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Published: 10 December 2022

Last updated: 28 January 2023

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1

Collins, C. D. N., J. P. Cull, J. B. Willcox, and J. B. Colwell. "A long-offset seismic reflection and refraction study of the Gippsland and Bass Basins from onshore recording of a marine air-gun source." Exploration Geophysics 20, no. 2 (1989): 293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/eg989293.

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Seismic refraction data were obtained for the Bass and Gippsland Basins during the 1988 cruise of the BMR research vessell "Rig Seismic". Seismic recorders were deployed on land by BMR and Monash University to record long-offset wide-angle reflection and refraction data using the ship's air-guns as the energy source. Preliminary results have now been obtained from these data providing information on deep crustal structure related to the basin formation. Two crustal layers have been detected with velocities of 4.5 km/s increasing to 7.4 km/s (unreversed) at depths exceeding 20 km. Additional data have now been obtained over a traverse length of 170 km to provide constraints on the deep structure of Bass Strait and the Lachlan Fold Belt in Victoria and Tasmania.

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2

Foster, David A., David R. Gray, Teunis A. P. Kwak, and Martin Bucher. "Chronology and tectonic framework of turbidite-hosted gold deposits in the Western Lachlan Fold Belt, Victoria: – results." Ore Geology Reviews 13, no. 1-5 (April 1998): 229–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-1368(97)00020-6.

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3

Willman, C. E., A. H. M. VandenBerg, and V. J. Morand. "Evolution of the southeastern Lachlan Fold Belt in Victoria." Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 49, no. 2 (April 2002): 271–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-0952.2002.00914.x.

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4

Powell, C. McA, J. P. Cole, and T. J. Cudahy. "Megakinking in the Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia." Journal of Structural Geology 7, no. 3-4 (January 1985): 281–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(85)90036-7.

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5

Fergusson, Christopher L., David R. Gray, and Ray A. F. Cas. "Overthrust terranes in the Lachlan fold belt, southeastern Australia." Geology 14, no. 6 (1986): 519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1986)14<519:otitlf>2.0.co;2.

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6

Jones, B. G., C. L. Fergusson, and P. F. Zambelli. "Ordovician contourites in the Lachlan Fold Belt, eastern Australia." Sedimentary Geology 82, no. 1-4 (January 1993): 257–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(93)90125-o.

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7

Fergusson, Christopher L., and A. H. M. VandenBerg. "Middle Palaeozoic thrusting in the eastern Lachlan Fold Belt, southeastern Australia." Journal of Structural Geology 12, no. 5-6 (January 1990): 577–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(90)90075-a.

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8

O'Sullivan, Paul B., David A. Foster, Barry P. Kohn, and Andrew J. W. Gleadow. "Multiple postorogenic denudation events: An example from the eastern Lachlan fold belt, Australia." Geology 24, no. 6 (1996): 563. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0563:mpdeae>2.3.co;2.

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9

Glen, R. A., and A. H. M. VandenBerg. "Thin-skinned tectonics in part of the Lachlan Fold Belt near Delegate, southeastern Australia." Geology 15, no. 11 (1987): 1070. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<1070:ttipot>2.0.co;2.

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10

Stuart-Smith, P. G. "The emplacement and fault history of the Coolac Serpentinite, Lachlan Fold Belt, southeastern Australia." Journal of Structural Geology 12, no. 5-6 (January 1990): 621–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(90)90078-d.

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11

Iles, Kieran A., Janet M. Hergt, Jon D. Woodhead, Ryan B. Ickert, and Ian S. Williams. "Petrogenesis of granitoids from the Lachlan Fold Belt, southeastern Australia: The role of disequilibrium melting." Gondwana Research 79 (March 2020): 87–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2019.08.011.

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12

Woods, K. Tenison, and S. S. Webster. "Geophysical Signature of Gold and Porphyry Copper Mineral Deposits in the Lachlan Fold Belt, NSW." Exploration Geophysics 16, no. 2-3 (June 1985): 325–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/eg985325.

