Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Gender equity'

Gender equity in higher education is more than putting women on equal footing with men. It is eliminating barriers to participation and stereotypes that limit the opportunities and choices for both sexes. Gender equity is about enriching classrooms, widening opportunities, and expanding choices for all students. And I consider that this supposition can be applied not only to the education but all rhetoric of everyday life. Thus, the goal of gender education is not only to provide students with proper knowledge, but deconstruct stereotypes in their thinking and behaviour. Hence, all courses about gender issues must be based on the principle “explain to me – and I will forget; show me – and I will remember; let me participate – and I will understand”. The teaching methodology in subject-orientated (gender) class first of all must be targeted at active student-centered learning (learning by doing and changing by learning).

Gender equity has been a national and global aim for over half a century (Ceci & Williams, 2007; National Center for Education Statistics, 2003; National Science Board, 2008). While gains have been made, one area where inequity remains is spatial reasoning ability, where a large gender gap in favor of males has persisted over the years (Else-Quest, Linn, & Shibley Hyde, 2010; National Science Board, 2008; Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006). This gender gap in spatial reasoning has had substantial societal impact on the career interests of females in areas of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM), contributing to the larger societal need to engage non-dominant groups in these fields to reduce outsourcing (Ceci & Williams, 2007; Jaschik, 2007; Wai, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2009; White, 1992). Both spatial reasoning ability and STEM career interest have been related to science museum visits (Hamilton, Nussbaum, Kupermintz, Kerkhoven, & Snow, 1995; Salmi, 2001, 2002). However, researchers have also found a gender gap in favor of males in regard to science museum attendance and experiences once at the museum (Borun, 1999; Crowley, 2000). There are many suggestions for increasing female engagement at science museums and creating equitable experiences, but few have been systematically studied (Kekelis, Heber, & Countryman, 2005; Koke, 2005; Maher, 2005; Taylor, 2005). This research investigated gender equitable exhibit development by enhancing a geometry exhibit with several female-friendly design features and analyzing video data to determine the effects on girls' engagement and social interactions with their caregivers. The findings suggest that incorporating several female-friendly design features leads to significantly higher engagement for girls (evidenced by greater attraction and time spent). This study also looked for any unanticipated negative effects for boys after incorporating the female-friendly design features. It is encouraging that this study was unable to detect any unintended negative effects for boys; however, such non-significant results are inconclusive and should not dissuade future research and design teams from continuing to check for unanticipated ill effects of female-friendly design features for boys. While the positive effects for girls were significant, it is important to note that they were not significantly more positive for girls than for boys; further research is needed to determine whether the female-friendly design features create a more equitable experience for girls, or a more positive experience for everyone. This study did not identify any significant differences in parent-child verbal social interactions between the two versions of the exhibit; however, the pattern of results suggests that gender discrepant parent explanations, as found by Crowley, 2001 in a children's museum, may be less of a concern for girls in science centers, providing an interesting area for future study. This research presents evidence to support incorporating female-friendly design features in future science exhibit development projects, and indicates areas where future studies are still needed to gain a deeper understanding of their effects.

The literature review shows that gender inequality in computer use exists today. The inequality begins at birth with society giving boys and girl's roles that they have to play. One possible solution to gender inequality in computer use is to put a gender equity program in place at public schools. Such a program would have to be woven into teaching practices and school activities to strengthen girls' confidence and their ability to achieve in computers.

Since the late 1970s, the EU has attempted to alleviate gendered labour market inequality throughout its member states with the help of a set of gender equitable policies. While some progress was achieved, both the gender wage gap and the glass ceiling remain firmly in place. Subsequently, women throughout the EU are severely underpaid and under-represented in positions of leadership and power, suggesting that the problem is far from being solved. Why does such blatant gender inequality persist in spite of policies meant to alleviate it? Policies are only as effective as the degree to which they are implemented. This thesis will suggest that the implementation of equity policy is impeded due to a process that renders EU equitable policy less effective than it could be otherwise. Consequently, the policy process needs strengthening and policies need wider utilization by multiple stakeholders, as well as domestic employers to yield greater results.
Depuis la fin des années 1970, l'UE s'est efforcée de réduire les inégalités entre les hommes et les femmes dans le marché du travail des pays membres en établissant des politiques de traitement équitable entre les sexes. Bien qu'on ait fait certains progrès, la disparité salariale entre les sexes et le plafond de verre sont encore fermement en place. En conséquence, les femmes de l'UE sont remarquablement sous-payées et sous-représentées dans les postes de leadership et de pouvoir, ce qui semble démontrer que le problème est loin d'être résolu. Pourquoi une inégalité aussi criante persiste-t-elle malgré les politiques visant à redresser la situation? Les politiques ne sont efficaces que dans la mesure où elles sont mises en œuvre. Cette thèse suggère que la mise en œuvre de la politique d’équité de l’UE est entravée par un processus qui nuit à son efficacité. Par conséquent, si l’on veut atteindre les objectifs visés, il faut renforcer le processus de mise en œuvre de la politique et voir à ce que cette dernière soit plus généralement appliquée par les nombreuses parties intéressées et les employeurs des pays membres.

The status of women in society has improved remarkably in Australia since the early 1900s. This has seen a marked increase in the number of women in the workforce, yet adequate progress towards eradicating gender inequality from Australian workplaces remains to be seen. This lack of sustainable progress in Australia’s attempts to achieve gender equity highlights a need to better understand how organisations are tackling gender inequality in the workplace. A review of the literature reveals gaps in understanding the role leaders can play in achieving effective and sustainable outcomes in gender equity. A qualitative exploratory design using secondary archived audio recordings explores the lived experiences of fourteen WA executive leaders committed to driving gender equality in their organisations, in order to gain insight into the lived experience of leading gender equity in W.A. organisations; identify possible determinants of effective and impactful leadership in gender equity; and 3) lay the foundations for future research. Results from inductive thematic analysis identified three core themes; Internalizing Desire for Gender Equity Action, Create an Environment for Gender Equity Action; and Considerations for Designing Gender Equity Action. Implications of findings for further research and practice are discussed. Keywords: qualitative, secondary, archived, leadership, gender equity

The paper analyses Gender Equality, Gender Equity and policies of combating inequality at workplace to make the society equal as a case study of Sweden. The aim of paper is see the gender equality, gender equity, discrimination against women at workplace and to describe the policies combating inequality in the welfare state of Sweden. This work highlights the gender equality in terms of institutionalizing gender equality, gender equity, gender and pay gap, parental leave, gender and the pension system and sexual behavior directed towards women and policies combating inequality to bring equality in society. For my research I used the secondary data the fact sheets, scientific literature, statistics from eurostate of Sweden and case studies about Swedish society and the theoretical explanation to explain the phenomena. To achieve my aim I used the combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods of research. I showed the empirical evidences of these phenomena from the Swedish society and theoretical analysis about equality and equity of gender in different wakes of life. I found an interesting conclusion that there are good policies and legislation to combat inequality to bring society but there are no policies to change the perception of society about male and female role.

