra visualiseringen som idag ses som ett stort behov. Genom att förstå vad som gör detaljplanen svårtolkad och svår att visualisera skapar det ett underlag att ta fram en digital detaljplan som besvarar framlagda problem. Detta kan då skapa möjligheter till flera förbättringar, så som detaljplaneprocessen, bygglovshanteringar samt att kommunikation mellan aktörer förbättras. Syftet i den här studien är att kartlägga vad berörda aktörer har för problem med dagens detaljplan. Även hur en 3D-detaljplan ska tillämpas, samt vad den kan innehålla för ytterligare information eller nya funktioner. Studien genomförs med en kvalitativ metod. Genom litterära studier undersöks vad för möjligheter en 3D-detaljplan kan erbjuda. Vidare utförs semistrukturerade intervjuer med aktörer som är direkt berörda av detaljplanen, så som företag, kommun, arkitekter samt medborgare för att undersöka vad de ser för möjligheter med en 3D-detaljplan och vad de ser för problem med dagens detaljplan. Analysen och diskussionen resulterar i vilka möjligheter en 3D-detaljplan har vid ett utförande och vad som krävs för att det skall bli en verklighet. En övergripande slutsats är att en 3D-detaljplan idag ses som svår att utföra, under studien kom det fram flertalet bidragande faktorer. De viktigaste faktorer som krävs att undersöka är att se till att en gemensam standard mellan företag, kommun och arkitekter över hela landet måste sättas. Utan detta fastställt kommer det skapa en rad problem mellan aktörer att ta emot och skicka olika slags information som kan leda till att viktig information missas. Författarna kom även fram till att detaljplanen inte ska visualiseras utan att ett nytt visualiserings-system ska skapas för att stötta detaljplanen med att visualisera och lättare tolka den.
The zoning plan is considered difficult to interpret and there is a great need to digitize it. Previous studies highlight that BIM and GIS can be applied in the zoning plan, this means that the zoning plan can provide new functions and improve visualization. An implementation can create opportunities for several improvements, such as the zoning plan process, building permit management and communication between actors can be improved. The purpose of this study is to map out what problems the relevant users have with today's zoning plan. Also, how a 3D-zoning plan should be applied, and what it can contain further for information and new functions. The study is conducted with a qualitative method. By studying literary studies, what possibilities a 3D-zoning plan can offer is examined. In the study, semi-structured interviews are conducted with municipalities, construction companies, architects and private individuals to understand what needs to be developed, and how it should be conducted. Analyzing and discussing results in what opportunities a 3D-zoning plan has for an implementation and what it takes to make it a reality. An overall conclusion is that a 3D-zoning plan is difficult to implement today. During the study several factors contributing to this conclusion. Common standards between companies, municipalities and architects must be determined. The authors' conclusion is that the zoning plan should not be visualized, instead a new visualization system should be created to support the zoning plan.

This diploma thesis is dealing about the Analysis of escape routes in 3D Building model. At first 3D BIM model, in format IFC, is extracted into the GIS software ArcGiS. From the model is created topology network, which representes the rooms and their connections. Based on this model is created the network analysis for building's escape routes. Results are 5 graphical representation of networks, web visualization and time required to exit from each room of the building.

Stadsmodeller i 3D är en allt mer bidragande faktor inom GIS och vinster i tid för räddningstjänst vid användandet av 3D-GIS har påvisats. Arbetet presenterat i rapporten behandlar nätverksanalyser i 2D och 3D och har utförts på uppdrag av Gävle kommun.  Uppgiften har utförts med två huvudsakliga mål. Det första målet var att jämföra processtiderna för Dijkstras sökalgoritm mellan nätverk (ett mindre baserat på förvaltningshuset i Gävle och ett överdimensionerat nätverk) i 3D och motsvarande nätverk i 2D, för att sedan avgöra skillnaden. Det andra målet var att utveckla en applikation som tillåter vägledning i 3D för besökare från reception till önskad anställd och få rutten visualiserad i en 3D-modell. Arbetet har i huvudsak genomförts med ESRI ArcGIS Desktop 10 och ArcGIS Engine 10 Developer Kit. Programmeringen har utförts med C# i Visual Studio 2010. Applikationen fungerar dynamiskt genom att den hämtar personalinformation från en tabell med hjälp av SQL-sökningar och rutterna genereras vid varje enskild sökning. Resultaten för analyserna över processtiderna visar att det inte är någon signifikant skillnad mellan 2D- och 3D-nätverken. Den slutsats som kan dras är att processtiden inte är ett skäl att välja bort en 3D-miljö för nätverksanalyser. I framtiden finns stor potential för nätverksanalyser i 3D, framförallt i samverkan med 2D-nätverk.
City models in 3D are a growing factor in GIS and it has been demonstrated that rescue times will be reduced for emergency services with the use of 3D GIS. The work presented in this thesis deals with network analysis in 2D and 3D and has been carried out on behalf of Gävle municipality. The task has been carried out with two main objectives. The first objective was to compare processing times for Dijkstra's search algorithm for networks (one smaller network based on the house of administration (förvaltningshuset) in Gävle and one overdimensioned network) in 3D and the corresponding ones in 2D in order to determine the difference. The second objective was to develop an application which allows 3D guidance for visitors from the reception to the required personnel; the resulting route is then obtained and visualized in a 3D model. The work has mainly been conducted with ESRI ArcGIS Desktop 10 and ArcGIS Engine Developer Kit 10. The programming has been carried out with C# in Visual Studio 2010. The application works by dynamically retrieving employee information from a table by using SQL-queries and individual routes are generated for each search. The analysis results for the process times show that there are no significant differences between the 2D and 3D networks. The conclusion to be drawn is that the process time is not a reason to opt out of a 3D environment for network analysis. In the future there is great potential for network analysis in 3D, especially in conjunction with 2D networks.

Il presente lavoro illustra i risultati di un indagine volta alla definizione delle potenzialità, dei limiti e delle eventuali criticità connesse con utilizzo di oggetti digitali tridimensionali, inerenti il patrimonio culturale, come sistema informativo, valutandone le reali possibilità d'impiego come strumento di archiviazione, analisi, e condivisione dei risultati di una ricerca, condotta per la risoluzione di questioni storico-archeologiche. A tal fine si è indagato, pertanto, il ruolo del rilievo e della restituzione grafica come strumento di documentazione archeologica, soffermandosi sui cambiamenti che la diffusione di software per il disegno assistito sia 2D, che 3D, ha prodotto e da cui derivano la maggior parte degli oggetti digitali utilizzati nelle attività di ricerca. Un indagine volta a chiarirne la natura e le peculiarità, rispetto ad altre forme di documentazione, mostra come l iconicità, definita dal grado di similarità fra l oggetto reale e la corrispondente copia digitale, ne rappresenti l elemento di maggiore interesse. L utilizzo dei modelli 3D realizzati dall IBAM-CNR nell ambito delle attività di rilievo e documentazione della necropoli di Porta Nocera e di Via Nucerina a Pompei, condotte a supporto delle attività di restauro previste dal Pompeii Sustainable Preservation Project (PSPP), progetto di ricerca internazionale sul restauro architettonico e archeologico, ha fornito il materiale per creare, tramite l utilizzo di PostgreSQL e di PostGIS, una banca dati con estensione geospaziale, denominata PSPP-Db , per la gestione integrata, in ambiente GIS e tramite l utilizzo di modelli 3D, dei dati relativi a tutte le attività di studio e ricerca condotte nell ambito del progetto. I risultati ottenuti hanno mostrato le grandi potenzialità dell utilizzo di modelli 3D non solo per la documentazione di oggetti e contesti archeologici, ma anche come veri e propri sistemi informativi.

The aim of this Master’s Thesis was mapping of electromagnetic fields and processing of measured data using ArcView 9.2 and its extensions. Software ArcView 9.2 with extensions was provided by university to create this Master’s Thesis. Maps of electromagnetic fields are created from measured data in the neighborhood of the faculty building. Measurement of geographic position of measuring points is realized by GPS. For creation of maps and further analysis in ArcView, ArcGIS extensions - Spatial Analyst, Geostatistical Analyst and 3D Analyst were used.

Le ricerche condotte da chi scrive nell'ambito del progetto, hanno visto in questi anni l'utilizzo di molteplici approcci tecnici e metodologici alla materia. Il progetto trae origine ed ispirazione da una sperimentazione applicativa di GIS intra-site già condotta in precedenza sul sito medievale abbandonato di Montecorvino (Volturino, FG). Pur nella ricerca di una continuità metodologica, questo lavoro intende estendere le potenzialità di ricerca in senso geografico e tipologico, mirando a coniugare tipologie di analisi Intra-site ed Inter-site e di conseguenza l’attività di scavo stratigrafico e lo studio del paesaggio archeologico. L’obiettivo preposto è utilizzare i risultati delle analisi spaziali, in particolare delle Viewshed, Site Catchment e Cost Surface Analyses, per formulare nuove ipotesi di lettura riguardanti le dinamiche endogene di occupazione e di popolamento delle regioni in esame. L'analisi Intra-site ha previsto lo studio in ambiente GIS Open Source del microrilievo, al fine di esaminare, da una nuova prospettiva di indagine, forme di fortificazione in contesti insediativi di altura e di pianura del medioevo di Capitanata. Fondamentale è risultato l'apporto di nuove tecnologie per il rilievo, la documentazione e la comunicazione in archeologia, come l'aerofotogrammetria da APR, la Structure From Motion e la stampa 3D.