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13

OFFLER, R., S. MCKNIGHT, and V. MORAND. "Tectonothermal history of the western Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia: insights from white mica studies." Journal of Metamorphic Geology 16, no. 4 (June 1998): 531–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1314.1998.00153.x.

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14

Keay, Sue, W. J. Collins, and M. T. McCulloch. "A three-component Sr-Nd isotopic mixing model for granitoid genesis, Lachlan fold belt, eastern Australia." Geology 25, no. 4 (1997): 307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0307:atcsni>2.3.co;2.

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15

Wilkins, Colin, and Mike Quayle. "Structural Control of High-Grade Gold Shoots at the Reward Mine, Hill End, New South Wales, Australia." Economic Geology 116, no. 4 (June 1, 2021): 909–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.4807.

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Abstract The Reward mine at Hill End hosts structurally controlled orogenic gold mineralization in moderately S plunging, high-grade gold shoots located at the intersection between a late, steeply W dipping reverse fault zone and E-dipping, bedding-parallel, laminated quartz veins (the Paxton’s vein system). The mineralized bedding-parallel veins are contained within the middle Silurian to Middle Devonian age, turbidite-dominated Hill End trough forming part of the Lachlan orogen in New South Wales. The Hill End trough was deformed in the Middle Devonian (Tabberabberan orogeny), forming tight, N-S–trending, macroscopic D2 folds (Hill End anticline) with S2 slaty cleavage and associated bedding-parallel veins. Structural analysis indicates that the D2 flexural-slip folding mechanism formed bedding-parallel movement zones that contained flexural-slip duplexes, bedding-parallel veins, and saddle reefs in the fold hinges. Bedding-parallel veins are concentrated in weak, narrow shale beds between competent sandstones with dip angles up to 70° indicating that the flexural slip along bedding occurred on unfavorably oriented planes until fold lockup. Gold was precipitated during folding, with fluid-flow concentrated along bedding, as fold limbs rotated, and hosted by bedding-parallel veins and associated structures. However, the gold is sporadically developed, often with subeconomic grades, and is associated with quartz, muscovite, chlorite, carbonates, pyrrhotite, and pyrite. East-west shortening of the Hill End trough resumed during the Late Devonian to early Carboniferous (Kanimblan orogeny), producing a series of steeply W dipping reverse faults that crosscut the eastern limb of the Hill End anticline. Where W-dipping reverse faults intersected major E-dipping bedding-parallel veins, gold (now associated with galena and sphalerite) was precipitated in a network of brittle fractures contained within the veins, forming moderately S plunging, high-grade gold shoots. Only where major bedding-parallel veins were intersected, displaced, and fractured by late W-dipping reverse faults is there a potential for localization of high-grade gold shoots (>10 g/t). A revised structural history for the Hill End area not only explains the location of gold shoots in the Reward mine but allows previous geochemical, dating, and isotope studies to be better understood, with the discordant W-dipping reverse faults likely acting as feeder structures introducing gold-bearing fluids sourced within deeply buried Ordovician volcanic units below the Hill End trough. A comparison is made between gold mineralization, structural style, and timing at Hill End in the eastern Lachlan orogen with the gold deposits of Victoria, in the western Lachlan orogen. Structural styles are similar where gold mineralization is formed during folding and reverse faulting during periods of regional east-west shortening. However, at Hill End, flexural-slip folding-related weakly mineralized bedding-parallel veins are reactivated to a lesser degree once folds lock up (cf. the Bendigo zone deposits in Victoria) due to the earlier effects of fold-related flattening and boudinage. The second stage of gold mineralization was formed by an array of crosscutting, steeply W dipping reverse faults fracturing preexisting bedding-parallel veins that developed high-grade gold shoots. Deformation and gold mineralization in the western Lachlan orogen started in the Late Ordovician to middle Silurian Benambran orogeny and continued with more deposits forming in the Bindian (Early Devonian) and Tabberabberan (late Early-Middle Devonian) orogenies. This differs from the Hill End trough in the eastern Lachlan orogen, where deformation and mineralization started in the Tabberabberan orogeny and culminated with the formation of high-grade gold shoots at Hill End during renewed compression in the early Carboniferous Kanimblan orogeny.

