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Journal articles on the topic 'Germany – Commercial policy – History'

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Published: 10 March 2023

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1

Sarkar, Jayita. "U.S. Policy to Curb West European Nuclear Exports, 1974–1978." Journal of Cold War Studies 21, no. 2 (May 2019): 110–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jcws_a_00877.

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After India's detonation of a nuclear explosive in 1974 publicly demonstrated the proliferation risks from nuclear assistance, the U.S. government increased its efforts to control nuclear exports worldwide. In doing so, U.S. policymakers faced challenges from two major West European allies, France and West Germany, both of which pursued their commercial interests through nuclear exports to countries such as Pakistan, Brazil, Iran, and India, among others. Despite multilateral efforts including the formation of the Nuclear Suppliers Group and bilateral negotiations with the supplier governments, the administrations of Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter attained only partial success. The commercial interests of nuclear firms, the influence of pro-export coalitions inside supplier countries, and the emerging importance of the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact countries as alternative suppliers influenced the outcome. The United States was more successful in restraining the French through a series of quid pro quo arrangements than it ever was with the West Germans. Using recently declassified archival documents, this article sheds new light on U.S. nonproliferation policy in the aftermath of the 1973 oil price shock.

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2

Harwood, Jonathan. "The Fate of Peasant-Friendly Plant Breeding in Nazi Germany." Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences 40, no. 4 (2010): 569–603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/hsns.2010.40.4.569.

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The peasantry played a central role in National Socialist ideology, as both a source of racial strength and a foundation of the economy. In this paper I explore the extent to which the regime's policies actually favored peasant farming. The first section looks at the overall character of agricultural policy and demonstrates that although peasant farmers were targeted for special assistance from 1933 until 1936, they were neglected thereafter as the economy geared up for war. In the second section I focus upon a particular set of policies——-the regime's attempts to promote the use of high-quality seed——-and show that while farmers as a whole probably gained from these measures, peasants appear not to have benefited differentially. In the third section I examine agricultural officials' attempts to establish a "division of labor" between public-sector plant breeding institutions and commercial breeders. I demonstrate that although the former had been successfully developing new varieties specifically designed for peasant farmers since the turn of the century, this work was henceforth to be curtailed so as not to "compete" with the private sector. In the conclusion I argue that neither the regime's policies on plant breeding nor the highly centralized character of agricultural policy-making can be regarded as specifically fascist.

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3

Moreno, Julio E. "J. Walter Thompson, the Good Neighbor Policy, and Lessons in Mexican Business Culture, 1920–1950." Enterprise & Society 5, no. 2 (June 2004): 254–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1467222700013495.

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This article looks at the corporate history of J. Walter Thompson to examine the nature of U.S.-Mexican relations in the aftermath of the Great Depression and World War II. It contends that local conditions, along with a cadre of “progressive” Good Neighbor Policy diplomats, forced American companies to adopt the role of “commercial diplomats,” altering the nature of what, up to 1940, had been a tense and bitter binational relationship. The article shows how Thompson's role as a commercial diplomat changed its previous “capitalist missionary” approach and how it complemented American diplomacy, including national security measures to displace German commercial influence in Mexico during Word War II.

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Davis, J. R. "Trade, Politics, Perspectives and the Question of a British Commercial Policy towards the German States, 1848-66." German History 15, no. 2 (April 1, 1997): 253–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gh/15.2.253.

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5

Mergel, Thomas. "Americanization, European Styles or National Codes? The Culture of Election Campaigning in Western Europe, 1945–1990." East Central Europe 36, no. 2 (2009): 254–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187633009x411520.

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AbstractThe culture of election campaigning in postwar Western Europe allegedly has been shaped by a process of Americanization. In terms of political communication, Americanization has four distinct features: proximity of political marketing to commercial marketing, personalization and professionalization of campaigns, and media centered strategies. Based on an analyses of some European cultures of electioneering – Germany, Great Britain, and Italy – the main thesis of the paper is that the shared features are only to a smaller degree the results of American influences, but rather parallel trends due to structural commonalities like being medialized democracies in welfare and consumer societies, politically shaped by the Cold War context. The 1980s, however, meant a threshold: private media have risen across Europe and policy issues from the “new social movements” were pressured into the policy agenda. Although this has furthered the “Americanization” of European electioneering styles, at the same time several European elections point to an increased Europeanization of electioneering. On the whole, however, different national political cultures continue to modify and change American and European influences, creating local variations of campaigning.

