We are proudly a Ukrainian website. Our country was attacked by Russian Armed Forces on Feb. 24, 2022.
You can support the Ukrainian Army by following the link: https://u24.gov.ua/.
Even the smallest donation is hugely appreciated!
Create a spot-on reference in APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, and other styles
Consult the lists of relevant articles, books, theses, conference reports, and other scholarly sources on the topic 'Fungal diseases of plants.'
Next to every source in the list of references, there is an 'Add to bibliography' button. Press on it, and we will generate automatically the bibliographic reference to the chosen work in the citation style you need: APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, Vancouver, etc.
You can also download the full text of the academic publication as pdf and read online its abstract whenever available in the metadata.
Journal articles on the topic "Fungal diseases of plants":
1
Giraud, T., J. Enjalbert, E. Fournier, F. Delmotte, and C. Dutech. "Population genetics of fungal diseases of plants." Parasite 15, no. 3 (September 2008): 449–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2008153449.
Cornelissen, BJC, and L. S. Melchers. "Strategies for Control of Fungal Diseases with Transgenic Plants." Plant Physiology 101, no. 3 (March 1, 1993): 709–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1104/pp.101.3.709.
Pujari, Jagadeesh D., Rajesh Yakkundimath, and Abdulmunaf S. Byadgi. "Image Processing Based Detection of Fungal Diseases in Plants." Procedia Computer Science 46 (2015): 1802–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2015.02.137.
AVAN, Meltem. "Important Fungal Diseases in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Their Control." Turkish Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 2, no. 1 (June 30, 2021): 239–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.46592/turkager.2021.v02i01.019.
Aromatic plants constitute the main raw materials of the perfumery, food and cosmetics industry and in recent years with the increasing demand for therapeutic herbal medicines, interest in medicinal and aromatic plants has increased. Raw materials from medicinal and aromatic plants have recently begun to be used and spread in the food sector, especially in industrial sectors such as paint and perfumery. For this reason, growing healthy plant material is very important in terms of the protection of these crops. However, fungal diseases such as root rot, wilt, leaf spots, blight and anthracnose, which are problems during the cultivation of both medicinal and aromatic plants, negatively affect both the quantity and quality of these plants. For this reason, an integrated management practices including cultural measures, herbal products, biological control and, if necessary, chemical control methods with especially these fungal diseases are very important. In this review, 27 medicinal and aromatic plants, 37 fungal diseases, their chemical and biological control were included, and 161 references were used.
6
Mekapogu, Manjulatha, Jae-A. Jung, Oh-Keun Kwon, Myung-Suk Ahn, Hyun-Young Song, and Seonghoe Jang. "Recent Progress in Enhancing Fungal Disease Resistance in Ornamental Plants." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 15 (July 26, 2021): 7956. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms22157956.
Fungal diseases pose a major threat to ornamental plants, with an increasing percentage of pathogen-driven host losses. In ornamental plants, management of the majority of fungal diseases primarily depends upon chemical control methods that are often non-specific. Host basal resistance, which is deficient in many ornamental plants, plays a key role in combating diseases. Despite their economic importance, conventional and molecular breeding approaches in ornamental plants to facilitate disease resistance are lagging, and this is predominantly due to their complex genomes, limited availability of gene pools, and degree of heterozygosity. Although genetic engineering in ornamental plants offers feasible methods to overcome the intrinsic barriers of classical breeding, achievements have mainly been reported only in regard to the modification of floral attributes in ornamentals. The unavailability of transformation protocols and candidate gene resources for several ornamental crops presents an obstacle for tackling the functional studies on disease resistance. Recently, multiomics technologies, in combination with genome editing tools, have provided shortcuts to examine the molecular and genetic regulatory mechanisms underlying fungal disease resistance, ultimately leading to the subsequent advances in the development of novel cultivars with desired fungal disease-resistant traits, in ornamental crops. Although fungal diseases constitute the majority of ornamental plant diseases, a comprehensive overview of this highly important fungal disease resistance seems to be insufficient in the field of ornamental horticulture. Hence, in this review, we highlight the representative mechanisms of the fungal infection-related resistance to pathogens in plants, with a focus on ornamental crops. Recent progress in molecular breeding, genetic engineering strategies, and RNAi technologies, such as HIGS and SIGS for the enhancement of fungal disease resistance in various important ornamental crops, is also described.
7
Mourou, Marwa, Maria Luisa Raimondo, Francesco Lops, and Antonia Carlucci. "Brassicaceae Fungal Diseases: Molecular Detection and Host–Plant Interaction." Plants 12, no. 5 (February 24, 2023): 1033. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants12051033.
Brassicaceae plants cover a large number of species with great economic and nutritional importance around the world. The production of Brassica spp. is limited due to phytopathogenic fungal species causing enormous yield losses. In this scenario, precise and rapid detection and identification of plant-infecting fungi are essential to facilitate the effective management of diseases. DNA-based molecular methods have become popular methods for accurate plant disease diagnostics and have been used to detect Brassicaceae fungal pathogens. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays including nested, multiplex, quantitative post, and isothermal amplification methods represent a powerful weapon for early detection of fungal pathogens and preventively counteract diseases on brassicas with the aim to drastically reduce the fungicides as inputs. It is noteworthy also that Brassicaceae plants can establish a wide variety of relationships with fungi, ranging from harmful interactions with pathogens to beneficial associations with endophytic fungi. Thus, understanding host and pathogen interaction in brassica crops prompts better disease management. The present review reports the main fungal diseases of Brassicaceae, molecular methods used for their detection, review studies on the interaction between fungi and brassicas plants, and the various mechanisms involved including the application of omics technologies.
8
Su, Lv, Lifan Zhang, Duoqian Nie, Eiko E. Kuramae, Biao Shen, and Qirong Shen. "Bacterial Tomato Pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum Invasion Modulates Rhizosphere Compounds and Facilitates the Cascade Effect of Fungal Pathogen Fusarium solani." Microorganisms 8, no. 6 (May 27, 2020): 806. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8060806.
