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1
Callahan, Michael D. "NOMANSLAND: The British Colonial Office and the League of Nations Mandate for German East Africa, 1916–1920." Albion 25, no. 3 (1993): 443–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4050877.
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One of the many problems facing the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 was the future of the conquered German and Turkish territories in Africa, the Pacific, and the Middle East. Widespread anti-imperialist sentiment in Europe and the United States opposed direct annexation of the possessions, but wartime agreements and the security interests of the Allies prevented returning the conquered areas to their former rulers. In particular, many British leaders wanted to ensure that Germany could never again attempt world domination and were convinced that the restoration to Germany of its overseas possessions would pose a “grave political and military menace” to Britain's vital maritime connections with South Africa and India. After a long, often acrimonious debate, the Conference agreed on a compromise that placed the former German colonies and Ottoman provinces under the supervision of the League of Nations. This solution gave the Allies control of their acquisitions as “mandates” within a framework of international accountability. Great Britain received the most mandates, including Germany's largest colony of German East Africa. For the British leaders who had always advocated transforming German East Africa into a British colony, the new system seemed to make little practical difference. For the colonial officials in London and at the highest levels of colonial administration within the conquered possession, however, the mandates system presented serious problems and was not simply a disguise for annexation.
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Lindner, Ulrike. "The transfer of European social policy concepts to tropical Africa, 1900–50: the example of maternal and child welfare." Journal of Global History 9, no. 2 (May 23, 2014): 208–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1740022814000047.
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AbstractConcerns about a sinking birth rate and possible ‘national degeneration’ led to the implementation of various measures in maternal and child welfare across Europe at the dawn of the twentieth century. Infant health was strongly connected with the idea of population as both a national and imperial resource. In the colonies of the imperial powers, similar issues started to be addressed later, mostly after the First World War, when colonial administrations, who until then had predominantly worried about the health of the white European colonizers, started to take an interest in the health of the indigenous population. This article investigates the transfer of maternal and infant health policies from Britain and Germany to their tropical African colonies and protectorates. It argues that colonial health policy developed in a complex interplay between imperial strategies and preconceptions as well as local reactions and demands, mostly reifying racial demarcation lines in colonial societies. It focuses on examples from German East Africa, which became the British Tanganyika mandate after the First World War, and from the British sub-Saharan colonies Kenya and Nigeria.
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Sunseri, Thaddeus. "The Moravian, Berlin, and Leipzig Mission Archives in Eastern Germany." History in Africa 26 (January 1999): 457–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3172152.
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The reunification of the Germanies in 1990 has opened up research opportunities for historians of Africa. While research in East German archives was possible for Western scholars during the Cold War, conditions for research were not as easy or affordable as they currently are. Intent on obtaining foreign exchange, East German authorities channeled Western researchers to expensive hotels and limited the number of files a researcher could see in a day in order to prolong the process. Visas had to be obtained well in advance of research trips, and for prescribed durations, curtailing the flexibility one needed if archival materials proved to be especially rich. From the Western side, while the Federal Republic was generous in allocating funds for research in its archives (particularly through DAAD—German Academic Exchange Service—research grants), it prohibited use of those funds for research undertaken in East Germany. Today it is possible to use DAAD funds for travel and research throughout reunited Germany.While federal and state archives in eastern Germany offer valuable resources for researchers interested in the former German colonies, mission archives located in the East have not been widely used by historians of Africa. For the most part these have been content to use published mission histories and newspapers as their sources of information, neglecting diaries, station reports, and correspondence which offer more nuanced and detailed pictures of African life.
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Naranch, Bradley D. "“Colonized Body,” “Oriental Machine”: Debating Race, Railroads, and the Politics of Reconstruction in Germany and East Africa, 1906–1910." Central European History 33, no. 3 (September 2000): 299–338. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156916100746356.
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The years 1906–1910 were a period of crisis and unstable consensus in German colonial history. In contrast to the debates of the previous two decades following Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's 1884 decision to establish overseas protectorates, colonial discourse in Germany after 1905 shifted decisively away from abstract considerations of the desirability of colonies for economic and imperialist expansion to focus on the more practical matters of colonial policy and long-term developmental reform. Indeed, given the fact that by 1905 the German colonial empire covered a sprawling expanse of land six times the size of the German state, including territories in Africa, the South Pacific, and a naval base (Tsingtao) on the coast of China, the enormous challenges of managing its far-flung and costly possessions were becoming increasingly difficult to meet. For better or for worse, the Kaiserreich had become a de facto colonial power, and German society was increasingly and uncomfortably being forced to recognize the hazards and burdens of its fledgling global empire.
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SÁNCHEZ, J. M., A. MUNOZ DEL VIEJO, C. CORBACHO, E. COSTILLO, and C. FUENTES. "Status and trends of Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica in Europe and Africa." Bird Conservation International 14, no. 4 (November 25, 2004): 335–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s095927090400036x.
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Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica is classed as Endangered in Europe (Tucker and Heath 1994, Hagemeijer and Blair, 1997), but there have been no detailed studies of the trends in the different populations occurring in Europe and Africa. Here we study the status and trends of the species in Europe and north and north-east Africa. We estimate the total population at 10,500–12,900 breeding pairs, and recognize two biogeographical populations in this region. The western population, comprising colonies in northern Europe (Denmark, Netherlands, Germany), France, Italy, Spain, and north and north-east Africa, consists of at most 6,200 pairs, 1,800 of which are in African colonies. The eastern population, comprising colonies in the Balkan Peninsula, Greece, shores of the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, and Turkey, consists of at most 6,800 pairs. Two trends were observed: a first phase from 1900 up to the mid-1970s in which the northern European populations practically disappeared; and a second phase of stabilization, or even increase, in some of the western colonies, while the eastern population continued to decline. There is a marked concentration of the species in just a few localities in the countries of the Mediterranean basin.
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Karugila, J. M. "German records in Tanzania." African Research & Documentation 50 (1989): 12–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305862x00010189.
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German East Africa the largest of the former German colonies had a rather interesting history of care, control and preservation of public records. The aim of this paper is firstly to trace in brief the history of German colonisation in East Africa, as a background to a better understanding of the registry practices and records keeping procedures of the government of German East Africa. Secondly, the paper is intended to relate what has happened to the records of the German era after the colony became a mandate under the British Administration and after the attainment of independence.Germany's efforts to found colonies in East Africa can be traced as far back as 1884. In September of that year, Dr. Carl Peters, one of the founders of the German Colonization Society (Gesellschaft fuer deutsche Kolonisation) and his friends, set out on a voyage to East Africa to look for colonies.