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6

Thuring, Christine, and Gary Grant. "The biodiversity of temperate extensive green roofs – a review of research and practice." Israel Journal of Ecology and Evolution 62, no. 1-2 (April 12, 2016): 44–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15659801.2015.1091190.

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From its beginnings in Germany in the twentieth century, a thriving extensive green roof industry has become established in many countries in temperate climates. Based upon the success of the industry, and with an expectation that this technology will be adopted in other climates, this review of the ecological research of extensive green roofs aims to evaluate the application of this knowledge. The modern extensive green roof is the product of research in the 1970s by German green roof pioneers; the selection of suitable species from analogue habitats led to green roof vegetation dominated by drought tolerant taxa. The commercial success of extensive green roof systems can be attributed to engineering and horticultural research, to policy mechanisms in some places, and to a market that encourages innovation, and the origins in ecological design are now easily overlooked. Some of the work reviewed here, including the classification of spontaneous roof vegetation into plant communities, is not widely known due to its confinement to the German literature. By re-visiting the history of the extensive green roof and reviewing the ecological research that has contributed to our understanding of it, the intention is, for this paper, to inform those considering green roofs in other climatic regions, to apply an ecologically informed approach in using local knowledge for developing installations that are suited to the bioregion in which they occur. Finally the paper considers some future directions for research and practice.

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7

Kopper, Christopher. "Germany's National Socialist Transport Policy and the Claim of Modernity: Reality or Fake?" Journal of Transport History 34, no. 2 (December 2013): 162–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.7227/tjth.34.2.5.

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The construction of the extensive motorway network by the Nazi regime has often been seen as a textbook example of a thorough motorisation policy. But the motorway construction took place under a transport policy that favoured public railroads at the expense of private road haulage companies. A strict regulation of freight rates prevented road hauliers from competing with railroads and gaining a greater share of the freight market. The division of administrative and planning competencies between the motor-minded enthusiasts around Hitler's road builder Fritz Todt and the railroad lobby in the Ministry of Transport contributed to a contradictory motorisation policy. Not even the design of the German motorways was favourable to commercial road hauliers. The German Autobahn was built primarily for cars and ignored the needs of the trucking industry.

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8

Nyahoho, Emmanuel. "L'accord monétaire de Maastricht et ses implications de politiques économiques." Études internationales 24, no. 2 (April 12, 2005): 355–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/703171ar.

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The precised calendar of Maastricht treaty for setting up the european System of central banks (ESCB) and the european central bank (ECB) with a single currency can merely be explained by the concern of the member countries of having such a monetary integration before the end of the century. There's every chance that ESCB be formed with limited number of countries, namely: France, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands. If the objectives of price controls and non monetisation of debt assigned to ESCB are unequivocal, the responsability of fixing the parity of écu vis-à-vis third currencies which belongs to the Council and the Parliament might deprive the ESCB of full scope in conducting monetary policy. In regard to fiscal policies, the coexistence of budgets of various natures and the conjonctural stabilizations programs in prospect render difficult any computation on future coordination policy or federal budget. Finally, ecu once in place as a single currency could extend beyond the communities, but its acceptance on financial and commercial markets beside the dollar and the yen is scarcely predictable. This tendancy toward currencies zone, thus repeating history of the years thirties, does not constitute any guaranty for the stability of international monetary System which would require a kind of multilateral surveillance.

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Blackler, Adam A. "From Boondoggle to Settlement Colony: Hendrik Witbooi and the Evolution of Germany's Imperial Project in Southwest Africa, 1884–1894." Central European History 50, no. 4 (December 2017): 449–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938917000887.