Due to the increasing availability of high-resolution remotely sensed imagery and detailed terrain surface elevation models, urban planners and municipal managers can now model and visualize the urban space in three dimensions. The traditional approach to the representation of urban space is 2D planimetric maps with building footprints, facilities and road networks. Recently, a number of methods have been developed to represent true 3D urban models. Those include panoramic imaging, Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML), and Computer-aided Design (CAD). These methods focus on aesthetic representation, but they do not have sufficient spatial query and analytical capabilities. This research evaluates the conventional approaches to 3D urban models, and identifies their advantages and limitations; GIS functionalities have been combined with 3D urban visualization techniques to develop a GIS-based urban modeling method; The algorithms and techniques have been explored to derive urban objects and their attributes from airborne LiDAR and high-resolution imagery for constructing and visualizing 3D urban models; and 3D urban models for the Texas A&M University (TAMU) campus and downtown Houston have been implemented using the algorithms and techniques developed in this research. By adding close-range camera images and highresolution aerial photographs as the texture of urban objects, effect of photorealism visualization has been achieved for walk-through and fly-through animations. The Texas A&M University campus model and the downtown Houston model have been implemented to offer proof-of-concept, namely, to demonstrate the advantages of the GIS-based approach. These two prototype applications show that the GIS-based 3D urban modeling method, by coupling ArcGIS and MultiGen-Paradigm Site Builder 3D software, can realize the desired functionalities in georeferencing, geographical measurements, spatial query, spatial analysis, and numerical modeling in 3D visual environment.

This thesis contributes to the understanding of the use of topology in analysing 3D spatial data, focussing in particular on two aspects of the problem - what binary topological analysis functionality is required in a commercial 3D Geographical Information System (GIS), and how should this functionality be implemented to achieve the most efficient query performance. Topology is defined as the identification of spatial relationships between adjacent or neighbouring objects. The first stage of this research, a review of applications of topology, results in a generic list of requirements for topology in 3D. This was carried out in parallel with a review of topological frameworks and the relationships identified by one of the frameworks, Egenhofer and Herring's 9-Intersection, selected for implementation. Three generic binary relationship queries are identified (Find Objects with a Specific Relationship, Find Intersecting Objects and What Relationship is there Between These Objects) and a mechanism described to allow these to be adapted to specific application terminology. Approaches to the implementation of 3D binary topological queries include the use of data structures and an As-Required calculation, where computational geometry algorithms are run to determine relationships each time the user runs a query. The Three-Dimensional Formal Data Structure (3DFDS) was selected as a representative example of a Boundary-Representation (B- Rep) structure in GIS. Given the number of joins to be traversed when identifying binary relationships from a B-Rep structure, along with the requirement to query additional containment exception tables, an alternate structure, the Simplified Topological Structure (STS), was proposed to improve binary query performance. Binary relationship queries were developed and comparative performance tests carried out against 3DFDS, STS and a Proxy for the As-Required calculation, using a 1.08 million object test dataset. Results show that STS provides a significant performance improvement over 3DFDS. No definitive conclusion could be drawn when comparing STS with the Proxy for the As-Required approach.

This thesis presents methods, techniques and tools for developing three-dimensional representations of tactical intelligence assessments. Techniques from GIScience are combined with crime mapping methods. The range of methods applied in this study provides spatio-temporal GIS analysis as well as 3D geovisualisation and GIS programming. The work presents methods to enhance digital three-dimensional city models with application specific thematic information. This information facilitates further geovisual analysis, for instance, estimations of urban risks exposure. Specific methods and workflows are developed to facilitate the integration of spatio-temporal crime scene analysis results into 3D tactical intelligence assessments. Analysis comprises hotspot identification with kernel-density-estimation techniques (KDE), LISA-based verification of KDE hotspots as well as geospatial hotspot area characterisation and repeat victimisation analysis. To visualise the findings of such extensive geospatial analysis, three-dimensional geovirtual environments are created. Workflows are developed to integrate analysis results into these environments and to combine them with additional geospatial data. The resulting 3D visualisations allow for an efficient communication of complex findings of geospatial crime scene analysis.
Diese Arbeit präsentiert Methoden, Techniken und Werkzeuge für die Entwicklung dreidi-mensionaler Lagebilder. Zu diesem Zweck werden Verfahren der Geoinformatik mit solchen der raumbezogenen Straftatenanalyse kombiniert. Das Spektrum der angewandten Methoden und Techniken umfasst raumzeitliche GIS-Analysen ebenso wie 3D Geovisualisierungen und GIS-Anwendungsprogrammierung. Um komplexe geovisuelle Analysen auf Basis virtueller 3D-Stadtmodelle zu ermöglichen, werden Datenbanken digitaler Stadtmodelle um anwendungsspezifische Fachinformationen ergänzt. Dies ermöglicht weiterführende Analysen, zum Beispiel zur räumlichen Verteilung urbaner Risiken. Weiterhin präsentiert die Arbeit Methoden und Verfahren zur Integration der Ergebnisse komplexer raumzeitlicher Straftatenanalysen in dreidimensionale Lagebilder. Die durchgeführten Analysen umfassen die Identifikation von Brennpunkten spezifischer Delikte mittels Techniken der Kerndichteschätzung, die Verifikation dieser Hotspots durch LISA-Statistiken, GIS-basierte räumliche Charakterisierungen von Brennpunkten sowie Analysen zur wiederholten Viktimisierung. Zur Visualisierung der Ergebnisse komplexer raumzeitlicher Analysen werden dreidimensionale geovirtuelle Umgebungen erzeugt. Um weitere raumbezogene Daten ergänzt, werden sämtliche Analyseergebnisse in diese Umgebungen integriert. Die resultierenden 3D-Visualisierungen erlauben eine effiziente Kommunikation der Ergebnisse komplexer raumbezogener Straftatenanalysen.

Abstract

3D visualization of geological structures is a very efficient way to create a good understanding of geological features. It is not only an illustrative way for common people, but also a comprehensive method to interpret results of the work. Geologists, geophysics engineers and GIS experts sometimes need to visualize an area to accomplish their researches. It can show how sample data are distributed over the area and therefore they can be applied as suitable approach to validate the result. Among different 3D modeling methods, some are expensive or complicated. Therefore, such a methodology enabling easy and cheap creation of a 3D construction is highly demanded.

However, several obstacles have been faced during the process of constructing a 3D model of geology. The main debate over suitable interpolation methods is the fact that 3D modelers may face discrepancies leading to different results even when they are working with the same set of data. Furthermore, most often part of data can be source of errors, themselves. Hence, it is extremely important to decide whether to omit those data or adopt another strategy. However, even after considering all these points, still the work may not be accurate enough to be used for scientific researches if the interpretation of work is not done precisely. This research sought to explain an approach for 3D modeling of Sedini platform in Sardinia, Italy. GIS was used as a flexible software together with Surfer and Voxler. Data manipulation, geodatabase creation and interpolation test all have been done with aid of GIS. A variety of interpolation methods available in Surfer were used to opt suitable method together with Arc view.

A solid 3D model is created in Voxler environment. In Voxler, in contrary to many other 3D types of software there are four components needed to construct 3D. C value as 4^th component except for XYZ coordinates was used to differentiate special features in platform and do gridding based on chosen value. With the aid of C value, one can mark layer of interest to identify it from other layers.

The final result shows a 3D solid model of the Sedini platform including both surfaces and subsurfaces. An Isosurface with its unique value (Isovalue) can mark layer of interest and make it easy to interpret the results. However, the errors in some parts of model are also noticeable. Since data acquisition was done for studying geology and mineralogy characteristics of the area, there is less number of data points collected per volume according to the main goals of the initial project. Moreover, in some parts of geological border lines, the density of sample points is not high enough to estimate accurate location of lines.

The study result can be applicable in a broad range of geological studies. Resource evaluation, geomorphology, structural geology and GIS are only a few examples of its application. The results of the study can be compared to the results of similar works where different softwares have been used so as to comprehend pros and cons of each as well as appropriate application of each software for a special task.