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Karugila, J. M. "German records in Tanzania." African Research & Documentation 50 (1989): 12–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305862x00010189.
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German East Africa the largest of the former German colonies had a rather interesting history of care, control and preservation of public records. The aim of this paper is firstly to trace in brief the history of German colonisation in East Africa, as a background to a better understanding of the registry practices and records keeping procedures of the government of German East Africa. Secondly, the paper is intended to relate what has happened to the records of the German era after the colony became a mandate under the British Administration and after the attainment of independence.Germany's efforts to found colonies in East Africa can be traced as far back as 1884. In September of that year, Dr. Carl Peters, one of the founders of the German Colonization Society (Gesellschaft fuer deutsche Kolonisation) and his friends, set out on a voyage to East Africa to look for colonies.
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Hyslop, Jonathan. "The Kaiser's lost African empire and the Alternative für Deutschland: Colonial guilt-denial and authoritarian populism in Germany." Historia 66, no. 2 (November 1, 2021): 1–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2309-8392/2021/v66n2a5.
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This article examines the role which the "imaginary" of the empire that Germany lost in 1919 plays in the contemporary German extreme right, and especially its leading expression, the Alternative für Deutschland (AfD). It focuses on the symbolic importance of the former colonies in South West Africa / Namibia and East Africa / Tanzania and of the less emotionally charged, although also significant, German 'informal empire' connections to South Africa. The article highlights that the AfD draws on a considerable legacy of political activism concerning Africa stretching back through the colonial revanchist nationalism of the Weimar era, the global network of the Nazi Party's "Foreign Organisation", and the post-war populism of Franz Josef Strauß. AfD ideologues glorify the achievements of the Kaiserreich, and emphasise that Germany has nothing to be ashamed of, in relation to its record in the colonial era. With the recent demands from Namibia for the payment of German reparations for the 1904-7 genocide in that country, this past has become a very live issue in German politics, and the AfD has made much of its opposition to any admission of German culpability. The article also shows how the AfD portrays itself as the defender of the German minority in Namibia and of white South Africans, whose position is represented as a warning of what happens when white people allow racial "others" to attain political power. The analysis seeks to avoid simple "culturalist" /historicist explanations of the presence of these issues in contemporary politics, embedding its account in the continuities of significant social, economic and strategic relationships between southern Africa and Germany.
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Büttner, Thea. "The Development of African Historical Studies in East Germany; An Outline And Selected Bibliography." History in Africa 19 (1992): 133–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3171997.
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My main concern in this paper is to throw some light on the scope of the problem from the view of the development of African historical studies in East Germany after World War II. It is necessary first to discuss some negative and positive sides of German historical African studies before 1945. For several decades German research has demonstrated a startling lack of interest in the research problems of African history. In connection with the colonial conquests of the European powers, special institutes grew in social anthropology, colonial economics, and geography, although the historical development of the peoples of Africa was ignored. As an outward appearance of this development there grew in several German universities, departments for Oriental languages e.g., at the University of Berlin on the direct instruction of Bismarck, and in 1908 the Colonial Institute at Hamburg University.Leading German historians and Africanists of the past demonstrated their theoretical ignorance in relation to African history. They proceeded from the definition of Leopold von Ranke, who classed the African peoples with the “non-history possessing” peoples who have made no contribution to world culture. G. W. F. Hegel uttered only fatalistic and stereotyped ideas—for him Africa was “no historical part of the World, it has no movement or development to exhibit.” These fundamental conceptions penetrated in one degree or another, the majority of publications on Africa up to 1945. Even Dietrich Westerman, one of the best known Africanists, who published one major book on African history in the German language, Geschichte Afrikas, in 1952 made his studies in the old tradition of seeing sub-Saharan Africa predominantly from the European point of view and continuing the image of an African peoples' history that was not accomplished by the world moulding civilized mankind and has not contributed its share to it. In short, the theoretical foundation of colonialism was rooted in German research in a deep racialist ideology. Only a few explorers and scientists swam against the tide.
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Sunseri, Thaddeus. "The Baumwollfrage: Cotton Colonialism in German East Africa." Central European History 34, no. 1 (March 2001): 31–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156916101750149121.
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In March 1907, as newly-appointed Colonial Minister Bernhard Dernburg prepared to visit German East Africa to assess the colony's potential for economic development following the recent Maji Maji rebellion, requests poured in from businessmen seeking to accompany the minister. Prominent among the select few allowed on the trip were representatives of the German textile industry interested in founding cotton plantations in the colony. Among those participants was Gustav Hertle, director of the Leipzig Cotton Spinnery, the largest cotton spinner in Germany, who had long expressed interest in colonial cotton production. Following the trip the Leipzig Spinnery went on to acquire land in German East Africa, where it founded one of the biggest cotton plantations in the colony. Other textile industrialists who accompanied Dernburg also established cotton plantations in East Africa.
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Kettler, Mark T. "What did Paul Rohrbach Actually Learn in Africa? The Influence of Colonial Experience on a Publicist’s Imperial Fantasies in Eastern Europe*." German History 38, no. 2 (March 10, 2020): 240–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerhis/ghaa013.
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Abstract Paul Rohrbach was an influential publicist in Wilhelmine Germany. He also routinely used racial justifications to defend brutal policies for managing the indigenous populations of Germany’s African colonies. In recent years, scholars have interpreted Rohrbach’s promotion of colonialism as evidence that colonial ideas increasingly saturated German political and imperial discourse before and during the First World War. His work has thus been cited to support an emerging narrative of pathological continuity, which contends that Wilhelmine German imperialists reflexively drew upon colonial ideologies, experiences and models to inform increasingly repressive and violent plans to rule ethnically diverse space in Eastern Europe. This article argues that Paul Rohrbach has been misinterpreted. His career represents not the ease with which colonial ideas infiltrated German imperial discourse, but rather the severe reluctance of an ardent colonialist to employ colonial methods in European space. Drawing upon his writings on Africa and his discussions of German war aims in Eastern Europe during the First World War, this article demonstrates Rohrbach’s profound unwillingness to structure German imperial expansion in Russia’s Baltic provinces and Congress Poland according to colonial precedents. Differences in the perceived cultural and political sophistication of African, Baltic and Polish societies convinced Rohrbach that repressive and brutal colonial models of rule would be inefficient or counterproductive for achieving German objectives in Eastern Europe. Indeed, Rohrbach’s studies of colonialism actually reinforced his commitment to decentralization and respect for national diversity as essential instruments for governing politically sophisticated European societies. His experiences in Africa, in other words, steeled his confidence in multinational imperialism.
