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1
Morpho-syntactic erosion between two generational groups of Spanish speakers in the United States. New York: P. Lang, 1993.
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2
Gavrielatou, Hariklia. Isozyme and tissue culture variation in short generation beets. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1991.
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3
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (U.S.), ed. Minimizing variation in outdoor CPV power ratings. Golden, Colo.]: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2011.
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4
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (U.S.) and International Conference on Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems (7th : 2011 : Las Vegas, Nev.), eds. Minimizing variation in outdoor CPV power ratings: Preprint. Golden, CO]: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2011.
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5
John Deere new generation and generation II tractors: History, models, variations & specifications 1960s-1970s. Minneapolis: MBI Pub. Co., 2010.
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6
Komfort-Hein, Susanne, Bea Dörr, and Eveline Kilian. GeNarrationen: Variationen zum Verhältnis von Generation und Geschlecht. Tübingen: Attempto, 1999.
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7
Chen, Huey-Kuo. Dynamic travel choice models: A variational inequality approach. Berlin: Springer, 1999.
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8
Immigrant education: Variations by generation, age-at- immigration, and country of origin. New York: LFB Scholarly, 2005.
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9
Sivasankar, Shoba, Noel Ellis, Ljupcho Jankuloski, and Ivan Ingelbrecht, eds. Mutation breeding, genetic diversity and crop adaptation to climate change. Wallingford: CABI, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/9781789249095.0000.
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Abstract This book presents reviews on the application of the technology for crop improvement towards food and nutrition security, and research status on mutation breeding and associated biotechnologies in both seed crops and vegetatively propagated crops. It also presents perspectives on the significance of next-generation sequencing and bioinformatics in determining the molecular variants underlying mutations and on emerging biotechnologies such as gene editing. Reviews and articles are organized into five sections in the publication: (1) Contribution of Crop Mutant Varieties to Food Security; (2) Mutation Breeding in Crop Improvement and Climate-Change Adaptation; (3) Mutation Induction Techniques for Enhanced Genetic Variation; (4) Mutation Breeding in Vegetatively Propagated and Ornamental Crops; and (5) Induced Genetic Variation for Crop Improvement in the Genomic Era. The contents of this volume present excellent reference material for researchers, students and policy makers involved in the application of induced genetic variation in plants for the maintenance of biodiversity and the acceleration of crop adaptation to climate change to feed a growing global population in the coming years and decades.
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Nuccio, Vito F. Variations in vitrinite reflectance values for the Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde Formation, Southeastern Piceance Basin, northwestern Colorado: Implications for burial history and potential hydrocarbon generation. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1990.
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11
Nuccio, Vito F. Variations in vitrinite reflectance values for the Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde Formation, Southeastern Piceance Basin, northwestern Colorado: Implications for burial history and potential hydrocarbon generation. [Reston, Va.?]: Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, 1989.
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12
Fan, Zhang. Jin dai Zhongguo "ke xue" gai nian de sheng cheng yu qi bian (1896-1919): The generation and variation of the concept of "Science" in modern China 1896-1919. Beijing Shi: She hui ke xue wen xian chu ban she, 2018.
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13
Blaha, Stephen. The origin of the standard model: The genesis of four quark and lepton species, parity violation, the electro weak sector, color SU(3), three visible generations of fermions, and one generation of dark matter with dark energy ; Quantum theory of the third kind : a new type of divergence-free quantum field theory supporting a unified standard model of elementary particles and quantum gravity based on a new method in the calculus of variations. Auburn, NH: Pingree-Hill Publishing, 2006.
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14
Depew, David J. Natural Selection, Adaptation, and the Recovery of Development. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199377176.003.0001.
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This chapter begins by contrasting Spencer’s view of natural selection with Darwin’s understanding of its “paramount power.” Darwin’s interpretation contains seeds of a defining mark of the modern evolutionary synthesis: Adaptation is necessarily a consequence of natural selection working as a “creative” factor over multiple generations. The chapter distinguishes between several versions of the modern synthesis in order to argue that some are less at odds than others with the current turn toward development and in order to suggest that allowing ontogeny to be the generative locus of (much) selectable variation makes for more continuity between the developmentalist turn and the modern synthesis than is sometimes thought. Shifting “adaptation” from trans-generational populations to ontogenetically construed organisms is in tension with the modern evolutionary synthesis, but not as much as some believe.