This research investigates some uses of Theatre for Development (TfD) as a concept and method for advancing gender equity in Uganda, focusing on strategies for transformative action, and identifying key themes and issues that the TfD reveals. Having been involved as a researcher and facilitator in previous TfD initiatives aimed at advancing gender equity, I recognised that despite increased attention by development agencies to TfD, the strategies being currently used were prescriptive and informed by a Cartesian conception of gender that was antagonistic to both culture and men, both of which became derogatively identified as the constraints to women’s empowerment. This study recognises the centrality of experience as a point of departure for gender analysis and as the pretext for transformative action. It seeks to contribute to understanding how women and men experience and negotiate gender and the opportunities and constraints of advancing gender equity through TfD. This understanding has implications both for the theory of TfD, and for how practice impacts on that theory. This study is premised on the notion of participation and experience as sites of knowledge. The thesis draws on post-colonial feminist theory and feminist concepts of power as creating capacity to focus consciousness in development (Freire, 1994). I used an action research strategy within a context of TfD workshops to frame and problematise women and men’s experiences of gender. I emphasised both the action and reflection aspects of action research to generate understanding. The fieldwork comprised a series of workshops with gender-mixed adult groups from contexts of hardship and deprivation. The initial strategy involved using story telling to permit the participants to generate their own agenda. This provided a participative interactive space, within which the original stories were subjected to a range of drama workshop techniques, including developing some of the stories into performance text. This problematised the underlying assumptions and attitudes, and permitted the participants to recognise and discuss these in a new light, enabling a shared contextual understanding of women’s oppression as mainly constructed and sustained through gender ideology and for the participants to see previously unrecognised alternatives for action. Privileging experiences as the agenda for praxis facilitated the rehearsal of interventions in a supportive atmosphere enhancing learning and capacity to act against oppression in real life. I posited a circle of relations method as useful in deconstructing stereotypical ways of seeing, enabling reflexivity, creating empathy and transformations based on increased awareness. The problematisation of experiences through cycles of planning, action and reflection provided multiple positions for reflexivity, highlighting similarities in their lived experiences as women and the contradictions between gender ideology and their experiences. The representational context functioned as a laboratory to identify constraints, prepare and test the ingredients of resistance against oppression, and rehearse more egalitarian relations. When they intervened in the fictional space as real people using real experiences, this transformed the theatre space into a liminal space for learning. In this experience, new challenges arising from the interface of the two worlds are constituted as subjects of praxis. The knowledge gained becomes the building blocks for action in real life. The involvement of men in a performative context provided them the opportunity to interact with women and to problematise what they are limited from experiencing by hierarchy and gender ideology. Women and men performed and rehearsed roles beyond what the gender would normally permit. Men’s participation provided understanding of their perceptions and informed action and knowledge upon which one could premise interventions that are contextually relevant. However, an analysis of the men’s responses indicated that prescribing gender as the explicit agenda could elicit some alienation and resistance from men. Nonetheless, the TfD provided a liminal space enabling women and men to generate ‘activity in each other’, and to test the feasibility of their strategies through action. Women gained a sense of accomplishment, experiencing change in their physical wellbeing and an enhanced capacity to perform their daily activities. The process of creating and transforming the characters’ experiences through action and reflection created an empowering dialectical relation between theatre and real life as participants drew from the representational contexts to reflect on their personal experiences and to improve relations in real life contexts. Analysis of the action research revealed that notions of perseverance and desire informed participants’ perceptions of ‘the nature’ of women. Perseverance was perpetuated through the valuation of endurance as power, distorting women’s consciousness and limiting their capacity for reflexivity. While the negative construction of women’s desire was partly culture’s attempt to respond to the vulnerability of women, its construction underscored an ambivalent conception of woman leading to policing of women’s desire and perceiving expressions of women’s sexuality outside the dominant ideological frame as problematic. Poverty emerged as the most significant situation constraining women’s capacity to associate with ‘significant others’ and to quantitatively invest their time and resources. Poverty structured women’s and men’s perceptions of social relations, creating distortions of perception. It constrained women to ‘doing gender’ and competing in performing deference for survival. The study posits that addressing gender-based inequities requires a negotiation strategy that apprehends the complexity of the relations of oppression which are a function of historical interfaces. Theatre as codification executed within action research cycles proved useful in creating critical distancing and for problematising experience and generating knowledge of women’s experiences. The process involved moments of regression arising from fatalism and ingrained gender ideology. This prescribed a need for sustained strategy of action. The findings underscored the need for TfD interventions to recognise consciousness and perceptions as key to development.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Arts
Faculty of Arts
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The purpose of this study was to examine the teaching practices and perceptions of teachers, and how those perceptions and practices contributed to or perpetuated gender equity and inequity in elementary classrooms. Data for this study were collected in three elementary classrooms (third, fourth, and fifth grade) in an urban public school in southern Los Angeles. All three teacher participants were female and were self-identified feminists. The data collected for this study showed coeducational settings to be biased in favor of boys in classroom interactions, students calling-out, teachers calling on students, gender geography, negative student behavior, teacher discipline, early finishers, teacher feedback, the reinforcement of gender roles and stereotypes, classroom climate, lack of feminist pedagogy, classroom practice, gendered language, textbooks, and the use of color in the classroom. The gender-equitable practices the teachers in this study were implementing in their classrooms such as calling on male and female students equally, seating children in coed groups, and making sure that classrooms were gender-balanced was gender-equitable teaching practice, but it only scratched the surface of gender equity. The bias in favor of boys observed in these classrooms was at odds with the teachers' beliefs that they were creating a gender-equitable environment by providing only surface interventions which led to the finding surface equity. Although these teachers were implementing some gender-equitable teaching practices, they were not implementing any revolutionary pedagogy, like feminist pedagogy, which could negate inequity and provide for more than just surface equity. It is recommended that changes be made to policy in teacher education requirements and programs. Ongoing professional development must also be provided to classroom practitioners and educational leaders in order to move beyond surface equity. There must be continued research on gender and the creation of equity to create gender-equitable learning environments that move beyond surface equity to create social change.