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Lyall, Andrew. "Traditional Contracts in German East Africa: The Transition from Pre-Capitalist Forms." Journal of African Law 30, no. 2 (1986): 91–129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021855300006513.
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The material which forms the subject matter of this article constituted a chapter of a PhD thesis presented to London University in 1980. The thesis was based largely on the answers to Kohler's questionnaire which was distributed by the German colonial authorities throughout what was then German East Africa in 1909. A recent article in theJournal of African Lawdescribes these questionnaires in detail. Bibliographical references in the following text to the answers to the questionnaires follow the numbers assigned to them by Ankermann (1929) and used in the list in Redmayne and Rogers' article. Some answers were published at the time and these are referred to in the same way as normal bibliographical entries Some use has also been made of Post's earlier questionnaire which, together with the answers, was published under the editorship of Steinmetz (1903). Post's questionnaire was written in 1895 and distributed throughout the German colonies. The thesis dealt with land tenure and contract and so covered the field of the answers in the questionnaires dealing with those topics. It also set out a typology of African societies at the time the questionnaires were distributed, based on what could be discovered of their economic and social relations. As it turned out this typology proved rather more useful in establishing connections between economic relations and forms of land tenure than it was in establishing connections with such relations and contractual liability.
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GÜZAY, Aybüke. "GERMAN TRACES İN THE CAUCASUS AZERBAİJAN GERMANS." Zeitschrift für die Welt der Türken / Journal of World of Turks 14, no. 1 (April 15, 2022): 199–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.46291/zfwt/140116.
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In the 18th century, Germany also participated in the competition between the European States that started colonization activities and did not want to lag behind other states on the way to complete their union. Germany, which has existed as independent statelets since the 1800s, wanted to have a say in Africa, the Middle East and the Caucasus geographies after establishing its union in 1871. Although the immigration policy of the German colonists started to work after this date, it is seen that the colonization activities in the Caucasus geography took place in previous dates and in a different way. The turning point regarding the German migrations to Russia is the Russian Tsarina II. It is in the time of Catherine. Tsarina II, who is of German origin. After Katherina came to the throne of Russia (1762), she wanted settlers from Germany to migrate to Russia. Its purpose is the agricultural development of the Russian lands. II. Upon Katherina’s call, the Germans began to migrate to Russia and the Caucasus. The first German immigration to Azerbaijan took place in 1818. The Germans first established the villages called “Helenendorf” (Göygöl) and “Annenfeld” (Şamkir) in the territory of Azerbaijan. Later on, 6 more villages were established, namely Grünfeld (Vurguna), Traubenfeld (Tovuz), Jelisawetinka (Agstafa), Georgsfeld (Çınarlı), Alexejewka (Gasamba) and Eigenfeld (Irmaşlı). Thus, 8 villages were built in Azerbaijan by the Germans. It is known that the German population living in these villages and also present in Baku contributes to the economy of Azerbaijan and the development of the country in terms of architecture. From the dates they migrated II. Until the World War II, they had no trouble living and reflecting their own culture in Azerbaijan, but at the same time, they managed to convey their experiences with great skill. II. The fact that Germany was at war with Russia during World War II created a trust problem against the German population in Russia and the majority of the German population was immigrated to Siberia and Kazakhstan by Stalin. In this study, the living conditions and livelihoods of the German settlers in Azerbaijan will be mentioned, and their contributions to the region in architecture and other economic fields will be examined. Keywords: Azerbaijan, German Traces in the Caucasus, German colonies, Helenendorf, Annenfeld.
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Ludwig, Jörg. "New Sources for German Colonial History in Dresden." History in Africa 27 (January 2000): 479–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3172129.
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The Central state Archive in Dresden has recently acquired new archival material relating to Africa. Although of modest proportions, this material would certainly be of interest for specialized studies. It consists of two parts: records of the firm Hermann Schubert, and the papers of the German colonial politician Oskar Wilhelmn Stübel.Hermann Schubert's firm was established in 1862 as a small textile factory in Zittau. It grew rapidly and in the first third of the twentieth century assumed a leading role in the world market for sewing thread. In 1907, in collaboration with the colonial authorities of the German Reich, it established a cotton plantation in the Rufiji District of German East Africa (today southern Tanzania) known as Schuberthof. Partly due to a lack of experience in growing cotton, the plantation sustained considerable losses and was abandoned after World War I.Records concerning Schuberthof form part of the papers of the firm Hermann Schubert/VEB Textilwerke Zittau. They are of a fragmentary nature; all that has survived are reports of the plantation to the firm's headquarters for 1909, and documents relating to a visit of the firm's head to German East Africa in 1907. The latter includes travel notes, reports on conversations with Walter Rathenau and the secretary of State for Colonies, as well as glass plates with snapshots of a tourist nature.Oskar Wilhelm Stübel was born in Dresden in 1846. He studied at the universities of Leipzig, Berlin, and Heidelberg, obtained his doctorate in Leipzig, and entered the Saxon civil service.
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Njenga Karugia, John. "The Indian Ocean as a Memory Space." Matatu 52, no. 1 (November 22, 2021): 209–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18757421-05201013.
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Abstract This conversation with the author Neera Kapur-Dromson took place in Nairobi, Kenya, on 9th March 2018 during filming of the documentary film ‘Afrasian Memories in East Africa’ in which Neera Kapur-Dromson features. Neera Kapur-Dromson lives in France and Kenya. She is the author of the book ‘From Jhelum to Tana’. Here, Neera-Kapur Dromson reflects upon transregional interactions across the Indian Ocean as a memory space through life histories of various generations of her ancestors, various actors within the cosmopolitanisms of the Indian Ocean and her own experiences. She discusses how specific Indian Ocean societies experienced, were shaped by and negotiated multiple transformations related but not limited to nation-state politics, transoceanic trade, citizenship politics, colonial railway projects, identity politics, religion and transculturality as migrations, colonialism, and resultant interactions occurred across time and space. Her discussion visualises and demystifies the emergence of entangled Afrasian transregional spaces within the complexity of cosmopolitan societies across the Indian Ocean. The film was part of an international research project at Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany, titled Africa’s Asian Options (AFRASO). It was launched during an AFRASO symposium titled “Afrasian Entanglements: Current Dynamics and Future Perspectives in India-Africa Relations” at the University of Mumbai in June 2018.