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Elwood, Mark. Chance variation. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199682898.003.0008.
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This chapter explains chance variation and statistical tests, including discrete and continuous measures, the concept of significance, one and two sided test, exact tests, precision and confidence limits. It shows tests of differences in proportions and chi-square tests, the Mantel-Haenszel test, and calculation of confidence limits, for simple tables and for stratified data. It covers heterogeneity tests, multiplicative and additive models, ordered exposure variables and tests of trend. It explains statistical tests for matched studies and in multivariate models. Multiple testing, the Bonferroni correction, issues of hypothesis testing and hypothesis generation, and subgroup analyses are discussed. Stopping rules and repeated testing in trials is covered. It explains how to calculate study power and the necessary size of the study. The chapter describes time to event analysis, including survival curves, product-limit and actuarial or life-table methods, and the calculation of confidence limits, relative survival ratios, the log rank test with control for confounding, and multivariate analysis.
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Simonton, Dean Keith. Spontaneity in Evolution, Learning, Creativity, and Free Will. Edited by Kalina Christoff and Kieran C. R. Fox. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190464745.013.21.
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This chapter proposes that spontaneous variation has a central role in biological evolution, operant conditioning, creative thinking, and personal agency. But to support these advantageous outcomes, this spontaneity must be joined with some selection process or procedure that decides which alleles, behaviors, ideas, or choices are most adaptive or useful. The argument begins with spontaneous variations in evolutionary theory, and then turns to operant conditioning, with emphasis on the origins of spontaneous behaviors. That analysis leads directly to a discussion that introduces a three-parameter definition of both creativity and sightedness, two concepts that provide the foundation for the blind-variation and selective-retention model of creativity. The latter is then linked with the chance-then-choice theory of free will, a linkage that makes spontaneous choice generation the first of two steps leading to personal agency. In all four phenomena, spontaneity is defined as the production of variants in ignorance of their actual utilities.
17
Julio Sergio Dolce da Silva. A solution-adaptive algebraic grid generation method based on variational principles. 1988.
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18
Chen, Huey-Kuo. Dynamic Travel Choice Models: A Variational Inequality Approach. Springer-Verlag Telos, 1998.
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19
Schadt, Eric E. Network Methods for Elucidating the Complexity of Common Human Diseases. Edited by Dennis S. Charney, Eric J. Nestler, Pamela Sklar, and Joseph D. Buxbaum. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190681425.003.0002.
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The life sciences are now a significant contributor to the ever expanding digital universe of data, and stand poised to lead in both the generation of big data and the realization of dramatic benefit from it. We can now score variations in DNA across whole genomes; RNA levels and alternative isoforms, metabolite levels, protein levels, and protein state information across the transcriptome, metabolome and proteome; methylation status across the methylome; and construct extensive protein–protein and protein–DNA interaction maps, all in a comprehensive fashion and at the scale of populations of individuals. This chapter describes a number of analytical approaches aimed at inferring causal relationships among variables in very large-scale datasets by leveraging DNA variation as a systematic perturbation source. The causal inference procedures are also demonstrated to enhance the ability to reconstruct truly predictive, probabilistic causal gene networks that reflect the biological processes underlying complex phenotypes like disease.
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Cetrez, Onver A. Meaning-making Variations in Acculturation & Ritualization: A Multi-generational Study of Suroyo Migrants in Sweden (Psychologia Et Sociologia Religionum). Uppsala Universitet, 2005.
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21
Délano Alonso, Alexandra. Social Rights Beyond Borders. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190688578.003.0005.
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This chapter examines variations in diaspora policies across generations and migration status, considering changes in migrants’ precarious status from the perspective of the DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals) program. It focuses on the ways in which the rhetoric and implementation of Mexico’s diaspora programs has adapted focusing on the 1.5 generation, and the ways in which these policies have been challenged by returned migrants. In the context of massive deportations that have coincided with the rise of the Dreamers movement and the implementation of DACA, origin countries’ attempts to engage this group reveal the challenges and contradictions of diaspora policies that offer assistance abroad and expand the concept and practice of extraterritorial membership in specific moments and for particular groups, but have limited resources and opportunities for those same populations upon their return to their country of origin.