 

 

Keywords: GIS, Image Interpretation, Geodatabase, Geology, Interpolation, 3D Modeling

 

 

 

The Potchefstroom Campus of the North West University contains old water pipelines that are not well documented. Many of the newer water pipelines are not well documented either. A central data storage system that could contain the information with ease of access to update and retrieve information of these waterlines is lacking. There is a need to find a way that existing potable water network data could be represented and stored with GIS. The solution would contribute to the management of the water system on Campus. The aim of this study is to create a seamless geodatabase as a pilot project for the potable water infrastructure at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North West University. The pilot project focuses on buildings E4 and E6. ArcGIS 10 was selected to serve as the key software system that would be applied as a medium to solve and represent the problem. ArcGIS geodatabase serves as a container to store spatial data with. Data with regard to the potable water system was collected from various sources of which available electronic and hard copy CAD data was the general format. A file geodatabase was created in ArcCatalog with a standard co-ordinate system as reference to the data. ArcMap was applied for 2D editing and georeferencing of the CAD drawings which were followed by a composition of attribute data for the created features. The end result was represented in ArcScene for 3D visualization and 3D analysis. It also provided ease of access to the attribute information and relationships and the capability to perform the shortest route analysis.
Thesis (M.Sc. (Geography and Environmental Studies))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

As the usage of both BIM (Building Information Modelling) and 3D-GIS (Three-Dimensional Geographic Information Systems) has increased within the field of urban development and construction, so has the interest in connecting these two tools.  One possibility of integration is the potential of visualising BIM models together with other spatial data in 3D. Another is to be able to perform spatial 3D analyses on the models. Both of these can be achieved through use of GIS software. This study explores how integration of BIM and GIS could look. The goal was to perform typical GIS analyses in 3D on BIM models. Previous research points towards some success within the field through use of the indicated standard format for each tool – IFC (Industry Foundation Classes) for BIM and CityGML (City Geographic Markup Language) for GIS. Transformation between the formats took place through use of the BIM software Revit, the transformation tool FME and the GIS software ArcGIS. A couple of reviewed applications of GIS analyses were chosen for testing on the converted models – indoor network analysis, visibility analysis and spatial analysis for 3D buildings. The input data in the study was several BIM models, both models created for real-life usage and others that only function as sample data within the different software. From the results of the practical work it can be concluded that a simple, automated and full-scale integration does not seem to be within reach quite yet. Most transformations between IFC and CityGML failed to some extent, especially the more detailed and complex ones. In some test cases, the file could not be imported into ArcGIS and in others geometries were missing or existing even though they should not. There were also examples where geometries had been moved during the process. As a consequence of these problems, most analyses failed or did not give meaningful results. A few of the original analyses did give positive results. Combining (flawed) CityGML models with other spatial data for visualisation purposes worked rather well. Both the shadow volume and sightline analyses did also get reasonable results which indicates that there might be a future for those applications. The obstacles for a full-scale integration identified during the work were divided into four different categories. The first is BIM usage and routines where created models need to be of high quality if the final results are to be correct. The second are problems concerning the level of detail, especially the lack of common definitions for the amount of details and information. The third category concerns the connection between local and global coordinate systems where a solution in form of updates to IFC might already be in place. The fourth, and largest, category contains those surrounding the different formats and software used. Here, focus should lie on the transformation between IFC and CityGML. There are plenty of possible, future, work concerning these different problems. There is also potential in developing own tools for integration or performing different analyses than those chosen for this thesis.
I takt med den ökade användningen av både BIM och 3D-GIS inom samhällsbyggnadsprocessen har även intresset för att sammanföra de två verktygen blivit större. En möjlighet med integration är potentialen att visualisera BIM-modeller tillsammans med andra geografiska data i 3D. En annan är att kunna genomföra rumsliga 3D-analyser på modellerna. Båda dessa går att utföra med hjälp av GIS-programvara. Denna studie utforskar hur en integration mellan BIM och GIS kan se ut. Målet är att genomföra typiska GIS-analyser i 3D på BIM-modeller. Tidigare forskning pekar mot vissa framgångar inom området genom att arbeta med det utpekade standardformatet för respektive verktyg – IFC för BIM och CityGML för GIS. Transformation mellan formaten skedde med hjälp av programvarorna Revit, FME och ArcGIS. Ett par framhållna tillämpningar av GIS-analyser valdes ut för tester på de konverterade modellerna – nätverksanalyser inomhus, siktanalyser och rumsliga analyser för 3D-byggnader. Som indata användes flera olika BIM-modeller, både sådana som tillverkats för faktisk användning och modeller som skapats för att användas som exempeldata inom programvarorna. Utifrån resultaten från det praktiska arbetet kan konstateras att en enkel, automatiserad och fullskalig integration mellan verktygen verkar ligga en bit in i framtiden. De flesta transformationerna mellan IFC och CityGML misslyckades i någon aspekt, speciellt de mer detaljerade och komplexa. I vissa testfall kunde filen inte importeras i ArcGIS, i andra saknas eller existerar oväntade geometrier även om importen lyckats. Det finns också exempel där geometrier förflyttats. Som en konsekvens av dessa problem kunde de flesta 3D-analyser inte genomföras alls eller lyckades inte ge betydelsefulla resultat. Ett fåtal av de ursprungliga analyserna gav dock positiv utdelning. Att kombinera (felaktiga) CityGML-modeller med annan rumslig data fungerade förhållandevis väl ur ett visualiseringssyfte. Både skuggvolymsanalysen och framtagandet av siktlinjer från byggnaderna gav någorlunda korrekta resultat vilket indikerar att det kan finnas en framtid gällande de tillämpningarna. Hindren för en fullskalig integration som identifierades genom arbetet delades upp i fyra olika kategorier. Den första är BIM-användning där hög kvalitet på de skapade modellerna är viktigt för korrekta slutresultat. Den andra är detaljeringsgraden där avsaknaden av gemensamma definitioner för detaljeringsgraderna ställer till problem. Den tredje kategorin är koordinat- och referenssystem där en lösning på kopplingen mellan lokala och globala system redan kan finnas på plats i en av de senare utgåvorna av IFC-formatet. Den sista och största kategorin är problematiken kring just format och programvaror där mer arbete på översättningen mellan IFC och CityGML kommer att krävas. I framtiden finns det gott om arbete att göra med dessa olika problem. Det finns också potential att utveckla egna verktyg för integrationen eller att ägna sig åt att göra andra analyser än de som valdes ut i den här studien.

The European Commission states that climate change will increase over time, even with successful actions to stop greenhouse gas emissions, Sweden's work has been investigated in the Climate and vulnerability report and recent studies shows that Sweden's work with the issue is going slow. One way to present and communicate climate change is through visualization. The purposes of this paper is to examine the use of geographic data in 3D as a tool in the adaptation process and how it affects communication and understanding in the municipalities (the responsibility for climate adaptation lies at the municipal level) and between municipalities and agencies. The thesis is a qualitative case study, carried out through interviews with Botkyrka Municipality, Gothenburg City, County Administrative Board of Stockholm, Swedish Geotechnical Institute and The Interactive Institute. The views - about the use of 3D and climate adaptation with a focus on municipal operations expressed in the interviews - was analysed using content analysis. Thoughts emerged during the study about whether 3D is a generation issue with increased public demand in the future. The study also raised concerns about 3D representation being too realistic and that the interpretation needed to understand what the data means will be absent. Pictures of any kind is believed to facilitate understanding but the choice of 2D or 3D maps does not have a large impact on the speed of climate adaptation among Sweden's municipalities. Municipalities who worked with 3D can see that 3D has an effect on the their process and data is used more than before, which can be an advantage and provide better understanding of risk. Dialogue with the public is also believed to improve with the tools that come with 3D models and 3D could preferred if it would provide a faster point of contact between the municipality and the public.
Europeiska kommissionen fastslår att även med lyckade åtgärder för att stoppa utsläppen av växthusgaser kommer klimatförändringarna att öka under lång tid. Sveriges arbete har utretts i en klimat- och sårbarhetsutredning, men arbetet med åtgärderna går långsamt. En del av ansvaret för klimatanpassningen ligger på kommunalnivå i och med kommunernas planmonopol och självstyre. Ett sätt att presentera och kommunicera klimatförändringarna är via bilder. Denna uppsats undersöker om eller hur 3D påverkar kommunikation och förståelse för klimatanpassning på kommunalnivå. Och hur 3Dmodeller kan fungera som ett stöd och underlag för klimatanpassning. Uppsatsen är en kvalitativ fallstudie som genomförts genom intervjuer med Botkyrka kommun, Göteborgs stad, Länsstyrelsen i Stockholm, Statens Geotekniska Institut och The Interactive Institute. Informanterna har fått ge sin bild av användningen av 3D och klimatanpassning med fokus på kommunalverksamhet. Det materialet analyserades sedan i en innehållsanalys. Det framkom funderingar på om 3D är en generationsfråga där allmänheten i framtiden kommer kräva visualisering i 3D för att kunna förstå vad det är som visas. Det lyftes också farhågor om att 3D kan bli för verkligt och att den tolkning som behövs för att förstå vad datat betyder uteblir. Det är inte om kartorna är 2D eller 3D som gör att klimatanpassningen går långsamt bland Sveriges kommuner, men bilder av något slag tros underlätta förståelse. Kommunerna som jobbat med 3D ser ändrade arbetssätt där datat följer med i processen tydligare än tidigare vilket kan vara en fördel och ge bättre riskförståelse. Dialog med allmänheten tros också förbättras genom verktygen som kommer med 3D-modellerna om 3D dessutom kan ge en snabbare kontaktväg mellan kommun och allmänhet kan det vara en fördel.