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Moyd, Michelle. "Making the Household, Making the State: Colonial Military Communities and Labor in German East Africa." International Labor and Working-Class History 80, no. 1 (2011): 53–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s014754791100007x.
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AbstractThis essay uses German East Africa as a historical example to illustrate some of the complex interrelationships between colonial labor and military practices. Analysis of African soldiers' roles in colonial labor regimes underscores the degree to which colonial militaries, labor, and punitive structures reinforced each other on a daily basis. Colonial states depended on their African soldiers, and the free and unfree laborers they recruited, conscripted, and supervised, for preservation of the German colonial state's political authority and economic viability. Moreover, these military labor practices tied soldiers' households to colonial state interests, laying the basis for new colonial cultures and campaign communities.
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Krobb, Florian. "Retrospective and futuristic idealization: Defining German coloniality after the loss of empire." Journal of European Studies 47, no. 2 (April 6, 2017): 142–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0047244117700072.
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The article discusses two very different examples of German post-imperial writing as manifestations of a colonialist imaginary that was both retrospective / nostalgic and futuristic / aspirational. They serve to illustrate how colonialist discourse after 1918 shaped attitudes towards colonial space in ways that survived the next historical caesura, that of 1945. Some of the animal stories from former German East Africa assembled in Rudolf Sendke’s book of reminiscences (1925) enact an idealized benevolent and respectful, yet determined and capable role of Germans in unruly and dangerous colonial space, while Adolf Kaempffer, 15 years later, devises a vision of the perfect National Socialist society based on social engineering and racial segregation to be created in an imaginary regained German South-West Africa.
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Kettler, Mark T. "Designing Empire for the Civilized East: Colonialism, Polish Nationhood, and German War Aims in the First World War." Nationalities Papers 47, no. 6 (May 27, 2019): 936–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/nps.2018.49.
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AbstractThis article critically reexamines how Germans understood Polish national identity during World War I, and how their perceptions affected German proposals for ruling Polish territory. Recent historiography has emphasized the impact of colonial ideologies and experiences on Germans’ imperial ambitions in Poland. It has portrayed Germans as viewing Poland through a colonial lens, or favoring colonial methods to rule over Polish space. Using the wartime publications of prominent left liberal, Catholic, and conservative thinkers, this article demonstrates that many influential Germans, even those who supported colonialism in Africa, considered Poland to be a civilized nation for which colonial strategies of rule would be wholly inappropriate. These thinkers instead proposed multinational strategies of imperialism in Poland, which relied on collaboration with Polish nationalists. Specifically, they argued that Berlin should establish an autonomous Polish state, and bind it in permanent military and political union with the German Empire. The perception of Poland as a civilized nation ultimately structured Germany’s occupation policy and objectives in Poland throughout the war, much more than stereotypes of Polish primitivity.
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Montgomery, Max. "Colonial Legacy of Gender Inequality: Christian Missionaries in German East Africa." Politics & Society 45, no. 2 (May 15, 2017): 225–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0032329217704432.
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Why does sub-Saharan Africa exhibit the highest rates of gender inequality in the world? This article evaluates the contributions of Christian missionary societies in German East Africa to current socioeconomic gender inequalities in Tanzania. Previous studies ascribe a comparatively benign long-term effect of missionary societies, in particular of the Protestant denomination, on economic, developmental, and political outcomes. This article contrasts that perception by focusing on the wider cultural impact of the civilizing mission in colonial Africa. The analysis rests on a novel georeferenced dataset on German East Africa—based on digitized colonial maps and extensive historical records available in the German colonial archives—and the most recently available DHS-surveys. The results highlight the formative role of Catholic missionary societies in German East Africa in shaping gender inequalities currently witnessed in Tanzania.
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Krautwald, Fabian. "THE BEARERS OF NEWS: PRINT AND POWER IN GERMAN EAST AFRICA." Journal of African History 62, no. 1 (March 2021): 5–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853721000049.
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AbstractHistorians have drawn on newspapers to illuminate the origins of modern nationalism and cultures of literacy. The case of Kiongozi (The Guide or The Leader) relates this scholarship to Tanzania's colonial past. Published between 1904 and 1916 by the government of what was then German East Africa, the paper played an ambivalent role. On the one hand, by promoting the shift from Swahili written in Arabic script (ajami) to Latinized Swahili, it became the mouthpiece of an African elite trained in government schools. By reading and writing for Kiongozi, these waletaji wa habari (bearers of news) spread Swahili inland and transformed coastal culture. On the other hand, the paper served the power of the colonial state by mediating between German colonizers and their indigenous subordinates. Beyond cooptation, Kiongozi highlights the warped nature of African voices in the colonial archive, questioning claims about print's impact on nationalism and new forms of selfhood.
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Vellut, Jean-Luc. "Diana Miryong Natermann, Pursuing Whiteness in the Colonies. Private Memories from the Congo Free State and German East Africa (1884–1914). (Historische Belgienforschung, Bd. 3.) Münster, Waxmann 2018." Historische Zeitschrift 309, no. 2 (October 5, 2019): 519–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hzhz-2019-1410.
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Pesek, Michael. "The War of Legs." Transfers 5, no. 2 (June 1, 2015): 102–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/trans.2015.050207.
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This article describes the little-known history of military labor and transport during the East African campaign of World War I. Based on sources from German, Belgian, and British archives and publications, it considers the issue of military transport and supply in the thick of war. Traditional histories of World War I tend to be those of battles, but what follows is a history of roads and footpaths. More than a million Africans served as porters for the troops. Many paid with their lives. The organization of military labor was a huge task for the colonial and military bureaucracies for which they were hardly prepared. However, the need to organize military transport eventually initiated a process of modernization of the colonial state in the Belgian Congo and British East Africa. This process was not without backlash or failure. The Germans lost their well-developed military transport infrastructure during the Allied offensive of 1916. The British and Belgians went to war with the question of transport unresolved. They were unable to recruit enough Africans for military labor, a situation made worse by failures in the supplies by porters of food and medical care. One of the main factors that contributed to the success of German forces was the Allies' failure in the “war of legs.”
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Larson, Lorne. "Conversations along the Mbwemkuru: Foreign Itinerants and Local Agents in German East Africa." Itinerario 46, no. 1 (January 25, 2022): 62–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s016511532100036x.