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16

Deen, Tara J., Karsten Gohl, Christopher Leslie, Eva Papp, and Kevin Wake-Dyster. "Seismic refraction inversion of a palaeochannel system in the Lachlan Fold Belt, Central New South Wales." Exploration Geophysics 31, no. 1-2 (March 2000): 389–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/eg00389.

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17

Graham, I. T., B. J. Franklin, B. Marshall, E. C. Leitch, and M. Fanning. "Tectonic significance of 400 Ma zircon ages for ophiolitic rocks from the Lachlan fold belt, eastern Australia." Geology 24, no. 12 (1996): 1111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<1111:tsomza>2.3.co;2.

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18

Bierlein, F. P., T. Fuller, K. Stüwe, D. C. Arne, and R. R. Keays. "Wallrock alteration associated with turbidite-hosted gold deposits. Examples from the Palaeozoic Lachlan Fold Belt in central Victoria, Australia." Ore Geology Reviews 13, no. 1-5 (April 1998): 345–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-1368(97)00026-7.

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19

Gibson, G. M., and D. N. Nihill. "Glenelg River Complex: Western margin of the Lachlan Fold Belt or extension of the Delamerian Orogen into Western Victoria?" Tectonophysics 214, no. 1-4 (November 1992): 69–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(92)90191-8.

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20

Ramsay, W. R. H., and A. H. M. Vandenberg. "Metallogeny and tectonic development of the Tasman Fold Belt System in Victoria." Ore Geology Reviews 1, no. 2-4 (November 1986): 213–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-1368(86)90010-7.

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21

HERGT, J., J. WOODHEAD, and A. SCHOFIELD. "A-type magmatism in the Western Lachlan Fold Belt? A study of granites and rhyolites from the Grampians region, Western Victoria." Lithos 97, no. 1-2 (August 2007): 122–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2006.12.008.

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22

Mernagh, Terrence P. "A fluid inclusion study of the Fosterville Mine: a turbidite-hosted gold field in the Western Lachlan Fold Belt, Victoria, Australia." Chemical Geology 173, no. 1-3 (March 2001): 91–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0009-2541(00)00269-2.

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23

Glen, R. A. "Basement control on the deformation of cover basins: An example from the Cobar district in the Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia." Journal of Structural Geology 7, no. 3-4 (January 1985): 301–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(85)90037-9.

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24

Glen, R. A. "Formation and inversion of transtensional basins in the western part of the Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia, with emphasis on the Cobar Basin." Journal of Structural Geology 12, no. 5-6 (January 1990): 601–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(90)90077-c.

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25

Miller, John McL, and Christopher J. L. Wilson. "Structural analysis of faults related to a heterogeneous stress history: reconstruction of a dismembered gold deposit, Stawell, western Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia." Journal of Structural Geology 26, no. 6-7 (June 2004): 1231–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2003.11.004.

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26

Best, E. J., B. W. Wyatt, D. H. Tucker, and A. N. Yeates. "The analysis and correlation of some geophysical and geochemical properties derived from computer analysis of the Lachlan Fold Belt Geoscience Database." Exploration Geophysics 16, no. 2-3 (June 1985): 169–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/eg985169.

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27

Cox, S. F., V. J. Wall, M. A. Etheridge, and T. F. Potter. "Deformational and metamorphic processes in the formation of mesothermal vein-hosted gold deposits — examples from the Lachlan Fold Belt in central Victoria, Australia." Ore Geology Reviews 6, no. 5 (September 1991): 391–423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-1368(91)90038-9.

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28

Teasdale, J. P., L. L. Pryer, P. G. Stuart-Smith, K. K. Romine, M. A. Etheridge, T. S. Loutit, and D. M. Kyan. "STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK AND BASIN EVOLUTION OF AUSTRALIA’S SOUTHERN MARGIN." APPEA Journal 43, no. 1 (2003): 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/aj02001.