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South Korea has undergone many drastic transformations from the time the state formally emerged in 1948 until now, becoming a thriving democracy and the world’s 12th-largest economy. Women in South Korea have enjoyed many aspects of this recovery and rise. According to the 2013 World Economic Forum’s Annual Gender Gap Index, South Korea’s women today have the highest literacy and healthy life expectancy rates in the world. Yet according to the same index, South Korea placed 111th out of 136 countries in gender equality. While this index highlights the need for further improvement, the ranking does not illustrate the whole story of how far Korean women have progressed in their political empowerment. Conventional measurements describe Korean women’s political empowerment status as unfavorable, but closer examination paints a different picture. Increasing economic status, higher education, and strengthening social capital have allowed Korean women to be more involved in civic life, and as a result, to make greater demands for equal representation in politics. All of these factors suggest a trend of continuous progress toward increased political empowerment.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Gender inequity in mathematics performance is a global phenomenon. In both the developed and the developing world, females perform more poorly in mathematics than males at senior secondary school level. In Namibia, the situation is no exception. Examination results for the past few years have shown that males outperform females in mathematics at senior secondary school level. This has resulted in more males taking mathematics as a major subject at tertiary level, with the consequence that they subsequently find better jobs than females. For the purpose of this study, a literature research was done to investigate the factors that might influence the mathematics performance of females and males. The search did not show any significant biological differences between males and females that could explain the differences in performance. Several other factors were, however, identified to playa role in how females perform in mathematics. The factors identified were: interest in mathematics, a person's self-concept, mathematics anxiety, attitude towards mathematics, gender stereotyping, and the roles of the family and teachers. These factors were tested in the Namibian situation by means of a questionnaire that was given to Grade 12 students who do mathematics and it was found that: 1. males and females' attitudes towards mathematics differ significantly. Males seem to have a much more positive attitude towards mathematics; 2. Females experience mathematics anxiety at a higher level than males; 3. Gender stereotyping influences the mathematics performance of females more negatively than males' performance; Family members' influence contributes significantly to the poorer performance of females; 5. Interest in mathematics seems to be higher in males than in females; 6. Teacher influence does not seem to play a significant role in the mathematics performance of males and females. (This is in contrast with the results of the literature review.); and 7. There is no difference in the self-concept of Namibian males and females. To help make mathematics more appealing to girls, the first step is to recognise the disparities. Each person in a girl's circle of family, teachers, community and friends can begin, even before she reaches primary school, to hold high expectations of her and praise her performance. Sophisticated technology is increasingly significant to our nation's economic, political and social health. Almost every element of society - in fields as diverse as music, sports and agriculture - is being touched by technology. To prepare them for.these jobs, we must present science, engineering and mathematics as non-intimidating subjects to every student, so that they will feel encouraged to gain the skills and knowledge necessary for technical careers. As we increasingly become part of the global economy, we must engage the intellectual potential of all our young people.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Geslagsongelykheid in wiskunde prestasies is a globale verskynsel. Daar is bevind dat meisies swakker doen as seuns in wiskunde in die senior sekondere skoolfase in beide die ontwikkelende sowel as die ontwikkelde lande. Namibia is geen uitsondering nie. Eksamenuitslae van die afgelope paar jare het gewys dat seuns baie beter vaar as meisies in wiskunde, spesifiek in die senior sekondere skoolfase. Dit het tot gevolg gehad dat meer seuns wiskunde neem as hoofvak na skool en dat hulle gevolglik beter werksgeleenthede as meisies kry. Vir die doel van hierdie studie is 'n Literatuurstudie gedoen om uit te vind watter faktore beinvloed die wiskunde prestasies van studente. Die literatuurstudie het geen noemenswaardige biologiese verskille tussen seuns en meisies uitgewys wat moontlik die verskil in prestasies kan verklaar nie. Verskeie ander faktore is egter geidentifiseer wat beslis 'n rol speel in wiskunde prestasies van meisies. Die faktore wat geidentifiseer was, is: belangstelling in wiskunde, 'n persoon se selfbeeld, wiskunde angs, 'n persoon se houding teenoor wiskunde, geslags stereotipes, die rol van die familie en onderwysers. Bogenoemde faktore is getoets in die Namibiese situasie by wyse van 'n vraelys wat uitgegee is vir graad 12 leerlinge wat wiskunde doen. Die resultate wat verkry is, is as volg: 1. Daar is 'n groot verskil tussen seuns en meisies se houding teenoor wiskunde. Dit wil voorkom as seuns se houding meer positief is as die van meisies; 2. Meisies ondervind wiskunde angs in 'n groter mate as seuns; 3. Geslagstereotipes het 'n negatiewe invloed op die wiskunde prestasies van meisies; 4. Familielede se invloed speel 'n groot rol in die swakker prestasies van meisies; 5. Seuns stel meer belang in wiskunde as meisies; 6. Dit blyk asof die invloed van onderwysers nie 'n noemenswaardige rol speel in die wiskunde prestasies van studente nie; Dit is teenstrydig met die bevindinge in die literatuurstudie. 7. Daar is geen verskil in die selfbeeld van meisies en seuns nie. Die eerste stap om wiskunde meer aantreklik vir meisies te maak, is om die dispariteit tussen seuns en meisies te erken. Elke persoon wat op enige manier met meisies in aanraking kom, hetsy familie, onderwysers, gemeenskap of vriende kan, selfs voorskool al, begin om hoë verwagtinge van hulle te koester en hulle te prys vir goeie prestasies. Gesofistikeerde tegnologie raak al hoe meer belangrik vir ons nasie se ekonomiese, politiese en sosiale welslae. Bykans elke sektor in ons gemeenskap, so divers soos musiek, sport en landbou, word geraak deur tegnologie. Die wetenskappe, ingenieurswese en wiskunde moet dus, sonder intimidasie, aan elke student aangebied word, om hulle sodoende aan te moedig om die nodige vaardighede te ontwikkel vir tegnies beroepe. Ons moet al ons jongmense se intellektuele potensiaal ten volle benut om in lyn te kom met die wereld ekonomie.

In a similar fashion to many western countries, the political context of Japan has been transformed since the 1975 UN World Conference on Women, which eventually led to the establishment of the Basic Law for a Gender-equal Society in Japan in 1999. The Basic Law sets out a series of general guidelines across every field of society, including education. This trajectory policy research study targets gender issues in Japanese higher education and follows the development of the Basic Law and, in particular, how it has been interpreted by bureaucrats and implemented within the field of higher education. This feminist policy research study examines Japanese power relationships within the field of gender and identifies gender discourses embedded within Japanese gender equity policy documents. The study documents the experiences of, and strategies used by, Japanese feminists in relation to gender equity policies in education. Drawing on critical feminist theory and feminist critical discourse theory, the study explores the relationship between gender discourses and social practices and analyses how unequal gender relations have been sustained through the implementation of Japanese gender equity policy. Feminist critical policy analysis and feminist critical discourse analysis have been used to examine data collected through interviews with key players, including policy makers and policy administrators from the national government and higher education institutions offering teacher education courses. The study also scrutinises the minutes of government meetings, and other relevant policy documents. The study highlights the struggles between policy makers in the government and bureaucracy, and feminist educators working for change. Following an anti-feminist backlash, feminist discourses in the original policy documents were weakened or marginalised in revisions, ultimately weakening the impact of the Basic Law in the higher education institutions. The following four key findings are presented within the research: 1) tracking of the original feminist teachers’ movement that existed just prior to the development of the Basic Law in 1999; 2) the formation of the Basic Law, and how the policy resulted in a weakening of the main tenets of women’s policy from a feminist perspective; 3) the problematic manner in which the Basic Law was interpreted at the bureaucratic level; and 4) the limited impact of the Basic Law on higher education and the strategies and struggles of feminist scholars in reaction to this law.

This study focused on two themes which have recurred in education since the 1980's: equity of educational outcomes for all students and reform in mathematics education. The problem addressed in this study concerned the apparent inability of large- scale reforms to meet equity goals. The purpose of the study was to increase understanding of this problem from both theoretical and practical perspectives. The study was influenced by feminist perspectives in the choice of theoretical framework and methodology. Focusing specifically on gender equity, the study was set in the context of a large-scale reform in the USA, Ohio's Statewide Systemic Initiative, Project Discovery.There were three major objectives in this study. First was to synthesise the literature concerning gender equity in mathematics education to produce a definition of the ideal Connected Equitable Mathematics Classroom (CEMC). There were two parts to the literature review: one concerning explanations for observed gender differences in mathematics education, and another concerning initiatives implemented to try to bring about gender equity in mathematics education.The second objective was to use the definition of the ideal CEMC, derived from the literature, to determine the extent to which reform had occurred in mathematics classrooms in Ohio. This was accomplished through the analysis of quantitative data collected from a random sample of teachers and principals across the state, and qualitative data collected from seven case study sites. The third objective was to determine the barriers to and facilitators of the realisation of equity goals in middle-school mathematics classrooms involved in Project Discovery. This was accomplished through a cross-site analysis of data collected at the seven case- study sites, with the analysis framed around the characteristics of the CEMC.The outcomes of the study are set out in terms of these three objectives, culminating in a discussion of the implications and challenges which the findings of this study pose for researchers, reformers, equity advocates and practitioners.