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The underlying theme of this essay is how intelligence was gathered and expertise dispersed in an emerging colonial environment in Africa, and how that knowledge was captured, credited and distributed between local Africans and (largely) itinerant Europeans. It sets that discussion within a more recent debate on the mechanics of European exploration during the wider nineteenth century. The expanded population of Europeans (officials, merchants, missionaries) that arrived in the later part of that century to consolidate the colonial enterprise in German East Africa often moved with initial uncertainty through the landscape, triggering a demand for topographical knowledge to become commodified and commercialised, to become less dependent on the knowledge of individuals. This demand fuelled the production of an innovative series of standardised grid maps. At a time when slavery was still legal, when the local workforce was increasingly discussed in colonial circles in terms of unskilled plantation labour, our essay explores two case studies that demonstrate how certain African experts came to exert key technical and management influence within long-term scientific and commercial projects unfolding in the southeast corner of what is today Tanzania. The matter of water flows through this essay, and does so with deliberate intent.
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Pesek, Michael. "Cued Speeches: the Emergence of Shauri as Colonial Praxis in German East Africa, 1850–1903." History in Africa 33 (2006): 395–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hia.2006.0020.
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In 1891 the German explorer Theodor Bumiller wrote an angry letter from the shores of Lake Nyassa (modern Lake Malawi) to the Committee of the German Anti Slavery Lottery, the financiers of his expedition. The goal of the expedition was to bring a steamship onto the lake to fight alleged slave hunters. The initiator and leader of the expedition was no less a person than Hermann von Wissmann, then the empire's most popular explorer and conqueror and first Governor of German East Africa. Bumiller had been Wissmann's long-standing friend and companion on several expeditions. Since the very first days, there had been disputes over the equipping and organization of the expedition. In all previous letters that Wissmann and Bumiller had written to the committee, they had responded to reproaches of throwing the lottery's money around by arguing that Africa is not Europe and there were many eventualities with which nobody was able to reckon, if being on an expedition.However, a member of the expedition, a certain Captain Max Praeger, whose duty was to navigate the steamer on the lake, had sent a report, in which he had sharply criticized both Wissmann and Bumiller. Bumiller answered with the argument that Praeger was not in a position to give an expert opinion on the expedition, because he was not a true Afrikaner, a person who has gained first-hand experiences of the African continent and its people. Praeger, Bumiller sneered, was only sitting on the steamer's deck and thus having no contact with Africans. To Bumiller, what qualified an Afrikaner as expert on Africa were eye-to-eye encounters with African people.
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Gromova, Nelli V. "Saba Saba - World Swahili Day." Asia and Africa Today, no. 11 (2022): 73. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s032150750022933-8.
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Since 2022, according to the unanimous decision of UNESCO, July 7 is celebrated in the world as the International Swahili Language Day. The article deals with a brief history of the Swahili language and its formation as a language of interethnic communication in the 19th century. In German East Africa, from the end of the 19th century, the Swahili language was officially used by the colonial administration to communicate with local officials. Until the middle of the 20th century, the English colonial administration also resorted to the Swahili language to carry out its colonial policy. In 1930, the East African Inter-Territorial Language Committee (Swahili) was created, the purpose of which was to normalize the Swahili language and enrich it terminologically. In the 1930s, Soviet linguists began to study the Swahili language, and in 1934 the teaching of Swahili began at the Leningrad State University. The rapid development of the Swahili language is manifested after the independence of the East Africa countries. Much credit for its development belongs to the Institute for Swahili Studies at the University of Dar es Salaam and the National Swahili Councils in East Africa. Public organizations for the promotion of the Swahili language in various states of Africa and beyond carry out their activities in coordination with academic institutions. Events on the occasion of the celebration of Swahili Day were held in many countries of the world, including Russia.
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FEDOROWICH, KENT. "GERMAN ESPIONAGE AND BRITISH COUNTER-INTELLIGENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA AND MOZAMBIQUE, 1939–1944." Historical Journal 48, no. 1 (March 2005): 209–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x04004273.
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For most of the Second World War, German and Italian agents were actively engaged in a variety of intelligence gathering exercises in southern Africa. The hub of this activity was Lourenço Marques, the colonial capital of Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique). One of the key tasks of Axis agents was to make links with Nazi sympathizers and the radical right in South Africa, promote dissent, and destabilize the imperial war effort in the dominion. Using British, American, and South African archival sources, this article outlines German espionage activities and British counter-intelligence operations orchestrated by MI5, MI6, and the Special Operations Executive between 1939 and 1944. The article, which is part of a larger study, examines three broad themes. First, it explores Pretoria's creation of a humble military intelligence apparatus in wartime South Africa. Secondly, it examines the establishment of several British liaison and intelligence-gathering agencies that operated in southern Africa for most of the war. Finally, it assesses the working relationship between the South African and British agencies, the tensions that arose, and the competing interests that emerged between the two allies as they sought to contain the Axis-inspired threat from within.
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SUNSERI, THADDEUS. "FAMINE AND WILD PIGS: GENDER STRUGGLES AND THE OUTBREAK OF THE MAJIMAJI WAR IN UZARAMO (TANZANIA)." Journal of African History 38, no. 2 (July 1997): 235–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853796006937.
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Late in 1907 a missionary from Kisserawe in German East Africa complained of a spate of ngoma ritual dances among the Zaramo people. In particular he singled out an ngoma conducted by women to ameliorate a drought that was threatening that year's maize crop. As the women danced around a well, dressed as men and brandishing muskets, they appealed for rain from ‘their god’. Several aspects of this ngoma make it remarkable. It occurred following the Majimaji uprising in German East Africa, which the Germans put down with such violence as to make war as a tactic of resistance unpopular if not untenable. The ngoma was attended by Christian and non-Christian African women alike, suggesting a purpose whose expediency cut across competing belief systems. Finally, although cross-dressing was an aspect of certain Zaramo rituals, the symbolic appropriation of men's social roles by dress and wielding of weapons made this ngoma anomalous and suggests that the participants were consciously and purposefully reshaping gender roles at this time. The timing and symbolism of the ngoma make it clear that it was a reaction to the threat of famine, which had become a recurrent aspect of Zaramo life by 1907 and a symptom of ongoing rural social change ushered in by colonial rule. The larger question is whether changing perceptions of gender roles intersected with the Majimaji war (1905–7), and whether Majimaji had an underlying meaning for rural Tanzanian societies that has escaped the attention of historians. If so, it suggests that the prevailing conception of Majimaji needs to be questioned and re-examined.
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Lusambili Muchanga, Kizito. "The Ecology and Economic Practices of the Isukha and Idakho Communities in Colonial Period 1895-1963." Athens Journal of History 9, no. 1 (December 19, 2022): 95–124. http://dx.doi.org/10.30958/ajhis.9-1-4.