3D geoinformation has become a base for an increasing number of today’s applications. Examples of these applications are: city and urban planning, real estate management, environmental simulation, crisis and disaster management, telecommunication, facility management and others. 3D city models are presently scattered over different public and private sectors in different systems, different conceptual models, different data formats, different data schemas, different levels of detail and different quality. In addition, the potential of 3D models goes beyond visualisation of 3D objects of virtual scenes to real 3D city models. In such an environment, integration of different sources of data for building real 3D city models becomes more difficult.   3D city models are of two types, design and real world models. Design models are usually used for building industry purposes and to fulfil the requirements of maximum level of detail in the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry. Real world models are geospatial information systems that represent spatial objects around us and are largely represented in GIS applications. Research efforts in the AEC industry resulted in Building Information Modelling (BIM), a process that supports information management throughout buildings’ lifecycle and is increasingly widely used in the AEC industry. Results of different integration efforts of BIM and geospatial models show that only 3D geometric information does not fulfil the integration purpose and may lead to geometrical inconsistency. Further complex semantic information is required. Therefore, this thesis focuses on the integration of the two most prominent semantic models for the representation of BIM and geospatial objects, Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) and City Geography Markup Language (CityGML), respectively.   In the integration of IFC and CityGML building models, substantial difficulties may arise in translating information from one to the other. Professionals from both domains have made significant attempts to integrate CityGML and IFC models to produce useful common applications. Most of these attempts, however, use a unidirectional method (mostly from IFC to CityGML) for the conversion process. A bidirectional method can lead to development of unified applications in the areas of urban planning, building construction analysis, homeland security, etc. The benefits of these unified applications clearly appear at the operational level (e.g. cost reduction, unified data-view), and at the strategic level (e.g. crisis management and increased analysis capabilities).   For a bidirectional method, a formal mapping between both domains is required. Researchers have suggested that harmonising semantics is currently the best approach for integration of IFC and CityGML. In this thesis, the focus is therefore on semantic integration of IFC and CityGML building models for bidirectional conversion. IFC and CityGML use different terminologies to describe the same domain and there is a great heterogeneity in their semantics. Following a design research method, the thesis proposes a more expressive reference ontology between IFC and CityGML semantic models. Furthermore, an intermediate unified building model (UBM) is proposed between IFC and CityGML that facilitates the transfer of spatial information from IFC to CityGML and vice versa. A unified model in the current study is defined as a superset model that is extended to contain all the features and objects from both IFC and CityGML building models. The conversion is a two-steps process in which a model is first converted to the unified model and then to the target model.   The result of the thesis contributes, through the reference ontology, towards a formal mapping between IFC and CityGML ontologies that allows bidirectional conversion between them. Future development of the reference ontology may be seen as the design of a meta-standard for 3D city modelling that can support applications in both domains. Furthermore, the thesis also provides an approach towards a complete integration of CityGML and IFC through the development of the UBM. The latter contribution demonstrates how different classes, attributes and relations have been considered from IFC and CityGML in the building of the UBM.   To illustrate the applicability of the proposed approach, a hospital building located in Norrtälje City, north of Stockholm, Sweden, is used as a case study. The purpose of the case study is to show how different building elements at different levels of detail can be constructed. Considering future research possibilities, the integration approach in the thesis is seen as a starting-point for developing a common database that formulates a UBM’s platform. With such a platform, data from IFC and CityGML can be automatically integrated and processed in different analyses. Other formats can also be included in further steps. Finally, the proposed approach is believed to need future research beyond the building models alone and on an implementation process for testing and verification.
QC 20110127

Gegenstand dieser Arbeit ist die Konzeption, Entwicklung und exemplarische Implementierung eines generischen Verfahrens zur Erfassung, Verarbeitung, Auswertung und kartographischen Visualisierung urbaner Strukturen im altweltlichen Trockengürtel mittels hochauflösender operationeller Fernerkundungsdaten. Das Verfahren wird am Beispiel der jemenitischen Hauptstadt Sanaa einer Vertreterin des Typus der Orientalischen Stadt angewandt und evaluiert. Das zu entwickelnde Verfahren soll auf Standardverfahren und Systemen der raumbezogenen Informationsverarbeitung basieren und in seinen wesentlichen Prozessschritten automatisiert werden können. Daten von hochauflösenden operationellen Fernerkundungssystemen (wie z.B. QuickBird, Ikonos u. a.) erlauben die Erkennung und Kartierung urbaner Objekte, wie Gebäude, Straßen und sogar Autos. Die mit ihnen erstellten Karten und den daraus gewonnenen Informationen können zur Erfassung von Urbanisierungsprozessen (Stadt- und Bevölkerungswachstum) herangezogen werden. Sie werden auch zur Generierung von 3D-Stadtmodellen genutzt. Diese dienen z.B. der Visualisierung für touristische Anwendungen, für die Stadtplanung, für Lärmanalysen oder für die Standortplanung von Mobilfunkantennen. Bei dem in dieser Arbeit erzeugten 3D-Visualisierung wurden jedoch keine Gebäudedetails erfasst. Entscheidend war vielmehr die Wiedergabe der Siedlungsstruktur, die im Vorhandensein und in der Anordnung der Gebäude liegt. In dieser Arbeit wurden Daten des Satellitensensors Quickbird von 2005 verwendet. Sie zeigen einen Ausschnitt der Stadt Sanaa in Jemen. Die Fernerkundungsdaten wurden durch andere Daten, u.a. auch Geländedaten, ergänzt und verifiziert. Das ausgearbeitete Verfahren besteht aus der Klassifikation der Satellitenbild-aufnahme, die u.a. pixelbezogen und für jede Klasse einzeln (pixelbezogene Klassifikation auf Klassenebene) durchgeführt wurde. Zusätzlich fand eine visuelle Interpretation der Satellitenbildaufnahme statt, bei der einzelne Flächen und die Straßen digitalisiert und die Objekte mit Symbolen gekennzeichnet wurden. Die aus beiden Verfahren erstellten Stadtkarten wurden zu einer fusioniert. Durch die Kombination der Ergebnisse werden die Vorteile beider Karten in einer vereint und ihre jeweiligen Schwächen beseitigt bzw. minimiert. Die digitale Erfassung der Konturlinien auf der Orthophotomap von Sanaa erlaubte die Erstellung eines Digitalen Geländemodells, das der dreidimensionalen Darstellung des Altstadtbereichs von Sanaa diente. Die 3D-Visualisierung wurde sowohl von den pixelbezogenen Klassifikationsergebnissen auf Klassenebene als auch von der digitalen Erfassung der Objekte erstellt. Die Ergebnisse beider Visualisierungen wurden im Anschluss in einer Stadtkarte vereint. Bei allen Klassifikationsverfahren wurden die asphaltierten Straßen, die Vegetation und einzeln stehende Gebäude sehr gut erfasst. Die Klassifikation der Altstadt gestaltete sich aufgrund der dort für die Klassifikation herrschenden ungünstigen Bedingungen am problematischsten. Die insgesamt besten Ergebnisse mit den höchsten Genauigkeitswerten wurden bei der pixelbezogenen Klassifikation auf Klassenebene erzielt. Dadurch, dass jede Klasse einzeln klassifiziert wurde, konnte die zu einer Klasse gehörende Fläche besser erfasst und nachbearbeitet werden. Die Datenmenge wurde reduziert, die Bearbeitungszeit somit kürzer und die Speicherkapazität geringer. Die Auswertung bzw. visuelle Validierung der pixel-bezogenen Klassifikationsergebnisse auf Klassenebene mit dem Originalsatelliten-bild gestaltete sich einfacher und erfolgte genauer als bei den anderen durch-geführten Klassifikationsverfahren. Außerdem war es durch die alleinige Erfassung der Klasse Gebäude möglich, eine 3D-Visualisierung zu erzeugen. Bei einem Vergleich der erstellten Stadtkarten ergibt sich, dass die durch die visuelle Interpretation erstellte Karte mehr Informationen enthält. Die von den pixelbezogenen Klassifikationsergebnissen auf Klassenebene erstellte Karte ist aber weniger arbeits- und zeitaufwendig zu erzeugen. Zudem arbeitet sie die Struktur einer orientalischen Stadt mit den wesentlichen Merkmalen besser heraus. Durch die auf Basis der 2D-Stadtkarten erstellte 3D-Visualisierung wird ein anderer räumlicher Eindruck vermittelt und bestimmte Elemente einer orientalischen Stadt deutlich gemacht. Dazu zählen die sich in der Altstadt befindenden Sackgassen und die ehemalige Stadtmauer. Auch die für Sanaa typischen Hochhäuser werden in der 3D-Visualisierung erkannt. Insgesamt wurde in der Arbeit ein generisches Verfahren entwickelt, dass mit geringen Modifikationen auch auf andere städtische Räume des Typus orientalische Stadt angewendet werden kann.
This study aims at the development and implementation of a generic procedure for the acquisition, processing, analysis and cartographic visualisation of urban space in arid zone cities based on operational remote sensing imagery. As a proof of concept the Yemeni capital Sanaa has been selected as a use case. The workflow developed is based on standard procedures and systems of spatial information processing and allows for subsequent automation oft its essential processes. Today, high-resolution remote sensing data from operational satellite systems (such as QuickBird, Ikonos etc) facilitate the recognition and mapping of urban objects such as buildings, streets and even cars which, in the past could only be acquired by non-operational aerial photography. The satellite imagery can be used to generate maps and even 3D-representation of the urban space. Both maps and 3D-visualisations can be used for up-to-date land use mapping, zoning and urban planning purposes etc. The 3D-visualisation provides a deeper understanding of urban structures by integrating building height into the analysis. For this study remote sensing data of the Quickbird satellite data of 2005 were used. They show a section of the city of Sanaa in Yemen. The remote sensing data were supplemented and verified by other data, including terrain data. The image data are then subjected to thorough digital image. This procedure consists of a pixel-oriented classification of the satellite image acquisition at class level. In addition, a visual interpretation of the satellite image has been undertaken to identify and label individual objects (areas, surfaces, streets) etc. which were subsequently digitised. The town maps created in both procedures were merged to one. Through this combination of the results, the advantages of both maps are brought together and their respective weaknesses are eliminated or minimized. The digital collection of the contour lines on the orthophoto map of Sanaa allowed for the creation of a digital terrain model, which was used for the three-dimensional representation of Sanaa's historic district. The 3D-visualisation was created from the classification results as well as from the digital collection of the objects and the results of both visualisations were combined in a city map. In all classification procedures, paved roads, vegetation and single buildings were detected very well. The best overall results with the highest accuracy values achieved in the pixel-oriented classification at class level. Because each class has been classified separately, size belonging to that class can be better understood and optimised. The amount of data could be reduced, thus requiring less memory and resulting in a shorter processing time. The evaluation and validation of the pixel-oriented visual classification results at class level with the original satellite imagery was designed more simply and more accurately than other classification methods implemented. It was also possible by the separate recording of the class building to create a 3D-visualisation. A comparison of the maps created found that the map created from visual interpretation contains more information. The map based on pixel-oriented classification results at class level proved to be less labor- and time-consuming, and the structure of an oriental city with the main features will be worked out better. The 2D-maps and the 3D-visualisation provide a different spatial impression, and certain elements of an oriental city clearly detectable. These include the characteristic dead ends in the old town and the former city wall. The typical high-rise houses of Sanaa are detected in the 3D-visualisation. This work developed a generic procedure to detect, analyse and visualise urban structures in arid zone environments. The city of Sanaa served as a proof of concept. The results show that the workflow developed is instrumental in detecting typical structures of oriental cities. The results achieved in the case study Sanaa prove that the process can be adapted to the investigation of other arid zone cities in the Middle East with minor modifications.