The 2004 Gender Equity Education Act (GEEA) sought to challenge gender and sexual discrimination in Taiwan by focusing on the importance of spaces of education as sites where gender and sexual identities are normalized and reproduced. This thesis explores the production of the GEEA and its subsequent implementation in two schools in Taipei City. Through reviewing geographical literature on education, children/young people, gender and sexualities, this thesis explores four research questions: (1) how the aims of the GEEA are shaped in Taiwanese policy context; (2) how the GEEA is implemented in schools; (3) how teachers shape young people's gender and sexual identities; (4) how young people's experiences of teaching practices and peer cultures affect their understandings of gender and sexual identities. Methods including discourse analysis, semi-structured interviews, and observation are adopted to answer the above questions. The research aims to challenge the dichotomy of inward- and outward-looking approaches in geographies of education, to expand the construction of childhood and the gender model in existing geographical research in Western contexts, and to further the conceptualisation of different forms of heterosexuality. Consequently, based on empirical findings, the thesis argues that the objective of the GEEA, which is to enable the performance of diverse gender and sexual identities in educational spaces, has not been achieved yet because of the contradictory practices evident within school spaces. In conclusion, the thesis relates the research findings to some of the key debates within contemporary geographical literatures by highlighting the importance of combing inward- and outward-looking approaches to study education, the complex nature of young people's gender identities formation, and the age-dependent form of heterosexuality. Ultimately, this thesis demonstrates the crucial role of education spaces in shaping young people's identities in an East Asian context.

The problem investigated in this study is that gender equity and change management in the City of Cape Town and in particularly the Diversity Equity and Change Management Department, has not been adequately assessed and a coherent set of options to address this problem has not yet been adequately researched. In particular, the situation is that senior management is not representative and that recruitment and appointment procedures as well as the change management process are not conducive to gender equity. The nature of this study is qualitative and the case study method has been utilized. The scope of the study is on gender equity and the change management process followed by management and staff at the City of Cape Town, in particular the Diversity Equity and Change Management Department since 2000 to 2007, with the view of proposing options for improvement. In 2006 the City of Cape Town Employment Statistics indicated that 80% of top management within departments across the City is still white males. At professional and middle management level white males and females dominated this level with 69.5%. In the technical and associate professions, the tally for whites is 38% and at elementary level 6.5% (Department Human Resources HRD IT System, July 2006). In order to equalize employment statistics in the COCT drastic steps should be taken to eliminate imbalances between both Black and white employees in terms of occupational levels. Disadvantaged Black women and men should benefit from employment, recruitment and selection, appointments and training and development processes and the acquisition of knowledge and skills beyond those acquired within the realm of empowerment. However, women should be adequately represented not nearly in the workplace but overall to enable them to participate in the decision-making of important work related and home related issues. Women should keep on addressing inequality and gender equity to enhance change processes and gender awareness amongst themselves and in the workplace. The gender institutional framework within the COCT as a whole in particularly the Diversity Equity department and the active participation in decision-making in the various structures of the City combines with their history of politics in the women&rsquo
s movement to augur well for continued gender sensitivity in policy formulation and outcome.

This thesis investigates gender and performance in the GCE A level examination. It attempts to acquire deeper understanding of the factors that contribute to differential performance at 18+. It identifies a 'cross-over' in gender related patterns of performance in examinations between 16+ and 18+, uses a multi-method approach and a number of sources of data to explain the complex patterns observed. This thesis aims to identify the various factors that contribute to differential performance in examinations and to assess the extent of their influence. The impetus for the research stemmed from a concern that the A level examination has been relatively under-researched in relation to gender-equity issues in examination attainment. Previously, the focus of gender-related differences in examination performance had tended to concentrate on the compulsory stage of schooling. Little is known, therefore, about gender-related performance issues at 18+. In this questions specifically focus on the A level examination and are asked in relation to: how we account for gender-related differences in performance; the contribution of the assessment techniques used to these differences and whether there are content, contexts and tasks types used in these examinations that benefit one gender more than another. Data has been collected, analysed and interpreted from over 3,000 examination scripts, 200 questionnaire responses from secondary school teachers and nine school case studies. Teachers' and students' attitudes to, and perceptions of, gender-related attainment at 18+ are explored for their contribution to differential performance. Three subjects - English literature, mathematics and physics - are used to illustrate the issues that are being considered. This thesis contributes knowledge to the gender-equity debate at one of the most significant stages of examining in the UK. The debate is a complex one and the findings of this thesis reflect this. In this thesis, evidence from the data suggests that any future consideration of equity in relation to examination performance must concern itself not only with the assessment techniques used in the examination system, but also with the expectations, experiences and perceptions of teachers and students who are involved in these examinations.

This study focused on two themes which have recurred in education since the 1980's: equity of educational outcomes for all students and reform in mathematics education. The problem addressed in this study concerned the apparent inability of large- scale reforms to meet equity goals. The purpose of the study was to increase understanding of this problem from both theoretical and practical perspectives. The study was influenced by feminist perspectives in the choice of theoretical framework and methodology. Focusing specifically on gender equity, the study was set in the context of a large-scale reform in the USA, Ohio's Statewide Systemic Initiative, Project Discovery.There were three major objectives in this study. First was to synthesise the literature concerning gender equity in mathematics education to produce a definition of the ideal Connected Equitable Mathematics Classroom (CEMC). There were two parts to the literature review: one concerning explanations for observed gender differences in mathematics education, and another concerning initiatives implemented to try to bring about gender equity in mathematics education.The second objective was to use the definition of the ideal CEMC, derived from the literature, to determine the extent to which reform had occurred in mathematics classrooms in Ohio. This was accomplished through the analysis of quantitative data collected from a random sample of teachers and principals across the state, and qualitative data collected from seven case study sites. The third objective was to determine the barriers to and facilitators of the realisation of equity goals in middle-school mathematics classrooms involved in Project Discovery. This was accomplished through a cross-site analysis of data collected at the seven case- study sites, with the analysis framed around the characteristics of the CEMC.The outcomes of the study are ++
set out in terms of these three objectives, culminating in a discussion of the implications and challenges which the findings of this study pose for researchers, reformers, equity advocates and practitioners.

Abstract My aim was to study gendered structures and processes and the challenges arising from them in primary teacher education. The topic was studied from structural and from agency-based and processual perspectives. The special tools used in the analyses consisted of culturally produced differences and asymmetry and the symbolic meanings given to them. The study included historical and contemporary parts. The historical part of the study acquired its focus through the structures of the first Finnish Teacher Seminar and through three annual curricula of primary teacher education in Oulu. Data for the contemporary analyses were collected during a pedagogic development project carried out at the Oulu Department of Teacher Education in the years 1988–1996 The most visible components of the gender system identifiable in the structures of the first Finnish Teacher Seminar were the following: – different aims for personal growth – sex- and grade-based division of prospective teachers: female teachers for girls of all ages and small boys, male teachers for boys aged 10 or more – differences in study subjects; especially in physical education, handicraft and pedagog – everyday chores and pedagogical tasks of the student – moral code and normative contro – different enrolment requirements The sex-related differences in the first curriculum of the Oulu College of Teacher Education were surprisingly similar to the differences seen in the first Finnish Teacher Seminar. The academic curricula proved to be ostensibly gender-neutral. But the research findings showed, in accordance with several other research findings, that formal neutrality does not eliminate institutionalised gendered features or gendered perspectives for personal and/or professional development. On the basis of the findings, the following aspects of the gender system and gender contracts in contemporary primary teacher education in Oulu could be identified: – Almost without exception, the students qualifying in the education of the first two forms were female. – Female students qualified in various subjects taught in primary school while male students rather tended to acquire their qualifications according to a more personal orientation. Their special qualifications were mostly physical education and technical work. – There was a tendency among the student teachers to notice boys differently from girls and to experience boys as more challenging, and to – interpret pupils’ school achievements in sex-related ways. This tendency was also shared by te pupils.