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Izuhara, Misa, ed. Ageing and Intergenerational Relations. Bristol University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.46692/9781847422064.
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This book explores the exchange of support between generations and examines variations in contemporary practice and theory in different societies around the world. It draws on theoretical perspectives to discuss both newly emerging patterns of family reciprocity and more established ones affected by changing issues in contemporary societies.
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Khan, Noor-ul Islam. A comparison of selected analyses for estimating environmental variation in early generations and advanced lines of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. em thell). 1987.
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24
Walsh, Bruce, and Michael Lynch. The Population Genetics of Selection. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830870.003.0005.
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This chapter examines models of one- and two-locus selection in the absence of drift and mutation. Expressions for the per-generation rate of allele-frequency change and the expected time for a specified amount of change are developed for single-locus models, and their equilibrium structure is examined for those settings where selection retains more than one allele. The presence of selection-generated linkage disequilibrium greatly complicates the extension of single-locus results to two loci, and the chapter examines some of the resulting complications. Finally, it examines the nature of selection on a locus that underlies a trait under selection, and then uses this to develop the breeder's equation for the single-generation response in a trait under selection. One important result is that the loci for a trait under stabilizing selection experience fitness underdominance, and thus trait selection removes, rather than retains, genetic variation.
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Irizarry, Ylce. Belonging in Chicana/o and Latina/o Fiction. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252039911.003.0006.
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This concluding chapter explores how the narrative of new memory is a locus for empowerment. The more frequent development in the narrative of new memory in Cuban American literatures and literatures about or portraying Central American characters has everything to do with the specificity of difference among immigrants, exiles, and refugees. Indeed, the portrayal of exiles and refugees can offer authors the space to write new memories of their relationships to their own nations of origin, to nations they have emigrated to, or to nations with which they may wish to develop solidarity. Because of the generational and cultural variations between their literatures, the critical models currently existing for understanding US multiethnic literatures need revision.
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Willoughby, Brian J., and Spencer L. James. Modern Marriage and Emerging Adulthood in the United States. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190296650.003.0001.
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This chapter explores the broader developmental and cultural contexts of emerging adulthood, explaining how the third decade of life in the twenty-first century is drastically different from that experienced by previous generations. National data are presented that outline trends in education and employment to illustrate these shifts. The authors argue that the increased variation in how emerging adults experience their 20s is perhaps the most important factor in the shifting marriage and family formation trends currently seen among emerging adults. Changes in cultural values such as individualism and moral relativism are also discussed. The authors contend that uncertainty in emerging adulthood has also created conflict, anxiety, and ultimately paradoxes around marriage and family formation that are vexing many modern emerging adults.
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Lim, Renee, and Stewart Dunn. Journeys to the centre of empathy. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198736134.003.0002.
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As a species, we appear to be programmed to respond to the situations and emotions of others. However, there is wide variation in the ways doctors and other health professionals experience and express this capacity, and there is a need for effective training to enhance these skills. Unfortunately, systematic reviews suggest that many of our current training programmes do not improve the quality of communication in cancer and palliative care so as to limit the burden of professional burnout, and to improve patients’ mental or physical health and satisfaction. Our attempts to produce a generation of empathic clinical communicators are inconsistent and reviews of patient complaints reveal an increasing discontent with professional communication. So what is missing? How do we develop, sustain, and teach empathic communication? The answer, according to Lim and Dunn, is to shift the focus from empathy to authenticity.
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Mazzolai, Barbara. Growth and tropism. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199674923.003.0009.