Soil-borne pathogen invasions can significantly change the microbial communities of the host rhizosphere. However, whether bacterial Ralstonia solanacearum pathogen invasion influences the abundance of fungal pathogens remains unclear. In this study, we combined high-throughput sequencing, qPCR, liquid chromatography and soil culture experiments to analyze the rhizosphere fungal composition, co-occurrence of fungal communities, copy numbers of functional genes, contents of phenolic acids and their associations in healthy and bacterial wilt-diseased tomato plants. We found that R. solanacearum invasion increased the abundance of the soil-borne pathogen Fusarium solani. The concentrations of three phenolic acids in the rhizosphere soil of bacterial wilt-diseased tomato plants were significantly higher than those in the rhizosphere soil of healthy tomato plants. In addition, the increased concentrations of phenolic acids significantly stimulated F. solani growth in the soil. Furthermore, a simple fungal network with fewer links, nodes and hubs (highly connected nodes) was found in the diseased tomato plant rhizosphere. These results indicate that once the symptom of bacterial wilt disease is observed in tomato, the roots of the wilt-diseased tomato plants need to be removed in a timely manner to prevent the enrichment of other fungal soil-borne pathogens. These findings provide some ecological clues for the mixed co-occurrence of bacterial wilt disease and other fungal soil-borne diseases.
9
Taylor, Philip N. "Inducible Systemic Resistance to Bacterial and Fungal Diseases in Plants." Outlook on Agriculture 16, no. 4 (December 1987): 198–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/003072708701600408.
Plants, like animals, have resistance mechanisms which are activated only by inoculation with a pathogen. The activated resistance mechanism, initiated by a local infection, can be active throughout the whole plant, protecting it from disease for the remainder of its life. The induction of such latent resistance mechanisms may provide a new strategy for disease control in the future.
10
WANI, Shabir Hussain. "Inducing Fungus-Resistance into Plants through Biotechnology." Notulae Scientia Biologicae 2, no. 2 (June 13, 2010): 14–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.15835/nsb224594.
Plant diseases are caused by a variety of plant pathogens including fungi, and their management requires the use of techniques like transgenic technology, molecular biology, and genetics. There have been attempts to use gene technology as an alternative method to protect plants from microbial diseases, in addition to the development of novel agrochemicals and the conventional breeding of resistant cultivars. Various genes have been introduced into plants, and the enhanced resistance against fungi has been demonstrated. These include: genes that express proteins, peptides, or antimicrobial compounds that are directly toxic to pathogens or that reduce their growth in situ; gene products that directly inhibit pathogen virulence products or enhance plant structural defense genes, that directly or indirectly activate general plant defense responses; and resistance genes involved in the hypersensitive response and in the interactions with virulence factors. The introduction of the tabtoxin acetyltransferase gene, the stilbene synthase gene, the ribosome-inactivation protein gene and the glucose oxidase gene brought enhanced resistance in different plants. Genes encoding hydrolytic enzymes such as chitinase and glucanase, which can deteriorate fungal cell-wall components, are attractive candidates for this approach and are preferentially used for the production of fungal disease-resistant plants. In addition to this, RNA-mediated gene silencing is being tried as a reverse tool for gene targeting in plant diseases caused by fungal pathogens. In this review, different mechanisms of fungal disease resistance through biotechnological approaches are discussed and the recent advances in fungal disease management through transgenic approach are reviewed.
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Fungal diseases of plants":
1
Qongqo, Axola. "Introduction pathways of phytopathogenic fungi and their potential role in limiting plant invasions: the case of Banksia spp. (Proteaceae) in the Cape Floristic Region." Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11838/2859.
Thesis (Master of Conservation Science)--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018. Introduction pathways of fungal pathogens in South Africa are far less quantified in the literature than those for plants, animals and human infectious diseases. Phytopathogens continue to be introduced to South Africa via several pathways at an unprecedented rate. A number of these species pose a significant threat to South African ecosystems and biodiversity. Despite this, fungal pathogens could also be beneficial when they are used as bio-control agents to control alien invasive plant species. Nevertheless, recent studies revealed pathogens are most likely to be studied after they have caused a detrimental impact on the environment. Invasive fungal pathogens, such as Phytophthora cinnamomi (Oomycota) do not only pose a threat to native species of the family Proteaceae but could also potentially be bio-control agents for emerging alien plant invaders. In this thesis, firstly, I review current knowledge of phytopathogenic fungi introduction pathways in South Africa; secondly, I aim to understand the importance of fungi in limiting plant invasions using Banksia as a case study in the Cape Floristic Region. In chapter two I investigate introduction pathways and dispersal vectors that facilitate the spread of fungal pathogens. I compiled comprehensive list of fungal pathogens in South Africa, and evaluated the dispersal vectors and introduction pathways for each species. I found fifty five casual species, three naturalised species, six invasive species and thirty six pathogens for which invasion status was not classified due to insufficient data. Agriculture is responsible for the introduction of most fungal pathogens in South Africa. Wind was identified to be the prominent dispersal vector facilitating the spread of pathogens. I conclude that knowing introduction pathways of pathogens and their dispersal vectors will assist in developing quarantine protocols that could improve bio-security. Lastly, I provide recommendations for the national invasive microbe species list. In chapter three the study investigates the variability in mortality rate of Banksia species in the Cape Floristic. Species abundance was calculated across known Banksia populations in the Cape Floristic Region to determine survival and mortality rates. Soil and leave samples were taken from Banksia plants to evaluate potential microbial pests that were present. Also, acetone leaf extracts of twelve Banksia species were screened for antimicrobial activity against P. cinnamomi (Oomycota). Lastly, a post-border risk assessment was conducted for 14 Banksia species− present in South Africa − using the Australian Weed Risk Assessment protocol, to evaluate potentially invasive species. The results indicated that survival and mortality rate varied across species; I found the two invasive species, B. integrifolia and B. ericifolia to have the highest survival rate. Phytophthora cinnamomi was the most prominent isolated fungal pathogen sampled from Banksia species roots. The detection of antifungal activities in the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) bioassay provided evidence that some Banksia species (B. ericifolia, B. integrifolia, B. hookeriana and B. formosa) have antimicrobial chemical constituents that could possibly inhibit infection and colonisation by P. cinnamomi. The weed risk assessments conducted on Banksia species showed five species pose a high risk of invasion while seven species required further evaluation. I conclude that P. cinnamomi could potentially regulate invasive Banksia species such as B. speciosa with minimal antimicrobial activity against the pathogen. I recommend an in-situ and ex-situ inoculation trials of Banksia species against P. cinnamomi to be conducted to evaluate pathogenicity, under different watering regimes since the pathogens proliferation is favoured by soils that are high in moisture. I present the main conclusions from this thesis in chapter four and provide recommendations for management and invasive species legislation.