This thesis is a mixed methods research study that focuses on the evaluation of gender equality in the project-based organisations. It aimed to explore how gender equality initiatives affect representation of women at various levels of organisations and to understand the impact of women’s representation on organisational outcomes. It also aimed to explore the issues of selection and implementation of HR initiatives designed to address equality and diversity. This research extends our knowledge of the effectiveness of gender equality initiatives on women’s representation and the organisational practices in the selection and implementation of formal HR initiatives designed to address it.

Research on reward allocations has consistently found differences in the manner in which men and women allocate rewards between themselves and others (Kahn, O'Leary, Krulewitz, & Lamm, 1980; Major & Adams, 1984; Major & Deaux, 1982). Overall, the research seems to suggest that when asked to divide a reward between themselves and a partner, men tend to use the equity norm to allocate rewards; whereas, women tend to use the equality norm to allocate rewards. However, a number of studies have been conducted which seem to demonstrate that a variety of situational g factors mediate the gender of allocator effects such as input level of the allocator and his/her co-workers, gender of the co-worker, expectancy of future interaction with the co-worker, and type of reward allocation. The purpose of the present research was two-fold: (1) to examine individual differences influencing an allocator's choice of an allocation strategy, such as how anticipation of future interaction with the recipients of an allocation decision would influence an allocator's reward allocation; and (2) whether a person‘s self-esteem level might impact on how an individual might allocate a reward. In general, the results of the current research suggest that previously observed differences between men's and women's allocations may not reflect true underlying differences between the gender; in terms of their preferences for allocation strategies. Allocation strategies appeared to vary as a function of the gender and input levels of the recipients of the reward and whether the type of allocation decision was a joint or independent situation. Both men and women tended to allocate rewards either equitably or using a compromise between equity and equality. Self-esteem was also found to influence the amount of the reward men and women allocated to the high performer and to themselves. Unfortunately, disclosure of allocation was not found to have a major effect upon how subjects allocated rewards. Several alternative explanations for these results are discussed.
Ph. D.

The central aim of this thesis is: to investigate changes in gender equity and equality in Scottish universities from mid-nineteenth century to 2011 with reference to the experiences and attitudes of female and male academics comparing their opportunities for promotion and equal pay. This is introduced with a review of Scottish social, workplace and educational history challenging the traditional Scottish claims for educational and intellectual democracy in terms of inherent inequity and inequality in female education. In addition, the social and educational history is analysed to reveal legacies of gender inequality as they feature in the present-day career experiences and opportunities of female in comparison to male academics.

The Gender Equity Task Team’s (1997) report, Gender Equity in Education, recommends that further research be done to identify the practices perpetuating inequitable gender relations in classrooms and to provide guidelines for teachers and learners to understand the meaning of the gender issues presented in the curriculum (South Africa, 1997:14&16). This research study echoes some of the desires of The Gender Equity Task Team through an exploration that engages with the extent to which gender equity is enacted in Human Rights Education curricula. In particular, the aims of this research study were to; • contest and deconstruct the notion ‘gender equity’ from scholarly perspectives as well as from explicit curriculum, female teachers’ and schoolgirls’ narratives, so as to create an awareness of gender equity in society and curriculum; and • engage with Human Rights Education pedagogical approaches so as to consider the promotion of gender equity through Human Rights Education curricula. The aims of the study were explored through a theoretical framework that engaged with Human Rights Education -, curriculum -, feminist - and gender studies theories. The methodological framework was that of qualitative narrative inquiry. A purposeful sample consisting of South African national curriculum policy documents as well as secondary school female teachers and Grade 9 schoolgirls in semi-rural and inner-city environments was selected. Document research, semi-structured one-on-one interviews and narrative-photovoice were the data collection methods, and critical discourse analysis the analytical framework. These theoretical and methodological stances were purposefully selected juxtaposed to the interests of the international SANPAD (South Africa Netherlands Research Programme on Alternatives in Development) project in which this research study resides, entitled: ‘Human Rights Education in diversity: Empowering girls in rural and metropolitan school environments’ (Roux, 2009). The findings and interpretations derived from the empirical data reveal that the formal Human Rights Education curriculum portrays gender and gender equity nuances as health, social and wellbeing dilemmas that have detrimental and destructive consequences on individuals and on society as a whole. The female teachers and schoolgirls experience gender equity primarily in terms of sameness and ‘being equal’. The elusive, complex nature of gender equity was not prevalent. However, the lived experiences of some female teachers and schoolgirls demonstrated the situatedness of their gender identity through the hidden curriculum and reinforced the notion of gender equity as a social construct. The findings of this research study have refined my understanding of the nuances of gender and gender equity, creating in me a deeper awareness of these concepts. This awareness permeates my vision of the curriculum in particular and the education system and society in general, and makes me want to strive toward fostering transformative curriculum spaces. Another contribution of this research study emerged from the desire to elicit schoolgirls’ narratives with the aid of photographs. By disrupting the boundaries between narrative and photovoice as data collection methods, narrative-photovoice was coined as a methodological contribution to this research study. The value of narrative-photovoice for and within gender studies research is also revealed. The third contribution of this research study emerged in response to the need to enrich the concept of gender equity within Human Rights Education. In effect, critical human rights literacy (HRLit) was conceptualized as a developing normative theory to deconstruct the discursive spaces emerging in Human Rights Education and to critically engage with their meanings.
Thesis (PhD (Curriculum Development Innovation and Evaluation))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

This study explores the existence of gender discriminatory policies and practices facing staff and students in a Nigerian College of Education. The underlying concern is that teachers trained in a gender-discriminatory context could acquire and transmit such values to their pupils, perpetuating gender inequality in society. While keeping the federal context in mind, the study focuses on one teacher training college, with its own particular geographical and cultural locus, to gauge the extent to which it produces and reproduces gender discrimination through its policies and practices. Against the backdrop of feminist theories of gender inequity, the study seeks to enhance our understandings of the institutionalised formal and informal teacher education context, which in particular undermines females' effective participation in the education process and perpetuates discrimination. Radical feminism underpins this study, although liberal and poststructural feminist perspectives are also taken into consideration. The case study's principal data source was semi-structured interviews with the College's students, staff and Management. Other data were gathered through focus group discussions, students' essays, analysis of documents, researcher observations and field notes. The study finds that the gendered culture of the College explicitly and implicitly favours males. While male applicants are favoured in student recruitment and course allocation processes, male teaching and non-teaching staff find favour in employment, promotion, professional growth and Management opportunities. Further, gender-based violence is 'normalised' in the College, with complaints often dismissed as rumours. Given the underlying patriarchal context of their formulation and implementation, current federal and College policies are inadequate to address the gender inequities affecting students and staff. Policies are often ignored or manipulated to serve idiosyncratic and egocentric ends. The study recommends the development of a comprehensive national policy specifically addressing gender discrimination in teacher education alongside the immediate abrogation of existing discriminatory policies. There is also the need for immediate measures to be put in place to address the prevalence of gender violence, some of it of a criminal nature in the College studied. Furthermore, gender and human rights issues should be integrated into the formal teacher education curricula and institutional structures established to monitor the implementation of these changes.