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The structural evolution of all of the Southern Margin Basins can be explained by episodic reactivation of basement structures in respect to a specific sequence of tectonic events. Three geological provinces dominate the basement geology of the Southern Margin basins. The Eyre, Ceduna, Duntroon and Polda Basins overlie basement of the Archean to Proterozoic Gawler-Antarctic Craton. The Otway and Sorell Basins overlie basement of the Neoproterozoic-early Palaeozoic Adelaide- Kanmantoo Fold Belt. The Bass and Gippsland Basins overlie basement of the Palaeozoic Lachlan Fold Belt. The contrasting basement terranes within the three basement provinces and the structures within and between them significantly influenced the evolution and architecture of the Southern Margin basins.The present-day geometry was established during three Mesozoic extensional basin phases:Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous NW–SE transtension forming deep rift basins to the west and linked pullapart basins and oblique graben east of the Southwest Ceduna Accommodation Zone; Early–Mid Cretaceous NE–SW extension; and Late Cretaceous NNE–SSW extension leading to continental breakup. At least three, potentially trap forming, inversion events have variably influenced the Southern Margin basins; Mid Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene-Recent. Volcanism occurred along the margin during the Late Cretaceous and sporadically through the Tertiary.First-order structural control on Mesozoic rifting and breakup were east–west trending basement structures of the southern Australian fracture zone. Second-order controls include:Proterozoic basement shear zones and/or terrane boundaries in the western Gawler Craton, which controlled basin evolution in the Eyre and Ceduna Subbasins; Neoproterozoic structures, which significantly influenced basin evolution in the Ceduna sub-basin; Cambro-Ordovician basement shear zones and/or terrane boundaries, which were a primary control on basin evolution in the Otway and Sorell Basins; and Palaeozoic structures in the Lachlan Fold Belt, which controlled basin evolution in the Bass and Gippsland Basins.A SEEBASE™ (Structurally Enhanced view of Economic Basement) model for the Southern Margin basins has been constructed to show basement topography. When used in combination with a rigorous interpretation of the structural evolution of the margin, it provides a foundation for basin phase and source rock distribution, hydrocarbon fluid focal points and trap type/distribution.

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29

ADAMS, C. J., H. J. CAMPBELL, and W. L. GRIFFIN. "Provenance comparisons of Permian to Jurassic tectonostratigraphic terranes in New Zealand: perspectives from detrital zircon age patterns." Geological Magazine 144, no. 4 (April 25, 2007): 701–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016756807003469.

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U–Pb detrital zircon ages (LAM-ICPMS) are reported for 20 greywackes and sandstones from seven major tectono-stratigraphic terranes of the Eastern Province of New Zealand (Cretaceous to Carboniferous) to constrain sediment provenances. Samples are mainly from three time horizons: Late Permian, Late Triassic and Late Jurassic. Age datasets are analysed as percentages in geological intervals, and in histogram and cumulative probability diagrams. The latter discriminate significant zircon age components in terms of terrane, sample stratigraphic age, component age, precision and percentage (of total set). Zircon age distributions from all samples have persistent, large Triassic–Permian, and very few Devonian–Silurian, populations, features which exclude a sediment provenance from the early Palaeozoic, Lachlan Fold Belt of southeast Australia or continuations in New Zealand and Antarctica. In the accretionary terranes, significant Palaeozoic (and Precambrian) zircon age populations are present in Torlesse and Waipapa terranes, and variably in Caples terrane. In the fore-arc and back-arc terranes, a unimodal character persists in Murihiku and Brook Street terranes, while Dun Mountain–Maitai terrane is more variable, and with Caples terrane, displays a hybrid character. Required extensive Triassic–Permian zircon sources can only be found within the New England Fold Belt and Hodgkinson Province of northeast Australia, and southward continuations to Dampier Ridge, Lord Howe Rise and West Norfolk Ridge (Tasman Sea). Small but significant Palaeozoic (and Precambrian) age components in the accretionary terranes (plus Dun Mountain–Maitai terrane), have sources in hinterlands of the New England Fold Belt, in particular to mid-Palaeozoic granite complexes in NE Queensland, and Carboniferous granite complexes in NE New South Wales. Major and minor components place sources (1) for the older Torlesse (Rakaia) terrane, in NE Queensland, and (2) for Waipapa terrane, in NE New South Wales, with Dun Mountain–Maitai and Caples terrane sources more inshore and offshore, respectively. In Early Jurassic–Late Cretaceous, Torlesse (Pahau) and Waipapa terranes, there is less continental influence, and more isolated, offshore volcanic arc sources are suggested. There is local input of plutonic rock detritus into Pahau depocentres from the Median Batholith in New Zealand, or its northward continuation on Lord Howe Rise. Excepting Murihiku and Brook Street terranes, all others are suspect terranes, with depocentres close to the contemporary Gondwanaland margin in NE Australia, and subsequent margin-parallel, tectonic transport to their present New Zealand position. This is highlighted by a slight southeastward migration of terrane depocentres with time. Murihiku and Brook Street terrane sources are more remote from continental influences and represent isolated offshore volcanic depocentres, perhaps in their present New Zealand position.