2
Mohd, Salim @. Halim Jamilah. "Tree resistance and responsiveness to mechanical damage and fungal pathogens in dipterocarp forest of Sabah, Malaysia." Thesis, University of Aberdeen, 2009. http://digitool.abdn.ac.uk:80/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=130838.
A survey of dipterocarp forest in four sites revealed that the incidence of stem canker was relatively low but high localized incidences were recorded. No consistent association was obtained between the presence of mechanical damage and cankers. Cankers occurred more frequently on dipterocarps and less frequently on euphorbs. Field studies and experimental manipulations were used to compare sapling resistance and responsiveness to wounding and stem breakage in relatively nutrient-rich, alluvial forest and relatively nutrient-poor, sandstone ridge forest. Species found on sandstone ridges showed greater resistance to damage (e.g., greater stem flexibility, narrower crowns) than those on alluvial soils. Species common on alluvial soils tended to be more responsive to damage (e.g., faster wound closure rates, more likely to re-sprout). Results from manipulation experiments conducted on pot-grown seedlings were consistent with results from the field studies, where conditions of greater nutrient availability, saplings closed wounds at faster rates, had less flexible stems, more narrow crowns, and lower levels of foliar total phenolics. Species showed differential rezones to resource availability which, in part, may relate to contrasting strategies for investment in passive defence (i.e., resins and phenolics) over investment in growth. Through their narrower crowns, greater whole stem flexibility, and lesser stem taper, tree species characteristic of sandstone ridges had greater resistance to mechanical damage from debris falling from above than congeneric species characteristic of alluvial soils. Tree species characteristic of alluvial soils were more responsive to damage than congeners on sandstone ridges, by producing earlier and longer sprouts following stem snapping and more rapid rates of wound closure following wounding.
3
Knowles, Cindy-Lee. "Synergistic effects of mixtures of the kresoxim-methyl fungicide and medicinal plants extracts in vitro and in vivo against Botrytis Cinerea." Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2005. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&.
The fungus Botrytis cinerea is an opportunistic pathogen on a wide variety of crops, causing disease known as grey mould through infections via wounds or dead plant parts. Synthetic fungicides for controlling this disease are fast becoming ineffective due to the development of resistance. This, coupled with consumers world wide becomng increasingly conscious of potential environment and health problems associated with the build up of toxic chemicals, (particularly in food products), have resulted in pressure to reduce the use of chemical pesticide volumes as well as its residues. An emerging alternative to random synthesis is the study and exploitation of naturally occurring products with fungicidal properties. There have been reports on the uses of synthetic fungicides for the control of plant pathogenic fungi. When utilized in two-way mixtures, such fungicides may maintain or enhance the level of control of a pathogen at reduced rates for both components utilized in combinations, or alone at normal rates. For this study it was hypothesize that the addition of plant extracts may enhance the antifungal efficacy of the synthetic strobilurin fungicide, kresoxim-methyl against Botrytis cinerea.
4
Cox, James Alexander. "Modelling long-distance airborne dispersal of fungal spores and its role in continental scale plant disease epidemics." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2015. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.708472.
Arthur, Fareed Kow Nanse. "Defense responses to fungal challenge in alfalfa (medicago sativa L.) plants and tissue cultures." Thesis, University of Nottingham, 1994. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.385239.
The purpose of this thesis was to study interactions between systemic fungal diseases and perennial plants. Using the systemic rust Puccinia minussensis on the host plant Lactuca sibirica, and the rust Puccinia pulsatillae on the host plant Pulsatilla pratensis, this thesis focused on: (i) the effects of systemic diseases on their hosts (ii) host and pathogen responses to abiotic factors, (iii) the importance of life history strategies for understanding host-pathogen interactions, and (iv) the evolutionary consequences of living in close associations. Results of greenhouse experiments showed that Lactuca sibirica had a high plasticity in growth, since it produced significantly more shoots in favourable than in unfavourable growth conditions. Both the disease levels and the number of healthy shoots (i.e. escape) were significantly higher under favourable conditions. Disease spread within the rhizome was found to be incomplete, and the risk of aecidial- infection decreased with distance from the parent. Furthermore, one isolate of the fungus had highest success and reduced the host plant biomass and shoot production more on the clone it was collected on compared to four other clones . In the field, disease levels were found to fluctuate more at localities subjected to disturbance, the host and pathogen abundances were found to be in phase and the pathogen showed no delayed response to increasing host densities. The rust Puccinia pulsatillae on Pulsatilla pratensis showed no fluctuations between years, low infection rates, and disease levels were higher in ungrazed compared to grazed sites. There was no escape from the disease in this system. A comparison of characteristics of different systemic fungi and hosts with different growth patterns indicated that the life history strategies of both host plants and pathogens need to be studied if the long-term consequences of host-pathogen interactions are to be predicted.
McGovern, Kristen B. "Evaluation of Potential Organic Controls of Mummy Berry Disease Affecting Lowbush Blueberry in Maine." Fogler Library, University of Maine, 2007. http://www.library.umaine.edu/theses/pdf/McGovernKB2007.pdf.