The U.S. feature film industry as a gendered organization, in which networks bound by race, gender, class and overt heterosexuality tend to exclude members of other groups. Hollywood filmmaking is a production process with high uncertainty about how to produce hits, resulting in discretion given to managers to use their personal networks to limit risk. This combination of organizational qualities limits diversity among filmmakers, such that previous research has shown women remain vastly underrepresented both on-screen and behind the camera. Crowdfunding has recently emerged as an alternative to corporate funding and traditional venture capitalism, where people donate small amounts of money online to fund business projects. Given underrepresentation of marginalized groups in the film industry and filmmakers' difficulty funding their projects, I show the use of crowdfunding to answer (1) whether it offers a more gender-equal opportunity than direct funding by major studios and (2) whether the films produced through crowdfunding are more female-centered when compared to non-crowdfunded films. Using a sample of 124 crowdfunded and traditionally funded feature films, released between 2012 and 2014; I found that crowdfunded films were more likely to employ female filmmakers and protagonist(s) than traditionally funded films. Additionally crowdfunded films had more filmmakers who are racial minorities, and filmmakers and protagonist(s) who are gay, lesbian, or bisexual. These results suggest that while women are far from achieving equity in the film industry as filmmakers or protagonists, crowdfunding may provide an alternative avenue for attaining financing for films, outside of the structure of Hollywood studios.
Master of Science

Very few qualitative studies based on first-hand research have been conducted regarding gender equity, especially in the public sector in Japan. The qualitative research in this thesis is therefore unique because it focuses on the public sector employees in a Japanese rural setting. Secondly, this exploratory ethnographic study elucidates the cultural and communication problems connected with gender equity policies in Japan and the social construction of the meaning of gender in a Japanese local government workplace. A feminist conceptual framework was developed to analyse the findings in this thesis, which provides a new interpretation about this social phenomenon. Triangulation was used to enhance the validity of this case study. The major methods used are: (a) open-ended, in-depth interviews with key persons and informal interviews with the employees of the public sector; (b) two focus group discussions: one of six males and six females from three levels in local government; (c) follow up questionnaires of30 male and female workers; (d) participant observation; (e) an analysis of archives of surveys of concepts on gender equity in local government employees, Chitose citizens, and Hokkaido people. As all public organisations are influenced by national government policies on gender equity, the findings are argued to have some generalisability. Being influenced by the world women's conferences since the 1970s, the Japanese government has enforced several gender equity policies. Nevertheless, some empirical secondary data indicate that working environments have changed little since the new law was introduced (Inoue et al., 1999). Under the umbrella of these national policies, local governments established their own plans; however, no effective implementation of these plans has been observed (Yazawa et al., 1997). One possible reason for this is that few people are aware of what gender discrimination means from a sociological point of view. Indeed, few women in Japan have spoken out about gender inequalities. The other reason is the communication barriers that exist between male and female employees in discussing gender relationships (Banzai, 1999; Hale, 1999; Kashima, 1999). Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify hidden cultural and communication barriers in the Japanese workplace in order to facilitate the implementation of gender equity policies.

This study was conducted to determine the significant factors that affected career aspirations for high school seniors in a suburban school. It also analyzed differences in females' and minorities' college plans, diploma type, and changes in career aspirations from 1986 to 1996. The research design was a causal comparative statistical analysis replicating a 1986 study at the same school. In-depth investigations into female and minority aspirations were also expanded in this 1996 study. The population (N = 577) was 81% Caucasian, 9.5% Asian, 4.5% African American, 4% Hispanic and 1% American Indian. A preliminary survey established the ratings of the occupations based on societal prestige. Data on career aspiration, ethnicity, gender, parents' education, grade-point average, diploma type and college plans were collected from the seniors using the Harrington-O'Shea career cluster form and two other surveys. The researcher operationally defined student aspiration levels by assigning the mean occupational rank from the preliminary survey to each student's choice of career. The seniors' aspiration data were analyzed using Chi-square Tests of Association, One-Way Analyses of Variance, Pearson Correlation and Scheffe comparisons. There was a significant correlation between the 1996 seniors' career aspirations and two variables: grade-point average (p=.000) and fathers' education (p=.003). There was a significant relationship between the female seniors' career aspiration and their graduation years, 1986 and 1996 (p=.000); the 1996 females had higher career aspirations. Both the 1996 female and minority seniors achieved significantly higher percentages of Advanced Studies Diplomas with the Governor's seal (p=.000) and significantly higher percentages of aspirations for college (p=.000) than their 1986 peers. Another important finding was that the means of female seniors' career aspirations were just as high as their 1996 male counterparts; this was not true in 1986. Also, the 1996 minority seniors had slightly higher career aspiration means than their Caucasian peers. This study suggests that educators can reflect on what has been done during the last decade to empower females and minorities. It also challenges educators to continue to seek better curriculum and career opportunity programs to overcome the institutional sexism and racism that may interfere with students' aspirations.
Ed. D.

Studiens syfte var att undersöka om en jämställd fördelning av hushållssysslor och omsorg om barn påverkar föräldrars planer på att utöka familjen, samt hur värderingar angående jämställdhet samspelar med beteende gällande arbetsfördelning. I många europeiska länder är fertiliteten låg vilket kopplas till att kvinnors roller har förändrats under senare decennier. Andelen kvinnor i högre utbildning samt i förvärvsarbete har ökat, medan kvinnorna fortsätter att ta majoriteten av ansvaret för hem och barn. I Sverige är andelen förvärvsarbetande kvinnor hög samtidigt som även barnafödandet är relativt högt. Svensk familjepolitik har sedan 1960-talet skapat förutsättningar för jämställdhet och givit föräldrar konkreta möjligheter att dela lika på omsorgen om barn. Studiens teoretiska ramverk bygger på tre perspektiv. Gender equity theory utgår från att obalansen mellan graden av jämställdhet i samhället respektive inom familjen bidrar till lägre barnafödande. Gender revolution perspektivet vidareutvecklar detta och menar att ett ökat barnafödande är kopplat till att männen deltar aktivt i omsorg om barn och hem. Gender ideology perspektivet undersöker samspelet mellan värderingar och beteende, och hur detta har en betydelse för hur man upplever sin situation. Data är inhämtat från Generations and Gender Survey, och urvalet består av kvinnor och män som är 25-44 år, som lever i parförhållande och har ett eller två barn. Studiens beroende variabel är “barnplaner”, förklaringsvariabler är fördelning av omsorg om barn och hushållssysslor, samt variabler om jämställda attityder avseende mammors och pappors arbete, och materialet analyserades med hjälp av logistisk regression. Resultaten visade ett positivt samband mellan jämställd fördelning av omsorg om barn och planer på att utöka familjen, som dock endast var signifikant när interaktionen mellan värderingar och arbetsfördelning inkluderas i modellerna. Högst benägenhet att vilja utöka familjen har de individer som jämställt delar på omsorgen om barnen, men som har traditionella värderingar angående mammors arbete.

Thesis (MBA.) -- University of Limpopo, 2017
This study looked into the effectiveness of the Social and Labour Plan on addressing the gender equity in selected mining houses in Lephalale. The newly elected democratic government of South Africa introduces numerous strategic policies to open all sectors of economy for all South Africans, but with special emphasis on the historically disadvantaged, which include women and people with disability as part of its economic emancipation policy. Hence the Social and Labour Plan was adopted. The main aim of the study was to investigate the effect of the Social and Labour Plan (SLP) in selected mining houses in Lephalale. A qualitative approach was used for this study, and interviews were contacted to collect data and thematic analysis used to analyse the data. It was found that the Social and Labour Plan (SLP) in the mines was not working fully and effectively. Also the research findings included, among others slow implementation of policies, more males than females, white male dominance, and discrimination of women, transformation, where taking place both on race and gender, only at snail pace and the lack of enforcement for implementation of policies such as the Social and Labour Plan (SLP) by the Department of Miners and Resources (DMR). Amongst other revelations were inequality issues, discrimination and nepotism experienced by women. Based on the finding the researcher recommended that mining organisations should review their mining Social Labour Plan (SLP) so that they state very clearly the number of women to be employed by the organisations, and such document once approved by the Department of Mineral Resources (DMR), should be complied to. Furthermore the Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) should commit to an annual review of the Social and Labour Plan Report performance by mining companies, instead of waiting for five years.