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AbstractIn the span of ten years, what started as a minor commercial enterprise in a faraway African territory grew into an important extension of the German state. This article reorients our understanding of the relationship between theKaiserreichand its overseas empire, specifically with a focus on Captain Hendrik Witbooi and on how the Witbooi Namaqua he led influenced the evolution of German imperial rule in Southwest Africa between 1884 and 1894. Witbooi's refusal to accept imperial authority compelled colonial officials to confront their administrative limitations in the colony. When the façade of imperial fantasy gave way to colonial reality, German administrators expanded the size and scope of the imperial government to subdue the Namaqua. The article emphasizes the appointments ofLandeshauptmannCurt von François and Governor Theodor Leutwein as critical examples of Witbooi's impact on imperial policy, as well as the colonial administration's embrace of military violence to attain German supremacy in Southwest Africa. An emphasis on the Witbooi Namaqua illustrates the prominent role of Africans in German colonial history and exposes how peoples in distant places like Windhoek and Otjimbingwe manipulated official efforts to control and exploit the colony.

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10

Wald, Andreas. "The Effect of 'Mode 2'-Related Policy on the Research Process: The Case of Publicly Funded German Nanotechnology." Science & Technology Studies 20, no. 1 (January 1, 2007): 26–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.23987/sts.55218.

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Recent reforms in science policy seem to be in line with the archetype of ‘Mode 2’ of knowledge production. This study on publicly funded German nanotechnology research seeks answers to questions concerning the prevalence, the effects and the appropriateness of Mode 2-related policy. The level of analysis is the individual research group. The results reveal that nanotechnology research does not fit into the picture portrayed by Mode 2 literature. Nevertheless, effects of Mode 2-related policies can be observed. Funding schemes often require an immediate relevance for commercial application and collaboration with industry partners. As a consequence, research groups are forced to adjust their research lines and strategies to these needs. The researchers seriously criticize these developments and consider the policies underlying them as harmful for both fundamental and applied research. In the light of the results, the adaptation of Mode 2 elements into science policy and into funding schemes should be considered critically.

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11

Lindner, Ulrike, and Stuart S. Blume. "Vaccine Innovation and Adoption: Polio Vaccines in the UK, the Netherlands and West Germany, 1955–1965." Medical History 50, no. 4 (October 1, 2006): 425–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025727300010279.

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“An effective AIDS vaccine could be found as early as 2012, saving 6 million lives if the world is willing to put £10 bn a year into a new programme, the chancellor, Gordon Brown, said in a speech last night in Tanzania”. Faith in biomedical science; the conviction that new vaccines will be translated into lives saved; belief in the necessity of globally concerted action: the British minister's statement reflects views of vaccine innovation that are widely held today. New and improved vaccines seem our best hope of coping with the scourge of AIDS, of arming ourselves against the unknown threats of emergent diseases and potential bioterrorism, and of tackling the resurgence of old diseases arising once more in Europe. Global coordination, pooling our resources, seems self-evidently necessary, given the international nature of a modern epidemic. Much current discussion of vaccine development and use thus has a global character. That is to say, it is conducted under the banner of global slogans or it seeks to establish globally integrated approaches to vaccine research and development (R&D). Over the past two decades the development and rapid introduction of new vaccines have come to dominate the vaccine agenda worldwide. Social scientists and health policy analysts have been set to work, examining barriers to the implementation of international priorities at the national level. Why, for example, are national responses to the availability of new vaccines often so lethargic? A recent study of the adoption of Hemophilus influenza b (Hib) conjugate vaccine is a good example. It shows policy makers in four countries rationally weighing the burden to public health of the diseases against which the vaccine offers protection (bacterial meningitis and pneumonia), against the high cost of the vaccine. Health policy analysts tend to explain the decision to introduce a new vaccine, or to replace an existing vaccine by a new alternative, in terms of the epidemiology and seriousness of the disease, and of scientific consensus regarding the efficacy and potential risks of the vaccine and (perhaps) their costs. The studies of vaccine diffusion and adoption that they conduct have little or nothing to say about political disagreements, or the influence of commercial interests, national traditions, international relations, or global agendas. Where any attention is paid to vaccine history, it is generally in the attempt to illustrate factors (such as resistance to vaccination) that might cause deviations from the rational deployment of vaccines.

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12

Ippolitov, Sergei Sergeevich. "Russian Emigration of the First Wave in Germany: Humanitarian and Legal aspects of Adaptation, 1917-1920s." Исторический журнал: научные исследования, no. 1 (January 2020): 115–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.7256/2454-0609.2020.1.31909.