Truter, Mariette. "Etiology and alternative control of potato rhizoctoniasis in South Africa." Pretoria : [s.n.], 2005. http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-04122005-112047.
Waters, Ormonde Dominick Creagh. "Metabolism and infection in the Stagonospora nodorum-wheat pathosystem /." Murdoch University Digital Theses Program, 2008. http://wwwlib.murdoch.edu.au/adt/browse/view/adt-MU20090409.123159.
S, Sokolova Ella, Kulikova Elena G, and United States. Forest Service. Northeastern Research Station, eds. Common fungal diseases of Russian forests. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, 2001.
Book chapters on the topic "Fungal diseases of plants":
1
Burchett, Stephen, and Sarah Burchett. "Fungal Diseases." In Plant Pathology, 97–121. New York : Garland Science, Taylor & Francis Group, 2017. |: Garland Science, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315144924-8.
Narayanasamy, P. "Diagnosis of Fungal Diseases of Plants." In Microbial Plant Pathogens-Detection and Disease Diagnosis:, 273–84. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9735-4_5.
Patil, Hemant J., and Manoj K. Solanki. "Molecular Prospecting: Advancement in Diagnosis and Control of Rhizoctonia solani Diseases in Plants." In Fungal Biology, 165–85. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27312-9_6.
Manoharachary, Chakravarthula, and Indra Kala Kunwar. "Host–Pathogen Interaction, Plant Diseases, Disease Management Strategies, and Future Challenges." In Fungal Biology, 185–229. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1188-2_7.
Majumder, D., J. D. Kongbrailatpam, E. G. Suting, B. Kangjam, and D. Lyngdoh. "Pseudomonas fluorescens: A Potential Biocontrol Agent for Management of Fungal Diseases of Crop Plants." In Fungal Biology, 317–42. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1188-2_11.
Tronsmo, Anne Marte, Arne Tronsmo, Hans Jørgen Lyngs Jørgensen, and Lisa Munk. "Fungal-like plant pathogens." In Plant pathology and plant diseases, 75–88. Wallingford: CABI, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/9781789243185.0075.
Van Alfen, N. K. "Molecular Bases for Virulence and Avirulence of Fungal Wilt Pathogens." In Vascular Wilt Diseases of Plants, 277–89. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-73166-2_20.
Singh, Deepali, and Sachin Teotia. "Fungal Disease Management in Plants." In Approaches to Plant Stress and their Management, 339–52. New Delhi: Springer India, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-1620-9_19.
Heale, J. B. "Implications of Genetic/Molecular Evidence with Respect to Virulence/Avirulence of Fungal Wilt Pathogens." In Vascular Wilt Diseases of Plants, 259–75. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-73166-2_19.
Mace, M. E. "Secondary Metabolites Produced in Resistant and Susceptible Host Plants in Response to Fungal Vascular Infection." In Vascular Wilt Diseases of Plants, 163–74. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-73166-2_12.
Conference papers on the topic "Fungal diseases of plants":
1
Senanayake, M. M. V., and N. M. T. De Silva. "Identifying Medicinal Plants and Their Fungal Diseases." In 2022 6th SLAAI International Conference on Artificial Intelligence (SLAAI-ICAI). IEEE, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/slaai-icai56923.2022.10002624.
Michtchenko, A., A. V. Budagovsky, and O. N. Budagovskaya. "Optical Diagnostics Fungal and Virus Diseases of Plants." In 2015 12th International Conference on Electrical Engineering, Computing Science and Automatic Control (CCE). IEEE, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/iceee.2015.7357968.
Sidarenka, A. V., H. A. Bareika, L. N. Valentovich, D. S. Paturemski, V. N. Kuptsou, M. A. Titok, and E. I. Kalamiyets. "Molecular diagnostics of bacterial and fungal plant diseases." In 2nd International Scientific Conference "Plants and Microbes: the Future of Biotechnology". PLAMIC2020 Organizing committee, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.28983/plamic2020.229.
Taxon-specific primers were developed and PCR conditions were optimized for diagnostics of bacterial and fungal plant pathogens. Methods for phytopathogens DNA isolation from plant material, soil and water were selected.
4
Belyakova, N. V., E. A. Vorobyova, and V. A. Sivolapov. "MOLECULAR-GENETIC ANALYSIS OF PHYTOPATHOGENS IN STANDS OF THE VORONEZH REGION." In Modern machines, equipment and IT solutions for industrial complex: theory and practice. Voronezh State University of Forestry and Technologies named after G.F. Morozov, Voronezh, Russia, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.34220/mmeitsic2021_29-33.
This paper presents the results of DNA diagnostics of phytopathogens in the Voronezh region. DNA diagnostics was carried out step by step: isolation of total DNA from the sample by CTAB method, amplification of marker regions of phytopathogenic organisms using primers ITS1 and ITS4, electrophoretic separation of the obtained amplicons in 2% agarose gel followed by staining with ethidium bromide, determination of the nucleotide sequence of the amplified loci ABI Prism 310. The study identified the following plant diseases: Sphaeropsis sapinea, Rhizoctonia solani, Cladosporium herbarum. Along with this, we identified the Neocatenulostroma pathogen, which had not previously been found in the territories under its jurisdiction. This disease cannot be determined by phenological signs. The degree of infection by pathogens ranged from 15 to 40%. At present, the problem of protecting plants from diseases is especially urgent. It has been established that the greatest damage to forestry activities is caused by fungal and infectious diseases. At the same time, among phytopathogens, about 97% are fungal infections, 2% are bacterial and 1% are viral.
5
Trigubovich, A. M., F. A. Popov, A. A. Arashkova, I. G. Volchkevich, and E. I. Kolomiyets. "Biopreparation "Vegetatin" for protection of cabbage from fungal and bacterial diseases during grows and storage." In 2nd International Scientific Conference "Plants and Microbes: the Future of Biotechnology". PLAMIC2020 Organizing committee, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.28983/plamic2020.252.