The capital of Germany Berlin will undergo a change in its skyline in the next few years.Due to a new housing policy that allows the construction of higher buildings, Berlinwill soon have several skyscrapers over 130 m high directly at Alexanderplatz as wellas next the Berlin landmark, the Berlin TV Tower.With the help of ArcGIS, the newbuildings are shown in 3D along with the impact of these buildings on the view to theTV Tower and the shadows cast by the new buildings on the Alexanderplatz. It is shownthat due to the new buildings, some areas around the Alexanderplatz no longer have acomplete view to the TV Tower. The shadow cast by the buildings will only slightlychange the current shadow cast on the Alexanderplatz, but neighbouring areas aroundthe Alexanderplatz will now be affected more by shadows.

Le città sono ambienti complessi, dove una moltitudine di elementi interagiscono. Un cambiamento del paradigma verso il raggiungimento di obiettivi di sostenibilità, come il limite del consumo di suolo, sta determinando un maggiore utilizzo del sottosuolo, abbandonando così lo sviluppo urbano in senso orizzontale. Ciò si traduce in una crescente interazione tra la falda e le infrastrutture sotterranee. Pertanto, è ragionevole pensare che nei prossimi anni un enorme sforzo sarà dedicato alla ricerca idrogeologica in aree urbane. Tra le città che nel mondo sono state colpite da questo problema, la città di Milano (Nord Italia, Regione Lombardia) ha registrato un forte aumento del livello piezometrico negli ultimi decenni, che hanno portato ad episodi di infiltrazione per diverse categorie di infrastrutture sotterranee. Considerando che è già stato pianificato un futuro sviluppo del sottosuolo, ciò evidenzia l'importanza di adottare strategie integrate nel quadro sia dello sviluppo sotterraneo che della gestione della falda. All'interno di questo schema generale, il presente progetto di dottorato è stato suddiviso in tre parti, per fornire una definizione dettagliata del modello concettuale urbano per la città di Milano, che potrebbe svolgere un ruolo fondamentale per sostenere i processi decisionali nelle politiche di pianificazione urbana. In particolare, la prima parte del progetto riguarda la ricostruzione di un Geodatabase 3D (3D GDB) per le infrastrutture sotterranee (UIs). Utilizzando banche dati di tipo Open come fonte principale, ma non unica, di informazioni, sono state catalogate all'interno del 3D GDB tre categorie di elementi del sottosuolo (parcheggi privati e pubblici, linee metropolitane). Queste informazioni sono state poi combinate con la ricostruzione della tavola d’acqua per condizioni di minimo e massimo idrogeologico per identificare le aree in cui le UIs sono state sommerse dalla falda. Nella seconda parte, sono state applicate tecniche data-driven per analizzare le serie storiche della falda freatica, occupata dagli UI. Sono state utilizzate tecniche statistiche e geo spaziali per raggiungere una migliore comprensione del sistema idrogeologico, individuando le principali variabili che regolano il livello piezometrico. Di conseguenza, sono state identificate quattro aree di gestione che possano fungere da future unità territoriali, definendo specifiche strategie di gestione della falda in relazione alle UIs. Nella terza parte, è stato implementato un modello numerico su scala locale per la parte occidentale della città, al fine di valutare ulteriormente le interazioni tra falda e infrastrutture sotterranee. In particolare, sono state quantificate le infiltrazioni della falda nelle UIs, portando ad una migliore definizione del modello concettuale urbano. Il modello numerico è stato sviluppato utilizzando MODFLOW-USG, adottando il pacchetto HFB, supportato dal pacchetto DRAIN per modellare le infrastrutture sotterranee. I risultati di questo progetto hanno evidenziato come la combinazione di questi diversi strumenti potrebbe essere utile per gestire le interazioni tra la falda e le infrastrutture sotterranee e per sostenere i decisori nella gestione delle acque sotterranee in ambito urbano. In questo modo, potrebbero essere adottate strategie adeguate per progettare in modo sostenibile il futuro sviluppo del sottosuolo della città.
Cities are intricate areas, where a multitude of elements interact. A change in the paradigm towards sustainability goals, as the limit of soil consumption, is determining a greater use of the subsurface, thus abandoning the urban horizontal sprawl. This results in increasing interactions between groundwater and the underground infrastructures. Thus, it is reasonable to think that in the next years a huge effort will be allocated to research in urban hydrogeology. Among the cities that worldwide have been affected by this issue, the city of Milan (Northern Italy, Lombardy Region) experienced a strong groundwater table rise in the last decades, leading to flooding episodes for different categories of underground infrastructures. Considering that a future subsurface development has been already planned, this highlights the importance of adopting integrated strategies in the framework of both underground development and groundwater management. Within this general scheme, the present PhD project has been divided into three parts, to provide a detailed definition of the urban conceptual model for the city of Milan, that could play a pivotal role and support decision-making processes in urban planning policies. More specifically, the first part of the project deals with the reconstruction of a 3D Geodatabase (3D GDB) for urban underground infrastructures (UIs). Using Open Data databases as the primary, but not unique source of information, three categories of subsurface elements (private and public car parks, subway lines) have been gathered within the 3D GDB. This information has been then combined with groundwater table reconstructions of groundwater minimum and maximum conditions to identify the areas where the UIs were submerged by the water table. In the second part, data-driven techniques have been applied to analyse groundwater time-series of the shallow aquifer, occupied by the UIs. Statistical and geospatial techniques were used to reach a better understanding of the hydrogeologic system, pinpointing the main potential variables influencing the water table levels. Consequently, four management areas have been identified to act as future geographic units, defining specific groundwater management strategies in relation to UIs. In the third part, a local scale numerical model was implemented for the western part of the city to further evaluate groundwater/underground infrastructures interactions. In particular, groundwater infiltrations into UIs were quantified, leading to a better definition of the urban conceptual model. The numerical model was developed using MODFLOW-USG, and adopting the HFB package, supported by the DRAIN package to model the UIs. The results of this project pointed out that the combination of these different tools could be beneficial to manage the interactions between groundwater and the underground infrastructures and to support the decision makers in urban groundwater management. In this way, proper strategies could be adopted to sustainably design the future subsurface development of the city.