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The penetration of colonialism in Isukha and Idakho can best be understood within the general framework of the global imperialism of the nineteenth century, with Europe being the hub of global imperialism where the imperialists were motivated by economic, humanitarian and strategic factors. After the 1886 and 1890 Anglo-German treaties at Berlin's conference, East Africa was divided between the British and the Germans. British East Africa (Kenya and Uganda) was under the control of the Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEACo). In 1894, Uganda was declared a protectorate and its sphere included the Baluyia. This same year, protectorate officials were sent to Mumias, which was by then a traders' entry-point on the road to Uganda. This paper analyses the ecology and economic environment of the Bisukha and Bidakho of the Luyia community during the colonial epoch. The paper took a qualitative approach to data collection, engaging participants in oral interviews and focused group discussions on understanding the two community practices. In what is termed an ethnographic approach, the author finds that the natives lost control of resources that were crucial in the proper management of their environments and the practice of various economic activities. This paper, therefore, finds that Land as a natural resource was alienated with forests being gazetted and animals confiscated to feed the soldiers of World Wars I and II.
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Naz, Hina, Tania Shabir Shaikh, and Muhammad Arfan Lodhi. "THE COLONIZED EAST-AFRICA: A POSTCOLONIAL ANALYSIS OF ABDULRAZAK GURNAH’S AFTERLIVES IN LIGHT OF FRANTZ FANON." Pakistan Journal of Social Research 04, no. 04 (December 31, 2022): 549–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.52567/pjsr.v4i04.839.
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As of now German colonial presence on the African continent and East-Africa’s campaign during WWI and WWII is little presented in history as well as in literature particularly novels. This present study aims to fill this gap by examining Abdul Razak Gurnah’s historical novel Afterlives (2020) in the light of Postcolonial critic Frantz Fanon’s The Wretch of the Earth (1961). Through textual analysis, the qualitative study intends to seek the ways colonialism (both German and British) influence East-Africa in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the perspective of WWI and WWII and aftermath of its destruction. Moreover, the study attempts to examine how Gurnah’s novel presents psychological effects of colonization on indigenous people who witnessed it and how violence and war contributed in the process of decolonization. The findings of the research shows that colonization as well as decolonization is a violentphenomenon in which both colonizers and colonized use violence as a tool to maintain or gain power. The native people, as described in aforementioned novel, strive to survive in inter and aftermath of war although their constant encounter with violence and identity crisis (degradation) led them towards severe psychological disturbance. The novel also presents the native people responses to such destruction and war through interconnected lives of its major characters Ilyas, Hamza and Afiya who represented pro and anti-German views of colonization and of war. The study concludes that determination of native African to survive through love and kindness are key factors which help them to retrieve their lost souls after cruel circumstances of colonial life, war and ruin. Keywords:Colonialization, Decolonization, Aftermath, Violence, WWI & II, Identity Crisis
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Kirey, Reginald E. "Burying, Unearthing and Archiving German Colonial Records in Tanganyika, 1914-1960s." Tanzania Zamani: A Journal of Historical Research and Writing 12, no. 2 (November 30, 2021): 141–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.56279/tza20211226.
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The article is about the intricacies involved in the handling of government records, with particular reference to German colonial records in Mainland Tanzania during and after the First World War. It provides an account of how the Germans hid their official records before departing from their East African colony upon defeat by the allied forces, and how the records were eventually uncovered and used by both the British colonial regime and the post-colonial administration. The author explains the manner in which official records were handled during and after the War in terms of cultural symbolism, which ultimately contributed to the shaping of state power, collective memory and national identity. This explanation leads to the author’s main argument; that besides the direct and practical functions they are intended to serve, archival records also function as cultural objects which eventually contribute to the shaping of collective memory and national identity.
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Schmidt, Heike Ingeborg. "Colonial Intimacy: The Rechenberg Scandal and Homosexuality in German East Africa." Journal of the History of Sexuality 17, no. 1 (2007): 25–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/sex.2008.0011.
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Pallaver, Karin. "The German Maps at the East Africana Collection, University Library of Dar Es Salaam." History in Africa 33 (2006): 495–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hia.2006.0019.
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The documents originated by the German colonial administration in German East Africa are located in two main archives: the Tanzania National Archives in Dar es Salaam, where they are identified under the name “German Records,” and the Bundesarchiv in Berlin, where they are collected under the classification R 1001. This note aims to provide some general information regarding a part of the German Records, referred to as “German Maps,” which is collected at the University Library of Dar es Salaam.The German Records are a part of the holdings of the Tanzania National Archives, which also include the records of the British administration and various documents of the post-independence period. The German Records are a very well-known source for the history of the German presence in East Africa and they can be divided in two main categories: the documents of the Central Administration, cataloged with the numbers G 1-G 65, and the Private Archives, with the classification G 66-G 86. These records are very well cataloged and easily accessible thanks to the work of archival reorganization done by Peter Geissler between 1967 and 1969. His work was published in 1973 in a two-volume guide with the title Das Deutsch-Ostafrika-Archiv: Inventar der Abteilung “German Records” in Nationalarchiv der vereinigten Republik Tansania, Dar es Salaam. This guide offers a very useful overview of the records of the German colonial administration and is available for consultation in the Reading Room of the Tanzania National Archives. Also available in the Reading Room is a manual catalog which, in some cases, could be helpful in finding some documents that, owing to print errors in the edited catalog, have become difficult to find.
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Pierskalla, Jan, Alexander De Juan, and Max Montgomery. "The Territorial Expansion of the Colonial State: Evidence from German East Africa 1890–1909." British Journal of Political Science 49, no. 2 (June 5, 2017): 711–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007123416000648.
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What explains states’ sub-national territorial reach? While large parts of the state-building literature have focused on national capabilities, little is known about the determinants of the unevenness of state presence at the sub-national level. This article seeks to fill this gap by looking at early attempts at state building: it investigates the processes of state penetration in the former colony of German East Africa. Contrary to previous studies – which largely emphasized antecedent or structural factors – the current study argues that geographical patterns of state penetration have been driven by the state’s strategic imperative to solidify control over territory and establish political stability. The article tests these propositions using an original, geo-referenced grid-cell dataset for the years 1890 to 1909 based on extensive historical records in German colonial yearbooks and maps.
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Haustein, Jörg. "Strategic tangles: Slavery, colonial policy, and religion in German East Africa, 1885–1918." Atlantic Studies 14, no. 4 (September 29, 2017): 497–518. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14788810.2017.1300753.