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The article discusses the activities of Russian humanitarian, professional and public organizations in determining the legal status of Russian migrants in Europe and providing legal assistance to refugees and Russian legal entities in exile in 1917 - 1920s, as well as the trade unions of Russian lawyers in exile and their activities of legal assistance to their compatriots. The author examines the foreign policy of different states concerning the legal discrimination of Russian refugees and the geopolitical context in which the legal integration of Russian emigration took place in the societies of host countries. The study views the Russian humanitarian and legal activity as a factor in preserving the civic identity of these emigrants. The methodological basis on which this research is based is the principles of historicism and systematicity, which imply the application of the chronological method in the research process, as well as the methods of retrospection, periodization and actualization. The article explores for the first time in historiography the little-studied page in the history of Russian emigration: the creation in Germany in the 1920s of an effective system of humanitarian and legal assistance to Russian refugees aimed at clarifying their legal status and restoring the legal existence of Russian commercial enterprises in exile. For the first time in historiography, the author examines the ability of the emigrant community to self-organize in order to assert its rights in a foreign language and foreign culture society.The factors that significantly complicated the Russian emigrants' humanitarian and legal status, thereby also hindering their integration into European society, included: the long irresolution of their legal status; the significant number of legal obstacles; the ineffectiveness of officials with respect to the refugees' actual lack of rights; the legal conflict in international law that arose with the emergence of the Russian emigration phenomenon; and the unprecedented humanitarian and legal crisis of the post First World War period in Europe. Under these conditions, the Russian emigrant community nonetheless managed to develop effective mechanisms to help its compatriots in the legal sphere.

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13

Olukoju, Ayodeji. "Rotgut and Revenue: Fiscal Aspects of the Liquor Trade in Southern Nigeria, 1890–1919." Itinerario 21, no. 2 (July 1997): 66–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115300022853.

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Once recommended by A.G. Hopkins as a ‘profitable subject of future research’, the European liquor trade in West Africa has since then received considerable attention from scholars. While Lynn Pan examined the region in a broad survey of the African liquor trade, other scholars have focused on more specific aspects of the topic. To be sure, much of the literature has concentrated on the ideological controversy between the defenders and opponents of the European liquor traffic. Other aspects of the subject, however, such as the significance of the liquor traffic in the Anglo-German commercial rivalry in West Africa liquor prohibition as colonial policy in largely-Muslim territories, and the fiscal importance of liquor – both spirits and beer – in the colonial and post-independence states, have been examined in various studies.

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14

Claire, Sarah. "The Ore Mountains Mining Area in Bohemia: A Reservoir of Silver Resources in Central Europe in the Sixteenth Century." Global Environment 15, no. 1 (February 1, 2022): 47–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.3197/ge.2022.150103.

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This study of the bohemian Ore Mountains illustrates the stranglehold of wealthy German entrepreneurs (the Welser, Höchtstetter, Fugger, Nutzel, etc.) on the mineral resources of the Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge, Krušné hory) in Bohemia in the sixteenth century, at the expense of the local population. The German commercial firms were the only ones in the region with sufficient capital to invest in the development of Bohemian mines. They had control over a large part of the ore production, which was sent to dynamic north-western European markets. The income generated by the extraction remained temporary for the local population and limited to the time of extraction, which is characteristic of a peripheral economy. The environmental footprint of the mining and the size of the hinterland necessary to supply the mines were much more extensive. Forest overexploitation was caused by the unreasonable extraction of ore, which reduced and depleted forest cover. The lifestyle of populations and the development of local industries were damaged by the pollution of land, forest or fish resources, or the construction of gigantic hydraulic installations to facilitate the floating of wood. The archaeological research results and paleo-environmental studies mobilised in this study testify to this alteration of the environment. Mining statutes were not compelling enough to moderate the ecological footprint of extraction. However, mining laws and scholarly writings, such as Agricola's De Re Metallica in 1556, show the awareness of authorities and scholars of the dangers of mining activities.

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Janes, Jackson, and Stephen Szabo. "Angela Merkel's Germany." Current History 106, no. 698 (March 1, 2007): 106–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/curh.2007.106.698.106.