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Plants or plant parts, such as roots or leaves, have the capacity of moving by growing in response to external stimuli with high plasticity and morphological adaptation to the environment. This chapter analyses some plant features and how they have been translated in artificial devices and control. A new generation of ICT hardware and software technologies inspired from plants is described, which includes an artificial root-like prototype that moves in soil imitating the sloughing mechanism of cells at the root apex level; as well as innovative osmotic-based actuators that generate movement imitating turgor variation in the plant cells. As future directions, new technologies expected from the study of plants concern energy-efficient actuation systems, chemical and physical microsensors, sensor fusion techniques, kinematics models, and distributed, adaptive control in networked structures with local information and communication capabilities.
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Postma, Alex V., David Sedmera, Frantisek Vostarek, Vincent M. Christoffels, and Connie R. Bezzina. Developmental aspects of cardiac arrhythmias. Edited by José Maria Pérez-Pomares, Robert G. Kelly, Maurice van den Hoff, José Luis de la Pompa, David Sedmera, Cristina Basso, and Deborah Henderson. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198757269.003.0027.
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The rhythmic and synchronized contraction of atria and ventricles is essential for efficient pumping of blood throughout the body. This process relies on the proper generation and conduction of the cardiac electrical impulse. Electrophysiological properties differ in various regions of the heart, revealing intrinsic heterogeneities rooted, at least in part, in regional differences in expression of ion channel and gap junction subunit genes. A causal relation between transcription factors and such regionalized gene expression has been established. Abnormal cardiac electrical function and arrhythmias in the postnatal heart may stem from a developmental changes in gene regulation. Genome-wide association studies have provided strong evidence that common genetic variation at developmental gene loci modulates electrocardiographic indices of conduction and repolarization and susceptibility to arrhythmia. Functional aspects are illustrated by description of selected prenatally occurring arrhythmias and their possible mechanisms. We also discuss recent findings and provide background insight into these complex mechanisms.
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Dodds, Chris, Chandra M. Kumar, and Frédérique Servin. Definitions, social trends, and epidemiology. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198735571.003.0001.
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The impact of the ageing population across the world is reviewed. Aging, migration, and dependency are discussed, as is the likely cost, both social and financial, in providing care to dependent elderly patients. Dependency ratios and population pyramids are used to illustrate the scale and variation of the population changes. Advances in surgical and anaesthetic practice and their effects on day-care surgery are outlined. The utility of risk indices and prehabilitation in optimizing the elderly surgical patient is explored. The political and social dimensions of providing high-quality care to an increasingly old population are discussed. The financial pressures and the increasing complexity and expense of newer therapies are challenging, and comprehensive state-funded delivery currently appears unsustainable. Finally, the impact of the changes in the expectations of the ‘baby boomers’ generation, as they age, and in relation to their increasing use of the Internet and social media, are reviewed.
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Krawatzek, Félix. Setting, Concepts, and Theory. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198826842.003.0001.
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Youth can play a central role for understanding political developments during crises. The introductory chapter suggests combining the discursive and the physical mobilization of youth to understand its relevance in moments of crisis. Conceptual clarification is provided on the book’s key terms: ‘crisis’ as a category of experience which conveys contingency and possibilities; ‘youth’ as a political and cultural symbol; and ‘generation’ as combining experiences and expectations. The comparative historical frame starts from the contemporary Russian case and gradually adds variation in a controlled manner. A subsequent section develops a theory of the entwined processes of the political mobilization of young people and changing discourses about youth in moments of crisis in distinct political settings. The discussion of the theoretical processes leads to the formulation of the three guiding hypotheses on the symbolic and physical mobilization of youth and the relationship between youth and society at large.
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Seligman, Amanda I. Neighborhoods, Immigrants, and Ethnic Americans. Edited by Ronald H. Bayor. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199766031.013.017.
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One way that American urbanites have traditionally made sense of the city’s landscape is through the concept of the neighborhood. Clustering in urban neighborhoods brought immigrant Americans into contact with members of other ethnic communities. Relations between groups varied from hostile to amicable, with variations depending on gender, age, generation, group size, and city size. Interethnic alliances, however, stopped at racial lines; until the late twentieth century, few white Americans were willing to live in racially integrated neighborhoods. In the late twentieth century, the idea of neighborhood showed remarkable persistence despite the changes in American immigrant demographics. The purpose of this essay is to sketch out parameters for future scholars to use in assessing the power of neighborhoods in analyzing American ethnic history.