This study was conducted in order to discover existing barriers that discourage females from enrolling in technology education (TED) classes in high school and college and to offer suggestions on ways to overcome those barriers. A pilot study was conducted in 2005 at an International Technology Educatorâs Association (ITEA) National Conference to help inform the researcher on the best way to collect data for the study. Participants for the pilot study included female technology education students from several major universities around the country. As a result of the pilot study, qualitative research methods were utilized including a survey for demographics, focus groups, small group interviews, and document analysis. The subjects for the current study were male and female students attending a major university who were enrolled in technology education courses as well as a group of females who were not technology education majors. Three groups were interviewed for the study: one group was comprised of females majoring in technology education, a second group was made up of females enrolled in an introductory graphic communications class who were not technology education majors, and the final group was a group of male technology education majors. Analysis of the data explored possible explanations for and solutions to low female enrollment in technology education and technology-related fields which could influence the way technology education and STEM classes are taught in the future.

Almost two decades after the end of apartheid, the higher education system in South Africa remains marked by inequity at both staff and student levels. Current research in this area focuses on measuring inequity but does little to explain why and how it persists. This research explores gender and race equity in South African universities using three critical case studies of the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, the University of Pretoria, and the University of Cape Town. Using Dorothy Smith’s Institutional Ethnography, broadly conceived, this research examines the daily practices, processes and discourses that give rise to inequitable institutions. The case study of the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal revealed disjunctures between the push in commercialising universities, illustrated in the new managerialist approach and focus on research, on one hand, and the State’s goal to transform and redress, on the other. This tension was articulated in the incongruence between boss texts, such as the Employment Equity Act, and more local institutional texts that emphasised the employment of “productive” staff members. These competing national and institutional demands and pressures blunted the impact of equity policies and strategies. In the case study of the University of Pretoria, gender and racial inequity is maintained and reproduced through various practices and processes, some formal and others informal, both at institutional and individual levels. Students reproduced the racialism and racism that forms part of racial interaction in broader South African society. Despite having equity policies in place, there were significant enclaves of inequity, shown through the lack of female representation in some departments and in student politics, and importantly in the de facto segregation that continues in the student body. In the case study of the University of Cape Town, institutional structures and practices that both maintain and reproduce inequality were identified. In this instance, the formal arrangements and structures of the university were found to lead to the exclusion of and discrimination against certain groups of people. Examples of such institutional structures and processes include, but are not limited to: the concentration of power at middle management; the white-male domination in senior management; and the absence of an intersectional approach in equity policies and measures. Thus despite important progressive policies and ideals, the structural nature of the university served as one of the key obstacles to racial and gender equity. Together, the case studies carried out point to the objectified forms of consciousness and organisation that rely on and help create textual realities. The management of equity in South African institutions is characterised by disjunctures and competing interests and not necessarily by poor implementation, which has been suggested as the explanation by other researchers. The discourses of race, and gender that dominate South African society play an important role in informing how equity matters are managed and experienced at the local level. The local practices and realities of individual Universities should be understood as being framed and influenced by the ruling relations of higher education and the State.

This study analyzes the under-representation of women in engineering occupations and investigates different types of discrimination that drive women from engineering careers. A male/female interaction continuum created by New Dynamics Consulting is introduced to provide a visual representation of the range of behaviors exhibited by both men and women. The continuum shows a progressive path that describes a range of non-collaborative to collaborative behaviors which begin with dominant and subordinate stereotypes and transitions to mutual colleagueship between the genders. By understanding how an organization falls on the continuum, corrective actions may be established for individuals and groups in an effort to modify and eliminate the behaviors that do not support colleagueship and that contribute to the attrition of women engineers. The national gender wage gap between men and women is analyzed and further broken down into its main contributors and is offered as a metric to be used to determine the success of eliminating inherent gender discrimination. A root cause is then presented based on men’s core beliefs and attitudes towards women in the technical workplace. Suggested corrective actions are itemized to prevent extensive litigation such as the nation’s largest class action gender discrimination lawsuit against Wal-Mart.
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A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the Wits School of Education, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2016.
Gender inequality has been an area of concern internationally, regionally and nationally. Black South African women in general suffered triple oppression during the apartheid regime, based on race, gender and class oppression. Higher education mirrored the varied forms of marginalisation that existed in society and therefore the majority did not have the access to quality higher education afforded their white minority counterparts. The few black women who did have access were concentrated in historically disadvantaged institutions or studied through correspondence (Chisholm & September, 2005). The courses for which they were enrolled were aimed at perpetuating male dominance in the public sphere and domesticating them through women’s traditional roles of nurturing and caring. With the advent of democracy in 1994 the gates of higher education were opened to students who had previously been excluded. Effectively, black people in general and women in particular benefitted from race and gender categories of equity, according to the Department of Education, White Paper (1997). The equity clause that has been integrated in higher education policies encapsulates a clause that targets the redress of gender-related inequities and inequalities, aimed at ameliorating women’s access to higher education. Although race, gender and disability were identified, the National Plan (2001) notes that race equity had been given primacy in policies over gender equity. I argue that aggregated data emanating from recent studies in higher education indicate that 57% of the current female population are accessing public higher education. Although the figures from documentary evidence affirm a high presence, on examination of other factors this study found a more nuanced picture. Specifically, a change in equity deduced from the same data indicates that fewer women were enrolled in courses such as Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) or in postgraduate studies. Other areas of concern include high dropout rates, attrition and throughput (CHE, 2010; Draft Green Paper, 2012). This argument is made using theoretical and thematic exploration of post-apartheid South African gender equity reform agenda in higher education. In addition, higher education policy documents (National Council for Higher Education, 1996; White Paper, 1997; Higher Education Act, 1997; National Plan for Higher Education, 2001) and gender laws and frameworks have informed the study. It has aligned itself to one of the goals of White Paper (1997) that noted that in order for equity to be meaningful to the formerly disadvantaged; access and success have to run concurrently. Ultimately, the study has contended that by homogenising women the particular contexts of social justice have not been recognised (Young, 1990). The implication of the misrecognition of the particular and specific experiences of black women in higher education could be contributing to the enigmatic low throughput, high dropout rates and high levels of attrition currently being experienced in higher education. This thesis poses a challenge to policymakers and institutions of higher learning to shift their attention from viewing the attainment of gender equity and equality through notions of expanded access (global participation). To narrow the current gap it proposes a hybridisation of equity and equality policies (macro) with initiatives that target the particular and specific conditions (micro) of black women who access higher education. Key words: gender, equity, higher education, post-apartheid, policy, women.