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16

Parsons, R. M. "History of Technology Policy—Commercial Nuclear Power." Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice 121, no. 2 (April 1995): 85–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)1052-3928(1995)121:2(85).

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17

Knetsch, Thomas A. "Compilation of Commercial Property Price Indices for Germany Tailored for Policy Use." Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik 241, no. 4 (February 26, 2021): 437–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbnst-2019-0072.

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Abstract The compilation of commercial property price indices (CPPIs) is challenging. Policymakers urge for timely, reliable and comprehensive data. In Germany, lack of data prevents the calculation of official figures by the national statistical authority. Different applications of price indices need different definitions of commercial real estate. CPPIs according to these definitions are constructed on the basis of existing data for 127 German towns and cities (that cover about one-third of German population). The overall price developments revealed by the various indices are rather similar in terms of central time series characteristics, while differences in detail can be explained by their specific compositions. Price increases for all definitions have been strongest in the seven largest cities. The definitions tend to lead to more marked differences for medium-sized towns.

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18

Vogl, Thomas. "French Influences on Germany’s Commercial Courts in the Nineteenth Century." Tijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschiedenis 88, no. 3-4 (December 23, 2020): 469–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718190-00880a19.

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Summary The present contribution explores the extent of influence which French law had on the development of Germany’s commercial courts in the nineteenth century. Modern literature describes this influence as marginal, yet without further proof. The author takes this state of research as a starting point to compare the Napoleonic legislation on commercial courts with the German commercial court systems of the nineteenth century. However, the present contribution will start with an overview of the German legal situation at the end of the eighteenth century. This is followed by an examination of whether French law was transferred to Germany during the French occupation of large parts of Germany at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Against this background it is possible to fully analyse the influence which French law had on the further development of German commercial courts.

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19

Usborne, C. "Fertility Control and Population Policy in Germany, 1910-28." German History 8, no. 2 (June 1, 1990): 199–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026635549000800205.

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Usborne, C. "Fertility Control and Population Policy in Germany, 1910-28." German History 8, no. 2 (April 1, 1990): 199–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gh/8.2.199.

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21

Sharp, James Roger, and Doron S. Ben-Atar. "The Origins of Jeffersonian Commercial Policy and Diplomacy." Journal of Southern History 60, no. 4 (November 1994): 787. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2211078.

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22

Hartenian, Larry. "The Role of Media in Democratizing Germany: United States Occupation Policy 1945–1949." Central European History 20, no. 2 (June 1987): 145–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900012589.

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The Allied defeat of the German Wehrmacht in May 1945 brought the military struggle against fascism in Europe to an end. Yet with the occupation of Germany the struggle against fascism was to continue on other fronts. Germany was to be “demilitarized,” the economy “decartelized,” and the society “denazified. ” Ultimately Germany was to be “democratized.” The newly established media were to play a major role in the transformation of German attitudes, in this attempt to “reeducate” the Germans.

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23

Perleth, Matthias, Bernhard Gibis, and Britta Göhlen. "A short history of health technology assessment in Germany." International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care 25, S1 (July 2009): 112–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266462309090515.

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Objectives: To provide an overview of the development of health technology assessment (HTA) in Germany since the 1990s.Methods: Analysis of key documents (e.g. literature, laws, and other official documentation) and personal experiences.Results: Health technology assessment (HTA) entered the political agenda in Germany only in the mid-1990s, basically as the result of a top-down approach toward more efficiency in health care, but with a strong impetus of an evidence-based medicine movement. Accordingly, HTA became part of several healthcare reform laws since 1997, which led to the establishment of the Federal Joint Committee (G-BA) and the Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG) in 2004. This tandem construction aims at using evidence in decision-making processes for coverage and other decisions.Conclusions: These developments have led to a considerable impact of HTA in Germany. In addition, a broad spectrum of activities at universities and in other organizations, such as the German Institute for Medical Documentation and Information (DIMDI), can be observed that contribute to both teaching and research in HTA. German researchers in the field of HTA are actively involved in international projects, such as EUNetHTA, and contribute to scientific conferences and journals.

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24

Jonas, Manfred, and Hermann-Josef Rupieper. "The Occupied Ally: The American Germany Policy, 1949-1955." Journal of American History 81, no. 2 (September 1994): 801. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2081387.