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Hickey, Raymond. Retention and Innovation in Settler Englishes. Edited by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199777716.013.020.
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The transportation of English overseas in the colonial period, between approximately 1600 and 1900, from different parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland led to the rise of diverse varieties of English depending on the source area from which most of the founder generation originated from as well as on the mixture of dialects at the overseas locations and the ecologies of these sites. This study is concerned with the extent to which features of English input to new overseas varieties were retained and what factors were instrumental in this process (e.g., whether the areas are relic or diaspora locations). Further issues in this complex are considered, for example, focusing, reanalysis of variation, internal dialect patterning, and the refunctionalization and reallocation of features. Innovation, as the reverse process of retention, is then considered, specifically the internal and external motivation for this. In addition, shared innovations across the Anglophone world are looked at. Finally, the various models for accounting for the genesis of new varieties of English are examined.
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Ramaswamy, Vijay, Jason T. Huse, and Yasmin Khakoo. Pediatric Brain Tumors. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199937837.003.0140.
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Cerebellar astrocytoma of childhood most commonly refers to cerebellar pilocytic astrocytoma, a World health Organization (WHO) Grade I tumor. However, on occasion cerebellar astrocytomas may demonstrate more aggressive histology including fibrillary astrocytomas, pilomyxoid astrocytomas, and rarely malignant lesions. In the near future, the diagnosis of cerebellar astrocytomas will be simplified by molecular analysis for BRAF fusions rather than a purely morphological approach. The emergence of next-generation sequencing can be expected to identify single nucleotide variations and further expand our understanding of both pilocytic astrocytomas as well as rare variants that occur in the cerebellum. Therapies targeting BRAF (B-raf protooncogene) are currently in clinical trial for adult malignancies and will eventually reach the pediatric population, allowing a targeted approach to recurrent and surgically inaccessible cases of pilocytic astrocytomas.
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Khan, Geoffrey. Ergativity in Neo-Aramaic. Edited by Jessica Coon, Diane Massam, and Lisa Demena Travis. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198739371.013.36.
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Ergativity is found in dialects of Neo-Aramaic that are spoken in regions where there has been extensive contact with Iranian languages, especially Kurdish, over many generations. All such Neo-Aramaic dialects are split ergative, with ergativity found only in verbs with the perfective stem or resultative participles, and the marking of ergativity is by cross-referencing on the verb. The constructions include a type that conforms to split-S morphological ergativity and an assortment of hybrid variations in which there are differing degrees of levelling with the nominative—accusative morphosyntax of imperfective stem verbal forms. These hybrid systems exhibit the alignment of argument cross-referencing but not the morphological markedness of cases characteristic of nominative—accusative systems, morphological markedness of cases based on transitive properties of dynamicity and punctuality rather than argument structure and various degrees of reduction of the distribution of the unmarked absolutive marking of the object in transitive clauses.
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Lindow, John. Old Norse Mythology. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190852252.001.0001.
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Old Norse Mythology treats the mythology of Scandinavia: the gods Þórr (Thor) with his hammer, the wily and duplicitous Óðinn (Odin), the sly Loki, and other mythological figures. They create the world, battle their enemies, and die at the end of the world, which arises anew with a new generation of gods. These stories were the mythology of the Vikings, but they were not written down until long after the conversion to Christianity, mostly in Iceland. The mythology of the Vikings was an oral mythology, without canonical or even fixed texts. Following contemporary research trends, this book recognizes that variation in time and space are to be expected, and it notes rather than tries to resolve inconsistencies. In addition to a broad overview of Nordic myths, the book presents a case study of one myth, which tells of how Þórr (Thor) fished up the World Serpent analysing the myth as a sacred text of the Vikings. Old Norse mythology also explores the debt we owe to medieval intellectuals, who were able to incorporate the old myths into new paradigms that helped the myths to survive when they were no longer part of a religious system, and it traces the use of the mythology in ideological contexts, from the Viking Age until the twenty-first century.
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Brooks, Risa A. Military Defection and the Arab Spring. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.26.