Effectiveness of usage biopreparation "Vegetatin" which is based on bacteria of the genus Bacillus to protect white cabbage from diseases was studied. Positive effect after treatments of seeds, seedlings and vegetative plants on the productivity and cabbage harvest has been established. Biological effectiveness of "Vegetatin" was at level of 48.9–53.6%, the stored yield –28.1 c/ha of cabbage heads. Processing of cabbage heads before storage reduced the damage of cabbage by mixed rots by an average of 30%.
6
Moloo, Raj Kishen, and Keshav Caleechurn. "An App for Fungal Disease Detection on Plants." In 2022 International Conference for Advancement in Technology (ICONAT). IEEE, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/iconat53423.2022.9725839.
Rogozin, E. "Biotechnology for production of recombinant hybrid proteins from plants and microbes with antifungal activity." In 2nd International Scientific Conference "Plants and Microbes: the Future of Biotechnology". PLAMIC2020 Organizing committee, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.28983/plamic2020.206.
The principle of obtaining recombinant antimicrobial polypeptides from plant and microbial origins as a part of chimeric proteins with thioredoxin by heterologous expression in a prokaryotic system is presented. The results obtained in terms of their antifungal activity in relation to plant pathogenic micromycetes allow us to consider these compounds as prototypes of some active substances of environmentally friendly biofungicides, as well as possible components of hybrid plant protection products against fungal diseases.
8
"The heritability of carrot resistance to fungal diseases of Alternaria and Fusarium genus." In Plant Genetics, Genomics, Bioinformatics, and Biotechnology. Novosibirsk ICG SB RAS 2021, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.18699/plantgen2021-014.
Solozhentseva, Lyudmila. "Fungal diseases of alfalfa in the non-chernozem zone of Russia and plant resistance to them." In Multifunctional adaptive fodder production. ru: Federal Williams Research Center of Forage Production and Agroecology, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.33814/mak-2021-25-73-31-35.
The article shows the importance of alfalfa for agriculture, presents the results of long-term observations (phytomonitoring) of the development of fungal diseases on the herbage of alfalfa variable, yellow (in breeding, control nurseries, competitive variety testing).
10
Cristea, Nicolae, Galina Lupascu, and Svetlana Gavzer. "Variabilitatea genotipurilor de colecţie de grâu (Triticum aestivum L.) în baza sensibilităţii la unele maladii fungice." In VIIth International Scientific Conference “Genetics, Physiology and Plant Breeding”. Institute of Genetics, Physiology and Plant Protection, Republic of Moldova, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.53040/gppb7.2021.56.
The common wheat genotypes under study showed a differentiated variability in terms of suscep-tibility to septoria, brown rust, spike fusariosis, which made it possible to differentiate them into clusters and identify those with higher resistance to these diseases. Based on the assessments from 2020-2021, the varieties Trubion, Numitor, Urbanus, Python, Miranda, Centurion, Amor, Aneta, Neven, Messino, Nasnaga, Tika-Taka, Judița, Avenue, Speranța, Dacia, Transilvania, Selania, Avânt which have shown resistance to extreme drought, fungal diseases and high indices of the spike productivity elements can be recommended as the initial material for the breeding programs.
Reports on the topic "Fungal diseases of plants":
1
Thomashow, Linda, Leonid Chernin, Ilan Chet, David M. Weller, and Dmitri Mavrodi. Genetically Engineered Microbial Agents for Biocontrol of Plant Fungal Diseases. United States Department of Agriculture, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2005.7696521.bard.
The objectives of the project were: a) to construct the site-specific integrative expression cassettes carrying: (i) the chiA gene for a 58-kDa endochitinase, (ii) the pyrrolnitrin biosynthesis operon, and (iii) the acdS gene encoding ACC deaminase; b) to employ these constructs to engineer stable recombinant strains with an expanded repertoire of beneficial activities; c) to evaluate the rhizosphere competence and antifungal activity of the WT and modified strains against pathogenic fungi under laboratory and greenhouse conditions; and d) to monitor the persistence and impact of the introduced strains on culturable and nonculturable rhizosphere microbial populations in the greenhouse and the field. The research generally support our concepts that combining strategically selected genes conferring diverse modes of action against plant pathogens into one organism can improve the efficacy of biological control agents. We hypothesized that biocontrol agents (BCAs) engineered to expand their repertoire of beneficial activities will more effectively control soilborne plant pathogens. In this work, we demonstrated that biocontrol activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens Q8r1-96 and Q2-87, both producing the antibiotic 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (2,4-DAPG) effective against the plant pathogenic fungus Rhizoctonia solani, can be improved significantly by introducing and expressing either the 1.6-kb gene chiA, encoding the 58-kDa endochitinase ChiA from the rhizosphere strain SerratiaplymuthicaIC1270, or the 5.8-kb prnABCDoperon encoding the broad-range antibiotic pyrrolnitrin (Prn) from another rhizosphere strain, P. fluorescens Pf-5. The PₜₐcchiAandPₜₐcprnABCDcassettes were cloned into the integrative pBK-miniTn7-ΩGm plasmid, and inserted into the genomic DNA of the recipient bacteria. Recombinant derivatives of strains Q8r1-96 and Q2-87 expressing the PₜₐcchiA or PₜₐcprnABCD cassettes produced endochitinase ChiA, or Prn, respectively, in addition to 2,4-DAPG, and the recombinants gave significantly better biocontrol of R. solani on beans under greenhouse conditions. The disease reduction index increased in comparison to the parental strains Q8r1-96 and Q2-87 to 17.5 and 39.0% from 3.2 and 12.4%, respectively, in the case of derivatives carrying the PₜₐcchiAcassette and to 63.1 and 70% vs. 2.8 and 12,4%, respectively, in the case of derivatives carrying the PₜₐcprnABCDcassette. The genetically modified strains exhibited persistence and non-target effects comparable to those of the parental strains in greenhouse soil. Three integrative cassettes carrying the acdS gene encoding ACC deaminase cloned under the control of different promoters were constructed and tested for enhancement of plant growth promotion by biocontrol strains of P. fluorescens and S. plymuthica. The integrative cassettes constructed in this work are already being used as a simple and efficient tool to improve biocontrol activity of various PGPR bacteria against fungi containing chitin in the cell walls or highly sensitive to Prn. Some parts of the work (e. g., construction of integrative cassettes) was collaborative while other parts e.g., (enzyme and antibiotic activity analyses) were fully synergistic. The US partners isolated and provided to the Israeli collaborators the original biocontrol strains P. fluorescens strains Q8r1-96 and Q2-87 and their mutants deficient in 2,4-DAPG production, which were used to evaluate the relative importance of introduction of Prn, chitinase or ACC deaminase genes for improvement of the biocontrol activity of the parental strains. The recombinant strains obtained at HUJI were supplied to the US collaborators for further analysis.