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Njenga, Frank. "Focus on psychiatry in East Africa." British Journal of Psychiatry 181, no. 4 (October 2002): 354–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.181.4.354.
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East Africa is made up of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, all previous colonies of the British Empire which attained their independence in the early 1960s. At the time of independence, the East African community held the three countries together. Political expedience broke up the community in 1977 but greater wisdom and economic reality have brought the three countries back together in December 2001, in the form of a common Legislative Assembly and Court of Appeal. A Customs Union is expected soon, ahead of full political integration.
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Banshchikova, Anastasia. "Bagamoyo Imperial and Actual: Representation of the First Capital of German East Africa in Colonial Postcards and in the Works of Walter Dobbertin." Uchenie zapiski Instituta Afriki RAN 59, no. 2 (June 30, 2022): 96–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.31132/2412-5717-2022-59-2-96-111.
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In recent decades, items of colonial photography, including those dedicated to German East Africa, have become the subject of research by historians and anthropologists. Many of the photographs eventually became postcards issued to introduce newly conquered territories to the citizens of the empire, to a lesser extent their population, culture and way of life, and to a greater extent those achievements (both real and imaginary) that the metropolis had brought. This included military stations, churches, missions, infrastructure (railways, train stations, lighthouses), askari troops recruited from local population, etc. On these postcards we can see various species of acacias and palm trees, numerous Araberstrasse and Kaiserstrasse streets, monuments to the emperor and chancellor, ships in the Dar es Salaam bay, “native beauty” and “native quarters”. On the one hand, postcards reflect what colonizers wanted to display before their homeland, on the other they reflect what this homeland itself wanted to see, e.g. images of exotic hot tropics, successes of German administrators and troops. Postcards, being selected in their very plots and created for the propaganda purposes, depict German East Africa strictly deliberately and strictly as a colony. Bagamoyo served as this colony’s capital for about two years. On postcards depicting the town we see the quintessence of the German military and administrative presence: this is tangible both in the choice of depicted objects (fort, boma, Wissmann’s monument in memory of soldiers who died during the suppression of the coastal uprising, meeting place of the colonial administration, etc.) and the frequency of these choices. Images of local residents on postcards are marginal, the “black quarter” is opposed to new European buildings, and the elements of the Arab-Swahili cultural component of Bagamoyo are not represented at all. On the contrary, photography of Walter Dobbertin allows to have a look at Bagamoyo in the end of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th centuries in a much more complete and complicated way. He took photos of inhabitants of Bagamoyo with clear accent and opened vision – women, children, Arabs, Muslims in kanzu and kofias, without censoring either the phenotype or the cultural components of Islamic religion (mosque, Muslim cemetery, tea houses). It’s fascinating, because negative attitude toward Arabs and Islam is stressed throughout many German colonial narratives written by military and civil officers. The Arabs as “the first colonizers of the region”, i.e. predecessors of Germans themselves, almost never appear on the postcards, as well as Islam-associated objects like mosques or Muslim cemeteries. The article is concerned with this difference between postcards and photographs of Bagamoyo as the latter reveal what had been blind spots of official representation of colony’s first capital and give very personal and much more sincere vision offered by talented photographer Walter Dobbertin.
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Banschikova, Anastasia. "Visual Colonization: Scenes, Objects, and Main Content of Postcards from German East Africa." ISTORIYA 12, no. 12-1 (110) (2021): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840014801-0.
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The paper deals with colonial representation of German East Africa in postcards, issued for exposure of conquered territories to the empire’s metropolis population. To the lesser degree they present peoples of distant land, their culture and life, concentrating more on (controversial) “achievements” brought by colonizers, like military stations, churches and Christian missions, infrastructure, askari troops recruited from local population etc. On these postcards we can see various species of acacias and palm trees, numerous Araberstrasse and Kaiserstrasse, monuments to the emperor and chancellor, ships in the Dar es Salaam bay, “native beauty” and “native quarters”. On the one hand, postcards reflect what colonizers wanted to display in their homeland, on the other — what homeland wished to see: images of exotic hot tropics, success of German administrators and troops. Content, scenes, objects shown on the postcards are analyzed in the article as specific patterns of “visual colonization”.
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Eremyan, Vitaliy V. "The Soviet Union as a composite state structure: education, development trends and causes of disintegration." RUDN Journal of Law 26, no. 4 (December 15, 2022): 747–807. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2313-2337-2022-26-4-747-807.
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This article is devoted to a critical comparative-legal analysis of the process of formation, development, transformation and disintegration of the first multinational political-territorial entity with a republican form of government of the “Soviet” type, which over time has become a clear example for such complex European states as Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. This theme is unique not only in terms of solving the ethnic issue, but also as the “model” of territorial structure since the basis of one federation, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, formed another federation, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, which integrated, along with traditional administrative units, national political-territorial entities in the form of autonomous republics, regions, and districts. The article emphasizes the fact that one of the consequences of the appearance on the political map of the Soviet Union, which defeated Nazi Germany and its numerous satellites in World War II, was not only the formation of “popular democracy” countries and the so-called “socialist camp” that existed for over forty years and represented a civilizational alternative to the capitalist path of social development, but also the collapse of the colonial system and acquisition of independence and sovereignty by the peoples inhabiting the regions of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. The Soviet model of the state structure and democracy institutions as antipodes to bourgeois populism and liberal demagogy facilitated an accelerated transition from declarations of constituent and constitutional documents proclaiming human and civil rights and freedoms to their practical implementation in the economic and political sphere in countries that had associated themselves with Western-style democracy; it resulted in a more socially oriented role of state and its structures. The Soviet experience clearly demonstrates what real results the state and society can achieve in solving the women's issue, elimination of total illiteracy, and growth of the well-being of citizens. At the same time, manifestations of authoritarianism and totalitarianism that took place at certain stages reveal that the power mechanism was subject not only to voluntaristic tendencies or official personification, but also to relapses into a personality cult, one of the most negative consequences of state disintegration and local civil wars within its former territory.
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Sunseri, Thaddeus. "Reinterpreting a Colonial Rebellion: Forestry and Social Control in German East Africa, 1874-1915." Environmental History 8, no. 3 (July 2003): 430. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3986203.
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Maxon, R. M. "The Thorny Road From Primary to Secondary Source: The Cult of Mumbo and the 1914 Sack of Kisii." History in Africa 13 (1986): 261–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3171545.