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The protests that began in Tunisia in December 2010, and quickly spread across the Arab world, have drawn significant attention to the impact of militaries and coercive institutions on protests and revolutionary movements. The actions of the militaries were a central determinant of the outcomes of the uprisings of 2010–2011. In Tunisia and Egypt the decision by military leaders to abstain from using force on mass protests to suppress them led to the downfall of the countries’ autocrats. In Syria and Bahrain, militaries defended political leaders with brutal force. In Yemen and Libya, militaries fractured, with some units remaining allied to the leader and using force on his behalf and others defecting. In still other states, leaders and militaries were able to forestall the emergence of large, regime-threatening protests.To explain these divergent outcomes, scholars and analysts have looked to a variety of explanatory factors. These focus on the attributes of the militaries involved, their civil-military relations, the size and social composition of the protests, the nature of the regime’s institutions, and the impact of monarchical traditions. These explanations offer many useful insights, but several issues remain under-studied. These include the impact of authoritarian learning and diffusion on protest trajectory. They also include the endogeneity of the protests to the nature of a country’s civil-military relations (i.e., how preexisting patterns of civil-military relations affected the possibility that incipient demonstrations would escalate to mass protests). Scholars also have been understandably captivated by the aforementioned pattern of military defection-loyalty, focusing on explaining that observed difference at the expense of studying other dependent variables. The next generation of scholarship on the uprisings therefore would benefit from efforts to conceptualize and investigate different aspects of variation in military behavior.Overall, the first-generation literature has proved enormously useful and laid the foundation for a much richer understanding of military behavior and reactions to popular uprisings in the Arab world and beyond.
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Holroyd, Christopher R., Nicholas C. Harvey, Mark H. Edwards, and Cyrus Cooper. Environment. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0038.
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Musculoskeletal disease covers a broad spectrum of conditions whose aetiology comprises variable genetic and environmental contributions. More recently it has become clear that, particularly early in life, the interaction of gene and environment is critical to the development of later disease. Additionally, only a small proportion of the variation in adult traits such as bone mineral density has been explained by specific genes in genome-wide association studies, suggesting that gene-environment interaction may explain a much larger part of the inheritance of disease risk than previously thought. It is therefore critically important to evaluate the environmental factors which may predispose to diseases such as osteorthritis, osteoporosis, and rheumatoid arthritis both at the individual and at the population level. In this chapter we describe the environmental contributors, across the whole life course, to osteoarthritis, osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis, as exemplar conditions. We consider factors such as age, gender, nutrition (including the role of vitamin D), geography, occupation, and the clues that secular changes of disease pattern may yield. We describe the accumulating evidence that conditions such as osteoporosis may be partly determined by the early interplay of environment and genotype, through aetiological mechanisms such as DNA methylation and other epigenetic phenomena. Such studies, and those examining the role of environmental influences across other stages of the life course, suggest that these issues should be addressed at all ages, starting from before conception, in order to optimally reduce the burden of musculoskeletal disorders in future generations.
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Holroyd, Christopher R., Nicholas C. Harvey, Mark H. Edwards, and Cyrus Cooper. Environment. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0038_update_001.
Full textAbstract:
Musculoskeletal disease covers a broad spectrum of conditions whose aetiology comprises variable genetic and environmental contributions. More recently it has become clear that, particularly early in life, the interaction of gene and environment is critical to the development of later disease. Additionally, only a small proportion of the variation in adult traits such as bone mineral density has been explained by specific genes in genome-wide association studies, suggesting that gene-environment interaction may explain a much larger part of the inheritance of disease risk than previously thought. It is therefore critically important to evaluate the environmental factors which may predispose to diseases such as osteorthritis, osteoporosis, and rheumatoid arthritis both at the individual and at the population level. In this chapter we describe the environmental contributors, across the whole life course, to osteoarthritis, osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis, as exemplar conditions. We consider factors such as age, gender, nutrition (including the role of vitamin D), geography, occupation, and the clues that secular changes of disease pattern may yield. We describe the accumulating evidence that conditions such as osteoporosis may be partly determined by the early interplay of environment and genotype, through aetiological mechanisms such as DNA methylation and other epigenetic phenomena. Such studies, and those examining the role of environmental influences across other stages of the life course, suggest that these issues should be addressed at all ages, starting from before conception, in order to optimally reduce the burden of musculoskeletal disorders in future generations.