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30

Trzebski, R., P. Lennox, and D. Palmer. "Contrasts in morphogenesis and tectonic setting during contemporaneous emplacement of S- and I-type granitoids in the Eastern Lachlan Fold Belt, southeastern Australia." Geological Society, London, Special Publications 168, no. 1 (1999): 123–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/gsl.sp.1999.168.01.09.

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31

Kreuzer, Oliver P., Alexandra V. M. Miller, Katie J. Peters, Constance Payne, Charlene Wildman, Gregor A. Partington, Elisa Puccioni, Maureen E. McMahon, and Michael A. Etheridge. "Comparing prospectivity modelling results and past exploration data: A case study of porphyry Cu–Au mineral systems in the Macquarie Arc, Lachlan Fold Belt, New South Wales." Ore Geology Reviews 71 (December 2015): 516–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.001.

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32

Jackson, S. L., A. R. Cruden, D. White, and B. Milkereit. "A seismic-reflection-based regional cross section of the southern Abitibi greenstone belt." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 32, no. 2 (February 1, 1995): 135–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e95-012.

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Seismic reflection profiles from the southern Abitibi greenstone belt reveal four first-order subdivisions: (1) Between 0 and ~4.5 s, the upper crust is weakly reflective, with prominent local to laterally extensive reflections. (2) Between ~4 and ~9 s, the crust is strongly and heterogeneously reflective with laterally continuous reflections. (3) From ~9 to ~13 s, the crust is more homogeneously reflective and displays downward decreasing reflectivity. (4) Below ~13 s (Moho?) the upper mantle is weakly reflective. The upper layer may correspond to subgreenschist–greenschist-facies supracrustal rocks cut by low-angle shear zones and intruded by regional tabular batholiths; the middle layer, to ductiley deformed amphibolite-facies gneisses, granitoids, and (or) metasediments; and the lower layer, to more homogeneously deformed granulite-facies rocks. North-dipping, low-angle reflections extending beneath both diverse supracrustal assemblages and regional batholiths may represent structural detachments upon which both the supracrustal assemblages and batholiths were imbricated and translated southward. However, the preservation of regional low-pressure metamorphic rocks and the common para-autochthonous relationships between assemblages suggest that thrust-related vertical separations and the magnitude of crustal thickening were not large. Steeply dipping regional shear zones within the greenstone belt appear to disrupt subhorizontal reflections down to ~15 km and may represent late-tectonic strains, which were progressively concentrated into linear zones during continued north–south shortening. The crustal-scale structure determined from the seismic reflection profiles, combined with surface geology, is compatible with post-2.70 Ga north–south shortening accommodated by south-directed(?) thrusting in a thermally softened mid crust and by upright folding in the upper crust. This scenario is comparable to recently proposed models for the Paleozoic, high-temperature, low-pressure Lachlan fold belt of Australia.