2
Avni, Adi, and Gitta L. Coaker. Proteomic investigation of a tomato receptor like protein recognizing fungal pathogens. United States Department of Agriculture, January 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2015.7600030.bard.
Maximizing food production with minimal negative effects on the environment remains a long-term challenge for sustainable food production. Microbial pathogens cause devastating diseases, minimizing crop losses by controlling plant diseases can contribute significantly to this goal. All plants possess an innate immune system that is activated after recognition of microbial-derived molecules. The fungal protein Eix induces defense responses in tomato and tobacco. Plants recognize Eix through a leucine-rich-repeat receptor- like-protein (LRR-RLP) termed LeEix. Despite the knowledge obtained from studies on tomato, relatively little is known about signaling initiated by RLP-type immune receptors. The focus of this grant proposal is to generate a foundational understanding of how the tomato xylanase receptor LeEix2 signals to confer defense responses. LeEix2 recognition results in pattern triggered immunity (PTI). The grant has two main aims: (1) Isolate the LeEix2 protein complex in an active and resting state; (2) Examine the biological function of the identified proteins in relation to LeEix2 signaling upon perception of the xylanase elicitor Eix. We used two separate approaches to isolate receptor interacting proteins. Transgenic tomato plants expressing LeEix2 fused to the GFP tag were used to identify complex components at a resting and activated state. LeEix2 complexes were purified by mass spectrometry and associated proteins identified by mass spectrometry. We identified novel proteins that interact with LeEix receptor by proteomics analysis. We identified two dynamin related proteins (DRPs), a coiled coil – nucleotide binding site leucine rich repeat (SlNRC4a) protein. In the second approach we used the split ubiquitin yeast two hybrid (Y2H) screen system to identified receptor-like protein kinase At5g24010-like (SlRLK-like) (Solyc01g094920.2.1) as an interactor of LeEIX2. We examined the role of SlNRC4a in plant immunity. Co-immunoprecipitation demonstrates that SlNRC4a is able to associate with different PRRs. Physiological assays with specific elicitors revealed that SlNRC4a generally alters PRR-mediated responses. SlNRC4a overexpression enhances defense responses while silencing SlNRC4 reduces plant immunity. We propose that SlNRC4a acts as a non-canonical positive regulator of immunity mediated by diverse PRRs. Thus, SlNRC4a could link both intracellular and extracellular immune perception. SlDRP2A localizes at the plasma membrane. Overexpression of SlDRP2A increases the sub-population of LeEIX2 inVHAa1 endosomes, and enhances LeEIX2- and FLS2-mediated defense. The effect of SlDRP2A on induction of plant immunity highlights the importance of endomembrane components and endocytosis in signal propagation during plant immune . The interaction of LeEIX2 with SlRLK-like was verified using co- immunoprecipitation and a bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay. The defence responses induced by EIX were markedly reduced when SlRLK-like was over-expressed, and mutation of slrlk-likeusing CRISPR/Cas9 increased EIX- induced ethylene production and SlACSgene expression in tomato. Co-expression of SlRLK-like with different RLPs and RLKs led to their degradation, apparently through an endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation process. We provided new knowledge and expertise relevant to expression of specific be exploited to enhance immunity in crops enabling the development of novel environmentally friendly disease control strategies.
3
Rodriguez, Russell J., and Stanley Freeman. Gene Expression Patterns in Plants Colonized with Pathogenic and Non-pathogenic Gene Disruption Mutants of Colletotrichum. United States Department of Agriculture, February 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2009.7592112.bard.
Fungal plant pathogens are responsible for extensive annual crop and revenue losses throughout the world. To better understand why fungi cause diseases, we performed gene-disruption mutagenesis on several pathogenic Colletotrichum species and demonstrated that pathogenic isolates can be converted to symbionts expressing non-pathogenic lifestyles. One group of nonpathogenic mutants confer disease protection against pathogenic species of Col!etotrichum, Fusarium and Phytophthora; drought tolerance; and growth enhancement to host plants. These mutants have been defined as mutualists and disease resistance correlates to a decrease in the time required for hosts to activate defense systems when exposed to virulent fungi. A second group of non-pathogenic mutants did not confer disease resistance and were classified as commensals. In addition, we have demonstrated that wildtype pathogenic Colletotrichum species can express non-pathogenic lifestyles, including mutualism, on plants they colonize asymptomatically. We have been using wildtype and isogenic gene disruption mutants to characterize gene expression patterns in plants colonized with a pathogen, mutualist or commensal. The US group is contrasting genes expressed during colonization by mutuahstic and commensal mutants of C. magna and a pathogenic wildtype C. coccodes on tomato. The Israeli group is characterizing genes expressed during asymptomatic colonization of tomato by wildtype C. acutatum and a non-pathogenic mutant.To accomplish this we have been utilizing suppressive subtraction hybridization, microarray and sequencing strategies. The expected contribution of this research to agriculture in the US and Israel is: 1) understanding how pathogens colonize certain hosts asymptomatic ally will shed light on the ecology of plant pathogens which has been described as a fundamental deficiency in plant pathology; 2) identifying genes involved in symbiotically conferred disease resistance will help explain why and how pathogens cause disease, and may identify new candidate targets for developing genetically modified disease resistant crop plants.