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Murer, Heini, Jürg Biber, and Carsten A. Wagner. Phosphate homeostasis. Edited by Robert Unwin. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0025.
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Inorganic phosphate ions (H2PO4−/ HPO42−) (abbreviated as Pi) are involved in formation of bone and generation of high-energy bonds (e.g. ATP), metabolic pathways, and regulation of cellular functions. In addition, Pi is a component of biological membranes and nucleic acids. Only about 1% of total body Pi content is present in extracellular fluids, at a plasma concentration in adults within the range 0.8–1.4 mMol/L (at pH 7.4 mostly as HPO42−), with diurnal variations of approximately 0.2 mM. A small amount of plasma Pi is bound to proteins or forms complexes with calcium. Under normal, balanced conditions, absorption of dietary Pi along the small intestine equals the output of Pi via kidney and faeces. Renal excretion of Pi represents the key determinant for the adjustment of normal Pi plasma concentrations. Renal reabsorption of Pi occurs along the proximal tubules by sodium-dependent Pi cotransporters that are strictly localized at the apical brush border membrane. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and FGF23 are key regulators amongst a myriad of factors controlling excretion of Pi in urine, mostly by changes of the apical abundance of Na/Pi cotransporters. Hypophosphataemia may result in osteomalacia, rickets, muscle weakness, and haemolysis. Hyperphosphataemia can lead to hyperparathyroidism and severe calcifications in different tissues.
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Chen, Ling. Manipulating Globalization. Stanford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.11126/stanford/9781503604797.001.0001.
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The era of globalization saw China emerge as the world’s manufacturing titan. However, the “made in China” model—with its reliance on cheap labor and thin profits—has begun to wane. Beginning in the 2000s, the Chinese state shifted from attracting foreign investment to promoting technological competitiveness of domestic firms. This shift, however, caused tensions between winners and losers, leading local bureaucrats to compete for resources in government budget, funding, and tax breaks. While bureaucrats successfully built coalitions to motivate businesses to upgrade in some cities, in others, vested interests within the government deprived businesses of developmental resources and left them in a desperate race to the bottom. In Manipulating Globalization, Ling Chen argues that the roots of coalitional variation lie in the type of foreign firms with which local governments forged alliances. Cities that initially attracted large global firms with a significant share of exports were more likely to experience manipulation from vested interests down the road compared to those that attracted smaller foreign firms. The book develops the argument with in-depth interviews and tests it with quantitative data across hundreds of Chinese cities and thousands of firms. Chen advances a new theory of economic policies in authoritarian regimes and informs debates about the nature of Chinese capitalism. Her findings also shed light on state-led development and coalition formation in other emerging economies that comprise the new “globalized” generation.
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Notaker, Henry. Food Culture in Scandinavia. Greenwood Press, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9798400652448.
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The food cultures of Scandinavian countries are similar in important ways but also have many different traditions because of variations in geography and climate and unique social, cultural and political history. Food Culture in Scandinavia covers Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland's unique and common foodways, all in the context of significant recent changes. This is the most exhaustive overview available in English with all the latest insight. Students writing country reports and food mavens get the up-to-date scoop from an insider on how Scandinavians eat and live. Readers see how everyday food habits are quickly changing in Scandinavia, mostly in urban areas and among the younger generation. The trends are shown to stem from Scandinavians travelling more, Americanization and globalization, new immigrants bringing their cuisines, classic national and regional products being revitalized, high-end restaurants for the new business elite springing up, and a growing interest in healthful and organic food. The Historical Overview chapter lays the groundwork to understand the evolution from the traditional Scandinavian fare—fish, porridge, bread, milk. A chapter on major foods and ingredients elaborates on these staples and more and updates their use. In the Cooking chapter, the new gender dynamics are discussed in terms of who is shopping and cooking and especially the impact of the supermarket. Typical Meals discusses the mainstays for daily fare and notes the biggest changes in the choices of pizza and fast food for youth. Eating out in Scandinavia is becoming more common, and Chapter 5 highlights the growing options for casual family meals out, business and school lunches, as well as take-out food and more. The Special Occasions chapter illuminates the major events in the calendar, especially the magical Christmas time plus the famous seasonal fests such as Midsummer in Sweden and life-cycle events such as weddings, where innovation is expected. A final chapter on diet and health emphasizes the familiar health concerns related to diets too high in fat and sugar and too low in vegetables and fruit. A timeline, selected bibliography, illustrations, and classic recipes complement the narrative.