The overall objective of the study was to investigate how much a photogrammetrically modelled power line pole differs from reality and test what flight height gives the best result. In the study, two 3D models were created using UAV images supported by RTK-measured ground points. In both models, vertical images from a height of 40 meters were used. The first model was supplemented with oblique images taken from a height of 40 meters and the second model with oblique images taken from a height of 30 meters. In order to compare both models with the actual power line pole, a total of 25 details on the pole were measured with a total station and used as control points. The control points were then compared to the same points in the 3D models and the deviations between the real pole and models were calculated. The result shows a radial mean deviation in plane of 0,04 meters for model 1 and 0,03 meters for model 2. The average error in height is 0,03 meters for model 1 and 0,02 meters for model 2. It was also found that oblique images taken at a lower altitude results in a larger camera angle and smaller pixel size. This fact turns out to be of great importance when the Pix4Dmapper program is to recreate a correct scaled and detailed 3D model. The conclusion is that images taken from the flight height of 30 meters results in a better quality of the 3D model.
Det övergripande syftet med studien är att undersöka hur mycket en fotogrammetriskt modellerad kraftledningsstolpe skiljer sig från verkligheten och undersöka vilken flyghöjd som ger bäst resultat. I studien har två 3D-modeller skapats med hjälp av UAV-bilder tillsammans med RTK-inmätta markstöd. I båda modellerna har lodbilder tagna från 40 meters höjd använts. Den första modellen kompletterades med snedbilder tagna från 40 meters höjd och den andra modellen med snedbilder tagna från 30 meters höjd. För att jämföra modellerna med den verkliga kraftledningsstolpen mättes totalt 25 detaljer på stolpen in med en totalstation och användes som kontrollpunkter. Dessa jämfördes med motsvarande punkter i 3D-modellerna och avvikelser räknades fram. Resultatet visar en radiell medelavvikelse i plan på 0,04 meter för modell 1 och 0,03 meter för modell 2. Medelfelet i höjd är 0,03 meter för modell 1 och 0,02 meter för modell 2. Resultatet visar också att snedbilder tagna på en lägre höjd, vilket innebär större kameravinkel och mindre pixelstorlek, har stor betydelse när programmet Pix4Dmapper ska återskapa en skalriktig och detaljrik 3D-modell. Slutsatsen är att bilder tagna från flyghöjden 30 meter ger en högre kvalitet på modellen.

A great interest in 3-D modeling in Geographic Information Technologies (GIS) has emerged in recent years, because many GIS related implementations, ranging from urban area design to environmental analysis require 3-D models. Especially the need for 3-D models is quite urgent in urban areas. However, numerous applications in GIS only represent two-dimensional information. The GIS community has been struggling with solving complex problems dealing with 3-D objects using a 2-D approach. This research focused on finding most accurate method which is used for getting height information that is used in 3D modeling of man made structures in urban areas. The first method is estimating height information from floor numbers of the buildings data from municipal database systems. The second method is deriving heights of buildings from Digital Elevation Model (DEM) that is generated from stereo satellite images. The third method is measuring height values of the buildings from 3D view of stereo IKONOS satellite images by operators. The comparisons between these three methods are done with respect to height data collected from field study, and according to these comparisons, the amount of the error is determined. The error is classified according to floor numbers of buildings, so that, the quantified errors can be applied for similar works in future. Lastly, the third method is utilized by the assistance of 10 people who have different experience level about 3D viewing, in order to see the error amount changes according to different operators. Several results are presented with a discussion of evaluation of the methods applied. It is found that, if there is an updated floor number database, obtaining building height is the most accurate way from this database. The second most accurate method is found to be getting height information by using 3D view of stereo IKONOS images through experienced users.

La reconstruction de routes est un sujet important dans le domaine de la modélisation 3D. Nous proposons dans cette thèse des méthodes pour construire des modèles de réseaux routiers réalistes à partir de données SIG.Tout d'abord, les problèmes de la reconstruction d'un simple axe de route à partir d'une polyligne sont étudiés. Nous présentons un modèle de courbe par morceaux G1 qui est non seulement fidèle à l'axe de la route réelle mais aussi pratique et pas onéreux à obtenir. Notre algorithme Least Square Growing crée, comme dans le génie civil, une courbe horizontale et une courbe verticale, puis les combine pour produire un axe routier 3D approchant la polyligne. Traiter individuellement des polylignes conduit à des discontinuités aux intersections des routes. C’est pourquoi nous introduisons une procédure pour détecter les relations entre les routes, afin de proposer un processus global pour reconstruire tous les axes routiers avec prenant en compte les nouvelles contraintes sur les extrémités des routes.Enfin, sur la base de l'axe de la route et les propriétés résultant de la route dans la base de données SIG, nous définissons un modèle mathématique de la surface de la route en respectant les contraintes essentielles de surfaces routières réelles. Pour produire une géométrie représentant la surface de la route finale, nous construisons un maillage grossier de la carte d'élévation du terrain d'entrée, que nous subdivisons adaptativement le long de l'axe de la route, puis ajustons l'altitude des sommets concernés à la valeur définie par le modèle mathématique de la route afin de parvenir à une correspondance correcte entre le terrain et la vraie route
Road reconstruction is an important topic in 3D modeling. Recently, the steady development of many critical-accurate applications has posed a high demand for realistic road models, taking into account road-design constraints selected from civil engineering. We propose in this dissertation methods for building realistic road network models from GIS data.Firstly, problems of single road axis reconstruction from a polyline are addressed. We present a novel G1-piecewise-curve model which is not only faithful to the real road axis but also convenient and cheap to render. Our Least Square Growing Algorithm creates, as in civil engineering, an horizontal and a vertical curves, then combines them to produce a 3D road axis fitting well the polyline. Processing individual polyline will leads to the discontinuities at road intersections so we introduce a procedure to detect road relations, then we propose a global process to reconstruct all road axes with the considerations on further constraints of road ends.Finally, based upon the resulting road axis and road properties in the GIS database, we define a mathematical road surface model respecting the essential constraints of real road surfaces. To produce a geometry representing the final road surface, we build a coarse mesh from the input terrain highmap, subdivide it adaptively along the road axis, then adjust the altitude of concerning vertices to the value defined by the mathematical model in order to attain a correct mapping between the terrain and the real road

"Nowadays, many companies in the Architecture/Engineering/Construction (AEC) industry are using Building Information Modeling (BIM) in achieving a faster, sustainable and more economic project. Among the new developed concepts and BIM applications, two of the concepts most frequently used with the support of BIM technology in the planning, organization and scheduling of projects are 4D and 5D in which a 3D model is tied to its time execution (4D) at any point in time and its corresponding cost (5D). However, most of these applications concentrate on modeling the building but it does not include a corresponding modeling of the site in which the building is located. To date, there are few studies and systematic implementation of the site and the building integrated into one BIM model. This site-building integrated model can also be conceptualized as ¡°6D BIM¡± model. The benefit of integrating the site and building together into one model is that the building is no longer treated in isolation of its surround site but incorporates extremely helpful short-term and long-term information for the owner, designer, and builder regarding site topography, landscaping, access roads, ground conditions and the location of site utilities. Major existing research and technology issues that are preventing this site-building integration deal with functionality and interoperability of the BIM software, different orientation and coordination of building model and site model. The objectives of this thesis are to explore current organizational and technological issues preventing this integration, to investigate a feasible method to create a site-linked BIM model, and to discuss the benefits and limitations of bringing BIM concept to the site conditions. The research has been conducted by an extensive review on the literature related to the topic of interest published primarily by AEC. A review on current applications of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has also been included because of the wider context provided by this technology to the specific topic of this research. Related BIM software developed by three different vendors ¡ªhas been discussed and compared to determine the level of feasibility and operational features of technological support necessary to implement the site-linked BIM model. A case study based on the design and construction of the WPI Recreational & Sports Center, currently under construction, was developed to explore and understand the details that are involved in creating a new site model and to link it with the existing 3D building model. What has been learned from the analysis of this case study is presented, discussed and analyzed in terms of benefits and limitations. Recommendations for future extensions from both the research aspect and the technology support aspect finally presented. These include the creation of 3D BIM Campus Map, which is one site model with several building models placed on it to facilitate future planning of new building and/or maintenance and operation of the current buildings and campus infrastructure.   "

Digital technologies are developing in a rapid pace and the usage of 3D is now in its experimenting phase. Many projects have been working with 3D to see how it can be used in a productive way. The use of 3D and GIS together has started to set a pattern to what 3D models are good for more than documentation in high accuracy. This essay is discussing what this relationship is being used for and if it should be place as a standard procedure in archaeological field practice. The essay is also discussing the place for 3D and digital archeology in the two biggest paradigms in archaeology. The result of this essay is showing a potentially effectiveness of the usage of 3D in excavation purposes and that 3D-GIS can make even more potential data of the models, both in field and in post-processing work. The discussion of the place for 3D models in archaeological theory is showing that digital archeology can fill the gap between processual and post-processual archaeology, therefor are a part of all paradigms or even be a part of a new paradigm, which can create a new way of interpret archaeology.