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25

Janes, Jack. "The Ampel Coalition's Foreign Policy Challenges." German Politics and Society 40, no. 4 (December 1, 2022): 104–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/gps.2022.400405.

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Abstract German-American relations have been impacted by the war in Ukraine for reasons that have to do with domestic and foreign policy challenges. Germany is struggling with its responsibilities to increased expectations in Washington and within the European Union. The responses in Berlin to the Russian invasion of Ukraine have resulted in tensions within Europe as Germany tries to shape its policies around what Chancellor Olaf Scholz has called the Zeitenwende (turning point) of German foreign policy. The u.s. has also signaled its expectations that Germany needs to be a partner in sharing the burden of confronting Russian threats in Ukraine and Europe. Another challenge for German-American relations is emerging around relations with China, which may generate friction across the Atlantic as the United States seeks to confront China on the global stage while Germany remains tightly connected to China as its largest trade partner. How and why Germany and the United States need each other is in transition.

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26

Mommsen, Wolfgang J. "Public Opinion and Foreign Policy in Wilhelmian Germany, 1897–1914." Central European History 24, no. 4 (December 1991): 381–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900019221.

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The age of high imperialism was also the age of the emergence of mass journalism. This heralded a steady widening of what might be called the “political nation,” that is, those groups who took an active interest in politics in contrast to the mass of the population still largely outside the political arena. Up to the 1890s politics tended to be Honoratiorenpolitik—confined to “notables” or Honoratioren, a term first applied by Max Weber around the turn of the century to describe the elites who had dominated the political power structure up to that time. Gradually “public opinion” ceased to be, in effect, the opinion of the educated classes, that is, the classes dirigeantes. In Wilhelmian Germany the process of democratization had been successfully contained, if seen in terms of the constitutional system; the age of mass politics was still far away.

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27

Cohn, Raymond L. "Fiscal policy in Germany during the Great Depression." Explorations in Economic History 29, no. 3 (July 1992): 318–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4983(92)90041-t.

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Weeks, William Earl, and Doron S. Ben-Atar. "The Origins of Jeffersonian Commercial Policy and Diplomacy." Journal of American History 81, no. 1 (June 1994): 248. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2081036.

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Kundnani, Hans. "Germany Rethinks Its Role in the World." Current History 114, no. 770 (March 1, 2015): 115–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/curh.2015.114.770.115.

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30

Willis, F. Roy, and Wolfram F. Hanrieder. "Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy." American Historical Review 96, no. 3 (June 1991): 847. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2162467.

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KORDAS, Jerzy, and Andrzej KUDŁASZYK. "POLAND BETWEEN USSR (RUSSIA) AND FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY (GERMANY) IN THE FIRST STAGE OF TRANSFORMATION (1989-1992). SELECTED PROBLEMS." Scientific Journal of the Military University of Land Forces 160, no. 2 (April 1, 2011): 119–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0002.2971.

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The paper presents the first years of transformation in Polish policy referring to relations with USSR (Russia) and Federal Republic of Germany (Germany), after the year 1989.Radical reorientation of Polish foreign and commercial policy from east to west was described as well. The process was taking place smoothly not to disturb the course taken by Mikhail Gorbachev, which was supported by both Poland and the West. It rested on building bonds between Poland and Germany, which were introducing Poland to “stay for good” in the Western World. It was accompanied by building a brand new “security architecture” in Europe. It allowed to create in solely few years a foundation for durable presence of Poland in structures of the West for the first time within ages to such an extent.

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Perkins, Edwin J., and Doron S. Ben-Atar. "The Origins of Jeffersonian Commercial Policy and Diplomacy." American Historical Review 99, no. 4 (October 1994): 1387. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2168920.

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Lint, Gregg L., and Doron S. Ben-Atar. "The Origins of Jeffersonian Commercial Policy and Diplomacy." William and Mary Quarterly 51, no. 3 (July 1994): 592. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2947465.

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Rakestraw, Donald A., Jeffry M. Diefendorf, Axel Frohn, and Hermann-Josef Rupieper. "American Policy and the Reconstruction of West Germany, 1945-1955." Journal of American History 82, no. 1 (June 1995): 340. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2082127.