4
Harms, Nathan, Judy Shearer, James Cronin, and John Gaskin. Geographic and genetic variation in susceptibility of Butomus umbellatus to foliar fungal pathogens. Engineer Research and Development Center (U.S.), August 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.21079/11681/41662.
Large-scale patterns of plant invasions may reflect regional heterogeneity in biotic and abiotic factors and genetic variation within and between invading populations. Having information on how effects of biotic resistance vary spatially can be especially important when implementing biological control because introduced agents may have different Impacts through interactions with host-plant genotype, local environment, or other novel enemies. We conducted a series of field surveys and laboratory studies to determine whether there was evidence of biotic resistance, as foliar fungal pathogens, in two introduced genotypes (triploid G1, diploid G4) of the Eurasian wetland weed, Butomus umbellatus L. in the USA. We tested whether genotypes differed in disease attack and whether spatial patterns in disease incidence were related to geographic location or climate for either genotype. After accounting for location (latitude, climate), G1 plants had lower disease incidence than G4 plants in the field (38% vs. 70%) but similar pathogen richness. In contrast, bioassays revealed G1 plants consistently received a higher damage score and had larger leaf lesions regardless of pathogen. These results demonstrate that two widespread B. umbellatus genotypes exhibit different susceptibility to pathogens and effectiveness of pathogen biological controls may depend on local conditions.
5
Freeman, Stanley, Russell Rodriguez, Adel Al-Abed, Roni Cohen, David Ezra, and Regina Redman. Use of fungal endophytes to increase cucurbit plant performance by conferring abiotic and biotic stress tolerance. United States Department of Agriculture, January 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2014.7613893.bard.
Major threats to agricultural sustainability in the 21st century are drought, increasing temperatures, soil salinity and soilborne pathogens, all of which are being exacerbated by climate change and pesticide abolition and are burning issues related to agriculture in the Middle East. We have found that Class 2 fungal endophytes adapt native plants to environmental stresses (drought, heat and salt) in a habitat-specific manner, and that these endophytes can confer stress tolerance to genetically distant monocot and eudicot hosts. In the past, we generated a uv non-pathogenic endophytic mutant of Colletotrichum magna (path-1) that colonized cucurbits, induced drought tolerance and enhanced growth, and protected 85% - 100% against disease caused by certain pathogenic fungi. We propose: 1) utilizing path-1 and additional endophtyic microorganisms to be isolated from stress-tolerant local, wild cucurbit watermelon, Citrulluscolocynthis, growing in the Dead Sea and Arava desert areas, 2) generate abiotic and biotic tolerant melon crop plants, colonized by the isolated endophytes, to increase crop yields under extreme environmental conditions such as salinity, heat and drought stress, 3) manage soilborne fungal pathogens affecting curubit crop species growing in the desert areas. This is a unique and novel "systems" approach that has the potential to utilize natural plant adaptation for agricultural development. We envisage that endophyte-colonized melons will eventually be used to overcome damages caused by soilborne diseases and also for cultivation of this crop, under stress conditions, utilizing treated waste water, thus dealing with the limited resource of fresh water.
6
Harman, Gary E., and Ilan Chet. Discovery and Use of Genes and Gene Combinations Coding for Proteins Useful in Biological Control. United States Department of Agriculture, September 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/1994.7568787.bard.
The objectives of the research in this proposal were to (A) identify synergy among proteins that provide enhanced activity over single proteins for control of plant pathogenic fungi, (B) clone and characterize genetic sequences coding for proteins with ability to control pathogenic fungi, (C) produce transgenic organisms with enhanced biocontrol ability using genes and gene combinations and determine their efficiency in protecting plants against plant pathogenic fungi. A related objective was to produce disease-resistant plants. Fungal cell wall degrading enzymes from any source are strongly synergistic with any membrane active compound and, further, different classes of cell wall degrading enzymes are also strongly synergistic. We have cloned and sequenced a number of genes from bacterial and fungal sources including five that are structurally unrelated. We have prepared transgenic fungi that are deficient in production of enzymes and useful in mechanistic studies. Others are hyperproducers of specific enzymes that permit us, for the first time, to produce enzymes from T. harzianum in sufficient quantity to conduct tests of their potential use in commercial agriculture. Finally, genes from these studies have been inserted into several species of crop plants were they produce a high level of resistance to several plant pathogenic fungi.
7
Dickman, Martin B., and Oded Yarden. Pathogenicity and Sclerotial Development of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum: Involvement of Oxalic Acid and Chitin Synthesis. United States Department of Agriculture, September 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/1995.7571357.bard.
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary is among the world's most successful and omnivorous fungal plant pathogens. Included in the nearly 400 species of plants reported as hosts to this fungus are canola, alfalfa, soybean, sunflower, dry bean and potato. The general inability to develop resistant germplasm with these economically important crops to this pathogen has focused attention on the need for a more detailed examination of the pathogenic determinants involved in disease development. A mechanistic understanding of the successful strategy(ies) used by S. sclerotiorum in colonizing host plants and their linkage to fungal development may provide targets and/or novel approaches with which to design resistant crop plants. This proposal involved experiments which were successful in generating genetically-engineered plants harboring resistance to S. sclerotiorum, the establishment and improvement of molecular tools for the study of this pathogen and the analysis of the linkage between pathogenicity, sclerotial morphogenesis and two biosynthetic pathways: oxalic acid production and chitin synthesis. The highly collaborative project has improved our understanding of S. sclerotiorum pathogenicity, established reliable molecular techniques to facilitate experimental manipilation and generated transgenic plants which are resistant to this econimically important fungus.
8
Dickman, Martin B., and Oded Yarden. Characterization of the chorismate mutase effector (SsCm1) from Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. United States Department of Agriculture, January 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2015.7600027.bard.