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Benestad, Rasmus. Climate in the Barents Region. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.655.
Full textAbstract:
The Barents Sea is a region of the Arctic Ocean named after one of its first known explorers (1594–1597), Willem Barentsz from the Netherlands, although there are accounts of earlier explorations: the Norwegian seafarer Ottar rounded the northern tip of Europe and explored the Barents and White Seas between 870 and 890 ce, a journey followed by a number of Norsemen; Pomors hunted seals and walruses in the region; and Novgorodian merchants engaged in the fur trade. These seafarers were probably the first to accumulate knowledge about the nature of sea ice in the Barents region; however, scientific expeditions and the exploration of the climate of the region had to wait until the invention and employment of scientific instruments such as the thermometer and barometer. Most of the early exploration involved mapping the land and the sea ice and making geographical observations. There were also many unsuccessful attempts to use the Northeast Passage to reach the Bering Strait. The first scientific expeditions involved F. P. Litke (1821±1824), P. K. Pakhtusov (1834±1835), A. K. Tsivol’ka (1837±1839), and Henrik Mohn (1876–1878), who recorded oceanographic, ice, and meteorological conditions.The scientific study of the Barents region and its climate has been spearheaded by a number of campaigns. There were four generations of the International Polar Year (IPY): 1882–1883, 1932–1933, 1957–1958, and 2007–2008. A British polar campaign was launched in July 1945 with Antarctic operations administered by the Colonial Office, renamed as the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS); it included a scientific bureau by 1950. It was rebranded as the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) in 1962 (British Antarctic Survey History leaflet). While BAS had its initial emphasis on the Antarctic, it has also been involved in science projects in the Barents region. The most dedicated mission to the Arctic and the Barents region has been the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), which has commissioned a series of reports on the Arctic climate: the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) report, the Snow Water Ice and Permafrost in the Arctic (SWIPA) report, and the Adaptive Actions in a Changing Arctic (AACA) report.The climate of the Barents Sea is strongly influenced by the warm waters from the Norwegian current bringing heat from the subtropical North Atlantic. The region is 10°C–15°C warmer than the average temperature on the same latitude, and a large part of the Barents Sea is open water even in winter. It is roughly bounded by the Svalbard archipelago, northern Fennoscandia, the Kanin Peninsula, Kolguyev Island, Novaya Zemlya, and Franz Josef Land, and is a shallow ocean basin which constrains physical processes such as currents and convection. To the west, the Greenland Sea forms a buffer region with some of the strongest temperature gradients on earth between Iceland and Greenland. The combination of a strong temperature gradient and westerlies influences air pressure, wind patterns, and storm tracks. The strong temperature contrast between sea ice and open water in the northern part sets the stage for polar lows, as well as heat and moisture exchange between ocean and atmosphere. Glaciers on the Arctic islands generate icebergs, which may drift in the Barents Sea subject to wind and ocean currents.The land encircling the Barents Sea includes regions with permafrost and tundra. Precipitation comes mainly from synoptic storms and weather fronts; it falls as snow in the winter and rain in the summer. The land area is snow-covered in winter, and rivers in the region drain the rainwater and meltwater into the Barents Sea. Pronounced natural variations in the seasonal weather statistics can be linked to variations in the polar jet stream and Rossby waves, which result in a clustering of storm activity, blocking high-pressure systems. The Barents region is subject to rapid climate change due to a “polar amplification,” and observations from Svalbard suggest that the past warming trend ranks among the strongest recorded on earth. The regional change is reinforced by a number of feedback effects, such as receding sea-ice cover and influx of mild moist air from the south.