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35

Wippich, Rolf‐Harald. "Molding democrats: American reeducation policy in Germany and Japan." European Legacy 1, no. 2 (April 1996): 796–800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10848779608579485.

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36

Øksendal, Lars Fredrik. "Dividend policy in Norwegian banking before 1914." Financial History Review 18, no. 2 (February 18, 2011): 217–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0968565010000314.

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This article discusses the dividend strategy adopted by Norwegian commercial banks before 1914. Based on a unique data set covering all banks in the period 1882– 1913 as well as six other institutions for the pre-1882 period, I identify the existence of a strong bias towards the payment of high and stable dividends to shareholders. The origins of such bias lie in the specific institutional set-up of commercial banking, the expectations of shareholders and the absence of developed securities markets. Combined with a strong preference for high gearing, this feature contributed to increase the fragility of the Norwegian banking system.

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Kellogg, Frederick. "Reviews of Books:Romanian Policy towards Germany, 1936-40 Rebecca Haynes." American Historical Review 107, no. 1 (February 2002): 307–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/532270.

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Kosow, Hannah, Sandra Wassermann, Stephan Bartke, Paul Goede, Detlef Grimski, Ines Imbert, Till Jenssen, et al. "Addressing Goal Conflicts: New Policy Mixes for Commercial Land Use Management." Land 11, no. 6 (May 27, 2022): 795. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land11060795.

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Commercial land use management that focuses on a future-oriented urban and regional development must address multiple goals. Effective policy mixes need to simultaneously (1) improve city-regional and inter-municipal cooperation, (2) reduce land take, and (3) assure the long-term economic development of a region. Using the Northern Black Forest in Germany as a case study, we brought together planning and land use research with public policy analysis. We applied cross-impact balances (CIB) to build and analyze a participatory policy-interaction model. Together with a group of 12 experts, we selected effective individual measures to reach each of the three goals and analyzed their interactions. We then assessed the current policy mix and designed alternative policy mixes. The results demonstrate that current approaches to commercial land use management present internal contradictions and generate only little synergies. Implementing innovative measures on a stand-alone basis runs the risk of not being sufficiently effective. In particular, the current practice of competing for municipal marketing and planning of commercial sites has inhibiting effects. We identified alternative policy mixes that achieve all three goals, avoid trade-offs, and generate significant synergy effects. Our results point towards a more coherent and sustainable city-regional (commercial) land-use governance.

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Mouton, Michelle. "Rescuing Children and Policing Families: Adoption Policy in Weimar and Nazi Germany." Central European History 38, no. 4 (December 2005): 545–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156916105775563526.

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When the First World War ended, Germany experienced an unprecedented period of political revolution, economic turmoil, and social upheaval. Among the myriad problems facing the nation was one concern that cut across party lines and prompted attention at both the national and local levels. Lawmakers, doctors, clergy, and ordinary Germans across the political spectrum agreed that the breakdown of the family had weakened the nation, contributed to military defeat, worsened economic misery, and exacerbated societal conflict. High divorce and illegitimacy rates together with an alarmingly low birth rate created a picture of families in crisis. The belief was widespread that only by creating policies that strengthened families would Germany stand a chance of regaining its historical strength. Because both Weimar and National Socialist policymakers saw the family as essential to rejuvenating the battered nation, the interwar era witnessed a wide variety of family-directed policies. Social welfare, unemployment benefits, health insurance, and maternity benefits were just the beginning of a series of programs designed to strengthen Germany and support families. While state programs targeted many different groups within society, children stood out as especially worthy recipients. Policymakers in both the Weimar and National Socialist eras recognized that children, the most vulnerable members of society and the nation's future, required special attention.

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Jones, J. "Eradicating Nazism from the British Zone of Germany: Early Policy and Practice." German History 8, no. 2 (June 1, 1990): 145–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026635549000800202.

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Jones, J. "Eradicating Nazism from the British Zone of Germany: Early Policy and Practice." German History 8, no. 2 (April 1, 1990): 145–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gh/8.2.145.

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Ilcev, Dimov Stojce. "The development of maritime radar. Part 2: Since 1939." International Journal of Maritime History 32, no. 4 (November 2020): 1008–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0843871420977964.