Grounded in feminist epistemology, the study focused on the concepts of location, social position, gender and Affirmative Action to assess the social phenomenon of inequality in the distribution of public university educational opportunities in 4 regions and 112 districts of Uganda. The study used district level data of a student population of 101,504 admitted to five public universities from 2009-2017, to construct the ‘Fair Share Index’ (FSI) as a measure of higher educational inequality. Based on the FSI, the Fair Share Equity Framework of analysis was created, developed, applied and used extensively in the study, to incorporate ‘equity’ as a ‘third’ dimension in the assessment of higher educational distribution in Uganda. The Education Equity Index (EEI) was computed for each of four regions and 112 districts of the country. The EEI was defined as the difference between the Fair Share Index (FSI) or population quota and the actual proportion of the student population allocated to a region or district of the country. The index measures the ‘Fair Share Gap’ in the distribution of higher educational opportunities from one region and district of the country to another, based on the changing configurations of population quota and the actual student population allocated over the years. It shows the extent of the gains or losses incurred in the distribution of public university education by a district over time, and the extent of inequality in access to public university educational opportunities as a resource in regions and districts of the country. The Fair Share framework defines, conceptualises, measures and incorporates the discourse of equity as a dimension of educational distribution in ways not previously reported. By so doing, the author addresses the puzzling complexities of the social phenomenon of inequality in higher education and in development, in ways not previously reported. The new methodology is based on the feminist Standpoint theorythe notion that the social phenomenon of inequality is socially, historically and culturally situated and that its investigation and analysis must be placed in the context of the location of the social phenomenon itself. On that basis, the Fair Share Equity Framework does not simply offer a perspective; it provides a rigorous and an innovative methodology, which simplifies investigation of the social phenomenon. In the entire study, the researcher endeavored to systematically illustrate the theoretical and empirical paradigms of the Fair Share Framework as a new contribution to knowledge and an important effort towards the greater goal for equity and gender equality in higher education. The study found that social location and gender were the main factors in Uganda’s public university educational inequality. Ninety-point-five (90.5) percent of the total student population was found in the top 20 per cent of districts of Uganda. Seven (7) out of every 10 students selected for undergraduate programmes were from three (3) districts; Up to 82 per cent qualified from schools located in five districts; and a single private high school accounted for as many students as the number that came from a total of 733 public schools. While half the population of women in public university education was in one out of ten colleges, eight of out of every ten were in two colleges. In the rest of eight public university colleges, men outnumbered women by a ratio of 8:2. Owing to the district factor, the high school factor and Affirmative Action, gender remains the main factor in Uganda’s public university educational inequality. The representation of women tended to be lower in fields where jobs have considerable national appeal but it was higher in fields where prospects, status and potential for future income, power and access to resources are considerably lower within the historical, social and cultural context of Uganda. Access and distribution criteria mainly favored students from the top districts and high schools in the country. Although Affirmative Action opened doors for more women in higher education, the doors that were opened were not necessarily for historically excluded. The programme tended to benefit primarily the most fortunate, failing to reach the most marginalised, the excluded and the hard to reach on grounds that it was implemented for competitive reasons. In the distribution policies, systems and practices, emphasis was laid on the supply side rather than demand. In spite of the introduction of a district quota-based policy in 2005, the distribution system did not work for students from underprivileged schools in remote districts of Uganda. The majority of women and men who lagged behind originated from remote and disadvantaged districts. There was a significant binary divide. While the men occupied one section of the colleges, women were in the other section of the colleges. The benefit of Affirmative Action programme was limited to a specific category of women, from specific districts and a few top secondary schools in the country. Women faced considerable barriers, particularly in science education, due to the lack of effective policies to address college-based inequalities related to intake, and the transition from high school to higher levels of education. In recent times, considerable emphasis has been laid on studies that assess the social phenomena of inequality from an income and wealth distribution or inputs and output dimensions. Building its foundation from the feminist theories of knowledge, the framework stands out, for its emerging perspectives on the concepts that constitute the notion of equity. It explores new discourses and provides a theoretical framework that can be deployed in fields of development to deconstruct the conundrum and address the complexities of inequality. It presents a rigorous and systematic approach; contributes to the theoretical and empirical relevance of the feminist Standpoint epistemology and to a scientific vision in the study of inequality in all fields of development. When Uganda moved to universal primary schooling system, policy makers appear not to have anticipated the implications of this move for the country’s secondary and higher education system. The higher education distribution system has thus continued to aspire to its original elite model. This is not because it is insensitive and irresponsible, but because it is not structurally ready to accommodate the upcoming burden of mass and universal primary and secondary schooling. This malaise has distorted the notion of equity and equality in the distribution system, shifting the developments in Uganda’s higher educational distribution system rapidly in an opposite direction. The distribution of public university education in Uganda has thus become less of a central government function and more of a private affair, signaling a much deeper crisis – the degree to which admission policies, systems and practices may structurally deter the national equity, equality and empowerment agenda. This study dealt with the structural issues that influence equity and gender dynamics in the distribution of public university education in Uganda. It offers recommendations that address the failure of the national merit system in underprivileged schools in remote districts of Uganda. As presented, the Fair Share Equity Framework is my own construct and innovation. It was inspired by 20 years of experience in development, working with seven major International Non Governmental Organizations (INGOs), as well as with local civil society groups and communities in Africa, Asia and Latin America. I was concerned with what appeared to be the sheer absence of methodologies that attempt to advance the application and use of the concept of ‘equity’ and ‘Fair Share’ in public policy; and in the investigation of the growing forms of geographical inequality; particularly in regions and districts of countries such as Uganda, where access to development resources such as higher educational opportunities is significantly hampered by the lack of space due to the limited state’s capacity for long term planning and inadequate tax-based models for financing of educational infrastructure. The study defines what constitutes ‘equity’ as a ‘dimension’ of educational distribution. It illustrates a clear gap between the government’s attempts to increase access to secondary education and the status of access to higher education. Its show the pitfalls in the governance framework currently guiding the higher education system, which primarily benefits students from a few districts in the country. This perpetuates a system that rewards only the privileged. The Fair Share methodology shows how the feminist Standpoint theory provides for the use of the feminist concept of social location in education; and in the understanding of how inequality in the distribution of higher education can be naturalised and legitimised in everyday life. It ascertains the nature of districts for which the distribution policy and system is most effective and the category of districts that lag behind. Its thesis is the notion that inequality in access to higher education cannot be corrected, without the synchrony between government’s efforts in ensuring access to primary and secondary education and an open strategy to achieve equity in higher education across the entire country. A case is made, that in order to address the social phenomenon of inequality in the distribution of higher education in regions and districts of Uganda, the proportion of all members from each district, who have the minimum level of preparation to participate in higher education should be determined by a Fair Share Index. The Fair Share Index provides a rigorous perspective on the discourse of equity; a perspective, which simplifies investigation and contributes to the scientific vision of the feminist Standpoint empiricism.
Development Studies
D. Phil. (Development Studies)

碩士
國立高雄師範大學
性別教育研究所
95
This action research is to explore the gender politice in traditional folk customs by working with a class of grade of four students in an elementary school. In order to help students discover the gender relations in and the impact on folk customs and activities, a teaching plan which integrates concepts of gender equity education into courses of folk customs is designed. The themes of the folk courses are two folk customs, giving birth and getting married. The courses intend to explore three unfair gender relationships: the dichotomy of gender, the women by otherized, and the concept of having a son to carry on the family name. During the teaching process, I found that I myself still keep integral and monolithic ideas of ‘women’. Also, there is unfair relationship by means of the operation of gender politics. In the research process, first, students see the gender dichotomy. After the course, most of them have learned to respect people’s choice about the gender. Second, though research participants do not care the female status in folk customs, they are willing to care about women’s feelings, and even provide them support to change their status. At last, students can easily identify the ingrained value of having a son to carry on the family name and find out it is the origin of gender discrimination. As a whole, students actively take a part in the course, and provide living experience instead of passively following the classroom teaching. As a researcher, course designer and a teacher, instead of putting emphasis on personal technical phase, I have learned to have deeper understanding in folk customs and the structures of the gender relationships.