The terrorist attacks on New York City on September 11, 2001 heightened awareness about the need to plan for emergency evacuation measures. As a result, three-Dimensional (3D) city and building models have become an important part of GIS analysis. The technology can be used to plan evacuations in complex indoor environments. This thesis had two main objectives. The first goal was to conduct a 3D network analysis of a building for emergency management, which was based on a 3D model of a building in the city of Gävle, Sweden. This 3D model identifies the shortest path from any room to the defined exit. The second objective was to test the predicted evacuation times with a simulation experiment. The 3D model was built by Google Sketch Pro 8 and the 3D network analysis was mainly conducted in the ESRI’s ArcGIS software. The simulation experiment involved 18 volunteers at the organization Future Position X. The 3D network analysis was based on distance measurements instead of GNSS coordinates. The simulation experiment was conducted in four different situations. Crowding was found to be a critical problem during evacuation. Evacuation speeds varied from normal walking to running. However, crowding always increased the evacuation time and thus would affect the survival rate. Evacuation routes should be distributed differently to reduce this problem. The thesis also identifies other factors to be considered when planning emergency routes and challenges posed by the software at this time.

This PhD project explores how geospatial semantic web concepts, 3D web-based visualisation, digital interactive map, and cloud computing concepts could be integrated to enhance digital cultural heritage exploration; to offer long-term archiving and dissemination of 3D digital cultural heritage models; to better interlink heterogeneous and sparse cultural heritage data. The research findings were disseminated via four peer-reviewed journal articles and a conference article presented at GISTAM 2020 conference (which received the ‘Best Student Paper Award’).

Modern remote sensing instruments, mounted on a modern aerial platform and assisted through the use of automated procedures are now capable of acquiring data over a vast area in a short timeframe. Thanks to innovative processing methods and algorithms it is then possible to rapidly deliver results with a high detail and accuracy. The discussed thesis provides a detailed overview, through different case studies and examples, on the evolving complete pipeline required to survey, process, store, integrate, analyze and deliver data in the form of a 3D city model and GIS in the urban environment. A comprehensive 3D city model is, in fact, the necessary multi-disciplinary backbone for the ubiquitous sensors of a Smart City.

75-90% інформації довкола містить у своєму складі географічні дані. З-поміж множини різних видів програмних технологій, що оперують графічною інформацією в архітектурній сфері, традиційно використовують САПР. Однак, засоби сучасних ГІС-систем у поєднанні з інноваційною технологією тривимірного проектування та вільнодоступними даними дистанційного зондування Землі спроможні забезпечити якісну фотореалістичну візуалізацію та згенерувати повний комплект креслень, відомостей та матеріалів, що передаються як результат проектування. Суттєві зміни вітчизняного законодавства та тенденції світового розвитку ринку ГІС переконливо засвідчують про перспективність даної технології.
75-90% of the information around contains geographical data. Among the many different types of software technologies that operate graphic information in the architectural field traditionally use CAD. However, the means of modern GIS systems in combination with innovative three-dimensional design technology and freely available remote sensing data of the Earth are able to provide high-quality photorealistic visualization and generate a complete set of drawings, information and materials transmitted as a result of design. Significant changes in domestic legislation and global trends in the GIS market convincingly testify to the viability of this technology.

Il progetto di ricerca iniziato nell’A.A. 2012/13 intende indagare da un lato sulle tecnologie di rilievo e acquisizione di dati spaziali sia bidimensionali che tridimensionali in archeologia e sui rispettivi processi di elaborazione, e dall’altro sulle modalità di erogazione e fruizione del potenziale informativo della documentazione grafica di scavo tramite applicazioni per il web. L’obiettivo principale è quello di colmare un vuoto nelle procedure metodologiche strutturando un workflow completo sulla gestione di dati archeologici, mirato a promuovere la condivisione di informazioni e di esperienze diverse, e dunque di diffondere conoscenza. Pertanto sono state esaminate tecniche di rilievo topografico strumentale che comprendono il laser scanning e la fotogrammetria digitale, effettuando test in contesti e su oggetti diversi: unità stratigrafiche murarie in aree di scavo archeologico, insediamenti rupestri, architetture castrensi, ma anche reperti ceramici. Sono state adottate in seguito procedure di gestione ed elaborazione dei dati in vista di una pubblicazione dei contenuti digitali su web o su altre forme di applicazioni per il grande pubblico. Una volta valutata la fattibilità dei processi di documentazione è stato scelto come caso di studio il sito archeologico di Herdonia, nei pressi dell’attuale Ordona (FG). Questa scelta è motivata da due fattori principali. Innanzitutto la presenza di imponenti rovine, fa di Herdonia il sito ideale per sperimentare le tecnologie di rilievo tridimensionale. La seconda ragione è costituita dalla ricca documentazione di scavo dell’Archivio Mertens, conservata, a partire dal 2004, presso il Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici dell’Università di Foggia. In questo archivio è depositata tutta la conoscenza e la documentazione del sito di Ordona dall’inizio delle ricerche intraprese dall’équipe belga nel 1962 fino ad oggi. Si tratta dunque di 40 anni di ricerche che hanno portato alla scoperta di uno dei siti più grandi dell’Italia meridionale, dalle fasi dell’insediamento daunio, all’installazione della città romana, fino al ridimensionamento dell’abitato in epoca medievale e al definitivo abbandono nel XV secolo. L’archivio costituisce dunque una memoria unica e contiene documenti che sono parte della storia delle ricerche archeologiche, prodotti seguendo metodologie differenti (dallo scavo per lunghe trincee e al metodo Wheeler fino allo scavo per grandi aree) e realizzati usando varie tecniche e tecnologie (dal rilievo diretto a disegni CAD e scansioni 3D). L’idea principale è dunque quella di strutturare un workflow specifico per costruire un ambiente comune all’interno del quale possano coesistere sia i legacy data di scavo che la documentazione grafica digital born. Tuttavia, il problema più grande riscontrato nell’analisi dell’archivio è costituito dalla totale assenza di digitalizzazione dei contenuti, tassello fondamentale per poter condividere dati ed informazioni su Herdonia. È stata individuata come necessità primaria la realizzazione di una mappa della città antica in cui fossero posizionate tutte le aree sottoposte ad indagine stratigrafica, strumento, tuttora assente, indispensabile per una qualsivoglia operazione futura di sistematizzazione di dati. Pertanto sono state acquisite in formato digitale tutte le planimetrie e le sezioni stratigrafiche disegnate dal 1962 fino al 19931, e collocate su base cartografica georeferenziata2 tramite un sistema GIS open source. Dopo aver ordinato e sistemato i dati topografici sono state analizzate le modalità di erogazione verso il pubblico, utilizzando tool e programmi a costo zero e provenienti dal panorama del software libero ed open source. I percorsi di erogazione delle informazioni sono essenzialmente due. Un primo percorso relativo alla fruizione delle mappe di Herdonia tramite strumenti per la pubblicazione sul web, ed un secondo costituito dalla costruzione di un ambiente virtuale in cui possano coesistere modelli fotogrammetrici 3D di resti di alcuni monumenti della città antica e ricostruzioni tridimensionali della stratigrafia individuata in fase di scavo.

Efterfrågan på GIS i kombination med 3D ökar stadigt. Att dokumentera och visualisera i 3D ger många fördelar. Visualiseringar i 3D är ofta enklare att tolka än 2D-visualiseringar och de är dessutom bättre på att återge olika objekts topologiska förhållande till varandra. Det här arbetet är utfört på uppdrag av Gävle Energi och går ut på att skapa en konverteringsmetod som möjliggör en övergång från 2D-dokumentation till 3D-dokumentation av fjärrvärmenätet. Eftersom 3D-dokumentation medför att höjdvärden blir tillgängliga för detaljerna i den digitala kartan, kan bl.a. flödesberäkningar bli mer noggranna än tidigare. Metoden innebär att en lämplig höjdmodell väljs ut för att användas vid interpolationen med den aktuella 2D-kartan. De interpolerade höjderna justeras därefter med ledningarnas förläggningsdjup. Ledningar med avvikande förläggningsdjup, t.ex. borrade ledningar och ledningar i vatten, identifieras för att hanteras separat. För att beräkna metodens noggrannhet jämförs en stor mängd referenspunkter med de höjdvärden som har beräknats fram. Resultatet visar att metoden genererar tillförlitliga höjdvärden.