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This research note outlines advances in the development of shipborne radar in Britain, Germany, the US and the Soviet Union. It focuses on the inventions and innovations in electronic and radars techniques for military and commercial applications on the eve of the Second World War, during the war and in the post-war period.

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Dunn, James A., and Anthony Perl. "Policy Networks and Industrial Revitalization: High Speed Rail Initiatives in France and Germany." Journal of Public Policy 14, no. 3 (July 1994): 311–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0143814x00007303.

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ABSTRACTUsing Atkinson and Coleman's typology of policy networks, this article shows how many of the differences in policy outcomes can be traced to the structure of the policy environment in each nation. French and Germany policy makers adopted a strategy of investing in high speed passenger transport to revitalize their declining railway sectors. The French TGV was developed in a state-directed policy network which insisted on cost containment and commercial viability. In Germany a corporatist style of policymaking in the rail sector led to delays and higher costs for the ICE train. A separate clientele pluralist network led by the Research Ministry developed the Transrapid maglev option, but in order to finance and deploy an operational system, the Chancellor and cabinet had to create a concertation network. The policy network approach provides a useful framework for conducting comparative analysis. In addition, these detailed cases suggest that it is useful to add a dynamic, cross-temporal dimension to the static typology.

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Lovett, A. W., Jeffrey M. Diefendorf, Axel Frohn, and Hermann-Josef Rupieper. "American Policy and the Reconstruction of West Germany, 1945-1955." Economic History Review 48, no. 2 (May 1995): 414. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2598429.

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45

Bendix, Daniel. "Decolonizing development education policy: The case of Germany." International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning 10, no. 2 (December 4, 2018): 147–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.18546/ijdegl.10.2.04.

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Germany has only recently started to discuss the possible contribution, on a conceptual basis, of post-colonial theory to development education. Drawing on key policy papers, this article explores how post-colonial and antiracist critiques of German development education have changed the field in the past decade. It first provides the history of development education in Germany and sketches the recent, decade-long debate on post-colonial perspectives in the field. The article then puts forward how development education policy deals with the topics of development, colonialism and demographics. While colonial legacies had been a topic for debate in earlier times, a decidedly post-colonial critique only entered the field about a decade ago and continues to serve as a point of tension.

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Kennedy, Ross A. "STRATEGIC CALCULATIONS IN WOODROW WILSON'S NEUTRALITY POLICY, 1914–1917." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 17, no. 4 (September 26, 2018): 608–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1537781418000269.

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This article analyzes Woodrow Wilson's view of the First World War's implications for U.S. national security and the way in which he related the balance of power between the belligerents at different points in time to his diplomatic objectives. It approaches this topic, which is a subject of much debate among historians, by comparing Wilson's view of the war from late 1914 to early 1915 with that of his secretary of state, William Jennings Bryan, and by examining how those perceptions shaped the response of the two leaders to the sinking of theLusitania. Bryan and Wilson both wanted the United States to stay out of the war, both wanted the United States to mediate an end to it, and both of them saw mediation as a doorway to reforming international politics. Unlike Bryan, however, Wilson saw Germany as a potential threat to the United States and paid close attention to the balance of power between the Allies and Central Powers; he specifically believed that the Allies were likely to win the war. These views led Wilson to reject Bryan's advice to de-escalate theLusitaniacrisis and to adopt a much more confrontational policy toward Germany, one of the most consequential decisions Wilson made in the neutrality period.

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Baird, Jay W., and Christa Kamenetsky. "Children's Literature in Hitler's Germany: The Cultural Policy of National Socialism." American Historical Review 90, no. 1 (February 1985): 168. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1860839.

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Leaman, Jeremy. "Economic notes: taxation and taxation policy in Germany since the wende." Debatte: Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe 3, no. 1 (January 1995): 143–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09651569508454505.

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DeGrand, Alexander, and MacGregor Knox. "Common Destiny: Dictatorship, Foreign Policy, and War in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany." Journal of Military History 65, no. 1 (January 2001): 226. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2677482.

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Jersak, Tobias. "A Matter of Foreign Policy: 'Final Solution' and 'Final Victory' in Nazi Germany." German History 21, no. 3 (August 1, 2003): 369–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/0266355403gh289oa.

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