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33

Musumeci, Giovanni, and Piero Pertusati. "Structure of the Deep Freeze Range–Eisenhower Range of the Wilson Terrane (North Victoria Land, Antarctica): emplacement of magmatic intrusions in the Early Palaeozoic deformed margin of the East Antarctic Craton." Antarctic Science 12, no. 1 (March 2000): 89–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954102000000122.

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In North Victoria Land (Antarctica), the Wilson Terrane is a portion of the palaeomargin of the East Antarctic Craton, deformed during the Late Cambrian–Early Ordovician Ross Orogeny. Crustal deformation, from westward subduction of the palaeo Pacific plate and terrane accretion on this palaeomargin, gave rise to the development of a transpressive fold belt and a wide magmatic arc. In the inner portion of the Wilson Terrane, (Deep Freeze Range–Eisenhower Range) a large portion of this magmatic arc is made up of intrusions and dyke systems. Intrusive rocks range from large unfoliated plutons to well foliated sheet intrusions emplaced in low and medium–high grade metamorphic rocks respectively. Field and structural data on intrusive rocks and metamorphic host rocks, coupled with parameters relative to deformation mechanism and magmatic processes (crystallization and cooling) rates, make it possible to outline an episode of diffuse synkinematic magmatism in the Wilson Terrane. The emplacement of intrusions in both the middle and upper crust was coeval and related to the development of transpressional and transtensional structures along dextral strike-slip shear zones. Furthermore the development of foliated or unfoliated fabrics is related to competition between rates of deformation and magmatic processes, which is a function of the thermal state of the host rocks.

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34

Bello, Mohammed, David G. Cornwell, Nicholas Rawlinson, Anya M. Reading, and Othaniel K. Likkason. "Crustal structure of southeast Australia from teleseismic receiver functions." Solid Earth 12, no. 2 (February 24, 2021): 463–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/se-12-463-2021.

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Abstract. In an effort to improve our understanding of the seismic character of the crust beneath southeast Australia and how it relates to the tectonic evolution of the region, we analyse teleseismic earthquakes recorded by 24 temporary and 8 permanent broadband stations using the receiver function method. Due to the proximity of the temporary stations to Bass Strait, only 13 of these stations yielded usable receiver functions, whereas seven permanent stations produced receiver functions for subsequent analysis. Crustal thickness, bulk seismic velocity properties, and internal crustal structure of the southern Tasmanides – an assemblage of Palaeozoic accretionary orogens that occupy eastern Australia – are constrained by H–κ stacking and receiver function inversion, which point to the following: a ∼ 39.0 km thick crust; an intermediate–high Vp/Vs ratio (∼ 1.70–1.76), relative to ak135; and a broad (> 10 km) crust–mantle transition beneath the Lachlan Fold Belt. These results are interpreted to represent magmatic underplating of mafic materials at the base of the crust. a complex crustal structure beneath VanDieland, a putative Precambrian continental fragment embedded in the southernmost Tasmanides, that features strong variability in the crustal thickness (23–37 km) and Vp/Vs ratio (1.65–193), the latter of which likely represents compositional variability and the presence of melt. The complex origins of VanDieland, which comprises multiple continental ribbons, coupled with recent failed rifting and intraplate volcanism, likely contributes to these observations. stations located in the East Tasmania Terrane and eastern Bass Strait (ETT + EB) collectively indicate a crust of uniform thickness (31–32 km), which clearly distinguishes it from VanDieland to the west. Moho depths are also compared with the continent-wide AusMoho model in southeast Australia and are shown to be largely consistent, except in regions where AusMoho has few constraints (e.g. Flinders Island). A joint interpretation of the new results with ambient noise, teleseismic tomography, and teleseismic shear wave splitting anisotropy helps provide new insight into the way that the crust has been shaped by recent events, including failed rifting during the break-up of Australia and Antarctica and recent intraplate volcanism.

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