Visualization could be defined as the graphical presentation of information, in which the main aim is to improve the user&rsquo
s perception. In all phases of the disaster management, decision makers come across huge data sets with spatio-temporal content. It is hard to deal with these sets in order to find answers to the main question of &ldquo
How can we decrease the losses due to disasters?&rdquo
, which is at the core of the disaster management concept. To furnish this aim, disaster risk information has to be transparent and clearly stated to the public, decision makers and disaster managers. This might be more sophisticated than the calculation of the risk. Taking precautions before a disaster to reduce the causalities and lossess engendered by natural disasters is relatively cheaper, and more importantly, better than cure. To achieve enhanced preparations for all kinds of disasters, visualization is quite an important tool for decision support and risk communication. The basic aim of this research is to propose a conceptual framework, with the consideration of all stakeholders related to the disaster management issue to have a better risk communication, and to guide the design, implementation and integration of the 3D urban modeling tools into disaster risk visualization. Moreover, an empirical methodology is also developed for the generation of visualization solutions through the design, and employment of the tool for disaster management framework. The proposed framework has three main phases .These are the definition of visualization components, object representation, and needs assessment. A new LoD hierarchy with indoor is proposed to visualize all the possible 3D urban disaster situations in the first phase. Then, a decision rule with eight attributes is proposed in the second phase to establish a link between the hazard type and the LoD needed in a 3D urban model for visualization. This decision rule is applied in a proposed three-level hierarchycal structure. The assessed objects of these three levels are urban, sub-urban zone and building. Moreover, a method to define the needed sub-urban zone is proposed. Finally, different 3D urban modelling methods are analyzed to define the data and process needs of possible 3D urban disaster visualization situations. Two natural hazard cases are studied within the scope of this dissertation to assess the operability of the proposed framework. These implementations involve one earthquake and one tsunami case. Special attention is paid to finding one specific sample for two modelling viewpoints, namely static and dynamic. The first applications of the proposed framework with all the related features prove quite promising.

Utility network fieldworkers of today want to access more information and can benefit a lot from new technical development. Today most fieldwork is conducted using paper plans or locally stored data on laptops as a visual aid. Therefore there is a need for improvement and development of new reliable software for fieldwork. Also the abil- ity to use advanced Geographic Information Systems (GIS) solutions and enhanced visualization methods while out in the field could help improve fieldwork. In order to be as e↵ective as possible when carrying out di↵erent tasks in the field, di↵erent ways of visualizing the same network data are required. 2D and 3D visualization methods have di↵erent advantages and disadvantages when it comes to visualizing network data, which will be accounted for in this thesis. There are three main objectives in this thesis. The first is to evaluate how suitable di↵erent visualization methods are for fieldwork users working with utility networks. The second is to get a better understanding of what hardware and software that can be used for implementing the visualization methods. The last one is to use the first and second objectives to develop a prototype for utility network fieldwork. To address the objectives, the first step is to understand the users that work in the field. By conducting interviews, information about the current workflow for fieldworkers and their opinions about how the systems currently work is gathered. Based on this information the thesis is divided into cases and criteria which is the foundation for proposing a solution in form of mock-up sketches which is then imple- mented in form of a prototype. Finally the prototype is evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively using a web survey and presentations for potential end users. The prototype is created using web technologies and is mainly intended for tablets. Because of its mobility, screen size and adequate computational power the tablet is a good hardware choice for conducting fieldwork. The prototype presents network data in a 2D interactive map view, a 3D augmented reality (AR) view and a combined view. These choices are based on information gathered by studying related work and performing interviews with potential end users in the beginning of the study. The results of the thesis highlights large possibilities in making field work more e↵ective for fieldworkers. This in concluded partly by the results of the interviews with potential end users, but also by the response of the survey and presentation of the suggested solution. It is shown that there are new ways to improve the work process out in the field and that AR can help in visualizing the network in a new informative way for fieldwork. However, several challenges remain, but rapid techno- logical development implies possible solutions to deal with these challenges.

Modelling hydrologic processes is important for understanding how the water cycle works in different environments. Cities which undergo constant changes are subject to flood hazards resulting from severe rainfall. This paper aims to simulate severe rainfall, visualize the results, incorporating both spatial and temporal dimensions, and to make future recommendations for further studies on flood visualization. Visualizing the results from a rainfall simulation using GIS provides urban planners and others the means to view the dynamics of the surface runoff. At the same time, it makes accessible advanced querying and analytical tools. A hydrological model for the study area in Gävle, Sweden was used to simulate a 100-year rainfall. Through FME, the data was reduced, time-stamped and combined to a shapefile. Both 2D software, ArcGIS, and 3D software, ArcScene, were used for creating an animated flood visualization. This study shows that although 2D tested better by a group of planners and water professionals, the 3D was still considered more intuitive. The heightened sense of realism from 3D outweighs its drawbacks, and further studies are required to test different methods of 3D visualization.

Geoscience data sharing and processing is very advanced in terms of surface data. Subsurface data sharing has not received the attention that surface data sharing has received and so there are fewer applications or software packages which focus on it. This research is funded by the NSF EarthCube GEO Domain program in an effort to develop a continental-scale repository of 3D subsurface data to facilitate the sharing of complex 3D data and to enable the development of geoprocessing tools and workflows that operate on that data. The work in this thesis is a small part of the EarthCube project with two parts. The first part is to research current tools for 3D subsurface data visualization, specifically virtual globes, and to recommend one for use in the development of the EarthCube project. The second part is to develop an online prototype visualization platform for the EarthCube project referred to as the "Digital Crust" using the recommended virtual globe. Additional work was done with the Digital Crust to develop geoprocessing tools to show the ability for the Digital Crust to work with a data repository. These tools convert geoscience data file types, and interpolate soil cross-sections from borehole log data.

A 3D-model of different geomorphological objects has become a more common way of portraying nature in recent years. Generating 3D-models of objects of this kind reveals different attributes such as spatial orientation, internal structures, and volume. The model gives its observer a unique opportunity to navigate around the spatial range, and even highlight certain areas of the case study for further scrutiny. The user is able to "peel" away the different layers and thereby be left with individual elements which would be otherwise difficult to obtain. This thesis shows how a model of this kind can be made using geophysical instruments as GPR (ground penetrating radar) and RTK (real time kinematic) GPS to perform different surveys for both the external and internal structures of the ice patch. This data will then be used for processing in ESRI's geographic information systems. The aim of this thesis is to focus attention on the workflow needed to develop a 3D-model; from fieldwork and processing, to results and visualization of the ice patch and its different layers in 3D.
3D-modellering av ulike geomorfologiske objekter er i nyere tid blitt en mer vanlig måte å visualisere naturen på. Ved å generere 3D-modeller av slike objekter er det flere essensielle egenskaper ved objektet som avdekkes, for eksempel; dens romlige orientering, interne strukturer og dens volum. Brukere av modellen har en helt unik mulighet til å navigere seg rundt i rommet for så å rette søkelyset mot enkelte elementer ved studieobjektet. Brukeren kan "skrelle" av andre lag og dermed kun sitte igjen med enkeltelementer, som kan avdekke vanskelig tilgjengelig informasjon. Denne oppgaven viser hvordan en slik modell kan lages ved å kombinere RTK GPS undersøkelser med et nettverk av GPR (ground penetrating radar)- profiler, for så å etterprosessere datafangsten i ESRIs geografiske informasjonssystem. I samarbeid med forskningsprosjektet SPARC er studieobjektet satt til Kringsollfonna, en isfonn lokalisert i Oppdal kommune i Sør-Trøndelag fylke, Norge. Målet med oppgaven er å rette søkelyset mot arbeidsstrømmen for utvikling av en slik 3D-modell; fra feltarbeid, etterprosessering og til resultat og visualisering av fonnens snø- og islag i 3D.

This study about Norrland’s hillforts has been a way to understand and figure out how the hillforts has been used. By reading previously published literature around mostly Scandinavian hillforts and what they may have had for functions and dating, if the assumed previously functions in Norrland was right or if there could be more to them. In this study it shows that functions for hillforts is mostly assumed with none or a few archaeological evidence. The first assumed function of Norrlands hillfort as refuge has been criticized by authors from Norway and Finland because of the distance between district and hillfort. The assumption suggested that it would have been too difficult to flee from an enemy if a raid would be of essence, and with published literature, GIS-analysis, and 3D pictures this can hopefully be shown for the reader.