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For almost two decades, the cult of Mumbo or Mumboism has attracted the attention of historians and other social scientists interested in the colonial history of western Kenya. This has led to its recognition as an important protest response to colonial rule among the Gusii and Luo from the period just prior to World War I through the 1930s. Its importance has been magnified by ascribing to it responsibility for the looting of Kisii town, the administrative headquarters of what was then South Kavirondo district in southwestern Kenya. The Gusii people living near Kisii did indeed loot the town in September 1914 in the aftermath of the withdrawal of the British administration and a battle between an invading German force from German East Africa to the south and British troops, but the responsibility of the cult of Mumbo is at very best problematical. An examination of contemporary documentary and published primary sources shows that the cult of Mumbo or its teachings had nothing whatever to do with the looting and destruction of Kisii town, and offers a cautionary note on the use and abuse of colonial sources in Kenya history.Such a cautionary note is particularly highlighted by two recently published secondary works: Bill Freund's The Making of Contemporary Africa and E.S. Atieno-Odhiambo's chapter in volume VII of the UNESCO sponsored General History of Africa. In constructing their broad accounts, neither author had the opportunity to make extensive use of primary source material.
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Haustein, Jörg. "Global Religious History as a Rhizome: Colonial Panics and Political Islam in German East Africa." Method & Theory in the Study of Religion 33, no. 3-4 (September 23, 2021): 321–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700682-12341520.
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Abstract A Global History of Religion aims to trace connections, controversies, and contingencies in the emergence of “religion” as a global category. Its main intention is to de-center European epistemologies of religion by drawing out a more intricate global and plural genealogy. This is a very complex endeavour, however, especially when one leaves the realm of academic debate and considers the quotidian understandings of “religion” emerging in colonial encounters. Here one is often confronted by vast entanglements of practices, perceptions and politics, which need a historical methodology that foregrounds the plurality, complexity and historicity of all religious epistemes. Drawing on Deleuze’ and Guattari’s philosophical figure of the rhizome, this article sketches such an approach in a conversation between theory and historiographical practice, as it maps out a particular episode in the construction of “political Islam” in German East Africa.
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Becker, FelicitasMaria. "The Nature of German Imperialism: Conservation and the Politics of Wildlife in Colonial East Africa." Conservation and Society 18, no. 2 (2020): 204. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/cs.cs_20_48.
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Rösser, Michael. "The Nature of German Colonialism: Conservation and the Politics of Wildlife in Colonial East Africa." German History 36, no. 4 (September 17, 2018): 650–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerhis/ghy090.
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Berman, Nina. "Yusuf's Choice: East African Agency During the German Colonial Period in Abdulrazak Gurnah's NovelParadise." English Studies in Africa 56, no. 1 (May 2013): 51–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00138398.2013.780681.
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Zimmerman, Andrew. "“What Do You Really Want in German East Africa, Herr Professor?” Counterinsurgency and the Science Effect in Colonial Tanzania." Comparative Studies in Society and History 48, no. 2 (March 8, 2006): 419–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0010417506000168.
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“What do you really want in German East Africa, Herr Professor?” was a question asked of the anthropologist Karl Weule by more than a few of his fellow passengers on board a ship bound for the German colony that is today Tanzania, in 1906. At least this was what Weule himself recalled after he returned from a journey during which he was caught up, and participated in, the counterinsurgency operations that followed one of the greatest anti-colonial uprisings that Africa had ever seen, the Maji Maji uprising. One elegant woman, Weule wrote, demanded: “And what do you want, Herr Professor, from all these tribes? Simply to collect for your museum in Leipzig? Or does the anthropology of today also have other, higher goals?” Anthropology did indeed, Weule explained, have “other, higher goals”: “The museum you speak of, my dearest, exists out in reality, as even the most hard-hearted Philistine would have to admit. … But how will anthropology be able to assert its much-contested status as a science, when it knows nothing higher and better than simply to bring together bows, arrows, spears, and thousands of other things? This collecting and preserving is really just … the elementary branch of our work. The other, higher part is the study [Aufnahme] of mental culture [geistige Kulturbesitzes].”
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Mavropoulos, Nikolaos. "Italy in East Asia: Colonial Ambitions, Power Politics and Failures." China and the World 03, no. 02 (June 2020): 2050004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2591729320500042.
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The demographic-migration issue was to become a key alibi in Rome’s effort to take colonies, in which Italians were promised cultivable land, opportunities, social stature and advancement. The channeling of the surplus population in other areas constituted one of the pillars of Italian colonial policy and, by extension, reinforced the rhetoric linking the demographic issue with the quest for colonies. This justification of Italian colonialism as an alternative solution to the population problem had a more logical basis compared to the potential economic and raw material benefits of Africa or Asia.
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Spradbery, JP, and GF Maywald. "The Distribution of the European or German Wasp, Vespula-Germanica (F) (Hymenoptera, Vespidae), in Australia - Past, Present and Future." Australian Journal of Zoology 40, no. 5 (1992): 495. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo9920495.
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The social wasp Vespula germanica (F.) occurs throughout Europe south of latitude 62-degrees-N. Its native distribution extends into northern Africa, the Middle East, northern India, China and Korea. It has been accidentally introduced into several regions, including North and South America, and South Africa. It has also been introduced to Australasia, where it became established in Tasmania in 1959 and at several Australian mainland localities during 1977-78. It is now widespread throughout Victoria, in much of southern and coastal New South Wales, and in some suburbs of Adelaide and Per-th. One nest has been recorded in Maryborough, Queensland. The observed global distribution is used here to determine the potential distribution and relative abundance of V. germanica in Australia using the climate-matching computer program CLIMEX. The results indicate that this pestiferous wasp could potentially colonise most of the eastern seaboard of Australia north to Rockhampton, Queensland. V. germanica is likely to adversely affect human activities, with accompanying environmental damage as it inevitably spreads and consolidates, and prospects for containment and control appear minimal.
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Pilossof, Rory. "New Histories of Firearms and Soldiers in Pre-Colonial and Colonial Africa Violent Intermediaries: African Soldiers, Conquest and Everyday Colonialism in German East Africa; A Cultural History of Firearms in the Age of Empire." South African Historical Journal 68, no. 1 (January 2, 2016): 132–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02582473.2015.1119185.
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De Bont, Raf. "Bernhard Gissibl, The Nature of German Imperialism: Conservation and the Politics of Wildlife in Colonial East Africa." Environment and History 24, no. 2 (May 1, 2018): 285–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.3197/096734018x15217309861496.
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Bruce, Gary. "Bernhard Gissibl. The Nature of German Imperialism: Conservation and the Politics of Wildlife in Colonial East Africa." American Historical Review 123, no. 5 (December 1, 2018): 1770–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ahr/rhy230.
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