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a filamentous fungus (mold) that causes plant disease. It has an extremely wide range of hosts (>400 species) and causes considerable damage (annual multimillion dollar losses) in economically important crops. It has proven difficult to control (culturally or chemically) and host resistance to this fungus has generally been inadequate. It is believed that this fungus occurs in almost every country. Virulence of this aggressive pathogen is bolstered by a wide array of plant cell wall degrading enzymes and various compounds (secondary metabolites) produced by the fungus. It is well established that plant pathogenic fungi secrete proteins and small molecules that interact with host cells and play a critical role in disease development. Such secreted proteins have been collectively designated as “effectors”. Plant resistance against some pathogens can be mediated by recognition of such effectors. Alternatively, effectors can interfere with plant defense. Some such effectors are recognized by the host plant and can culminate in a programmed cell death (PCD) resistant response. During the course of this study, we analyzed an effector in Sclerotiniasclerotiorum. This specific effector, SsCM1 is the protein chorismatemutase, which is an enzyme involved in a pathway which is important in the production of important amino acids, such a Tryptophan. We have characterized the Sclerotiniaeffector, SsCM1, and have shown that inactivation of Sscm1 does not affect fungal vegetative growth, development or production of oxalic acid (one of this fungus’ secondary metabolites associated with disease) production. However, yhis does result in reduced fungal virulence. We show that, unexpectedly, the SsCM1 protein translocates to the host chloroplast, and demonstrated that this process is required for full fungal virulence. We have also determined that the fungal SsCM1 protein can interact with similar proteins produced by the host. In addition, we have shown that the fungal SsCM1 is able to suppress at least some of the effects imposed by reactive oxygen species which are produced as a defense mechanism by the host. Last, but not least, the results of our studies have provided evidence contradicting the current dogma on at least some of the mechanist aspects of how this pathogen infects the host. Contrary to previousons, indicating that this pathogen kills its host by use of metabolites and enzymes that degrade the host tissue (a process called necrotrophy), we now know that at least in the early phases of infection, the fungus interacts with live host tissue (a phenomenon known as biotrophy). Taken together, the results of our studies provide novel insights concerning the mechanistic aspects of Sclerotinia-host interactions. We hope this information will be used to interfere with the disease cycle in a manner that will protect plants from this devastating fungus.
9
Rodriguez, Russell, and Stanley Freeman. Characterization of fungal symbiotic lifestyle expression in Colletotrichum and generating non-pathogenic mutants that confer disease resistance, drought tolerance, and growth enhancement to plant hosts. United States Department of Agriculture, February 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2005.7587215.bard.
Fungal plant pathogens are responsible for extensive annual crop and revenue losses throughout the world. To better understand why fungi cause diseases, we performed gene-disruption mutagenesis on several pathogenic Colletotrichum species and demonstrated that pathogenic isolates can be converted to symbionts (mutualism, commensalism, parasitism) expressing non-pathogenic lifestyles. The objectives of this proposal were to: 1- generate crop-specific mutants by gene disruption that express mutualistic lifestyles, 2- assess the ability of the mutualists to confer disease resistance, drought tolerance, and growth enhancement to host plants, 3- compare fslm1 sequences and their genomic locations in the different species, and 4- document the colonization process of each Colletotrichum species.It was demonstrated that wildtype pathogenic Colletotrichum isolates, can be converted by mutation from expressing a pathogenic lifestyle to symbionts expressing non-pathogenic lifestyles. In the US, mutants of Colletotrichum were isolated by homologous gene disruption using a vector containing a disrupted FSlm1 sequence while in Israel, C. acutatum mutants were selected by restriction enzyme mediated integration (REMI) transformation. One group (US) of non-pathogenic mutants conferred disease protection against pathogenic species of Colletotrichum, Fusarium, and Phytophthora; drought tolerance; and growth enhancement to host plants. These mutants were defined as mutualists and disease resistance correlated to a decrease in the time required for hosts to activate defense systems when exposed to virulent fungi. The second group (Israel) of non-pathogenic mutants did not confer disease resistance and were classified as commensals. In addition, we demonstrated that wildtype pathogenic Colletotrichum species can express non-pathogenic lifestyles, including mutualism, on plants they colonize asymptomatically. The expected long term contribution of this research to agriculture in the US and Israel is threefold. Host-specific mutualists will be utilized in the various crops to confer (1) disease resistance to reduce dependence on chemical fungicides; (2) drought tolerance to reduce water consumption for irrigation; (3) growth enhancement to increase yields.
10
Dickman, Martin B., and Oded Yarden. Phosphorylative Transduction of Developmental and Pathogenicity-Related Cues in Sclerotinia Sclerotiorum. United States Department of Agriculture, April 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2004.7586472.bard.
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary is among the world's most successful and omnivorous fungal plant pathogens. Included in the more than 400 species of plants reported as hosts to this fungus are canola, alfalfa, soybean, sunflower, dry bean, and potato. The general inability to develop resistant germplasm with these economically important crops to this pathogen has focused attention on the need for a more detailed examination of the pathogenic determinants involved in disease development. This proposal involved experiments that examined the involvement of protein phosphorylation during morphogenesis (hyphal elongation and sclerotia formation) and pathogenesis (oxalic acid). Data obtained from our laboratories during the course of this project substantiates the fact that kinases and phosphatases are involved and important for these processes. A mechanistic understanding of the successful strategy(ies) used by S . sclerotiorum in infecting and proliferating in host plants and this linkage to fungal development will provide targets and/or novel approaches with which to design resistant crop plants including interference with fungal pathogenic development. The original objectives of this grant included: I. Clone the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) catalytic subunit gene from S.sclerotiorum and determine its role in fungal pathogenicity, OA production (OA) and/or morphogenesis (sclerotia formation). II. Clone and characterize the catalytic and regulatory subunits of the protein phosphatase PP2A holoenzyme complex and determine their role in fungal pathogenicity and/or morphogenesis as well as linkage with PKA-regulation of OA production and sclerotia formation. III. Clone and characterize the adenylate cyclase-encoding gene from S . sclerotiorum and detennine its relationship to the PKA/PP2A-regulated pathway. IV. Analyze the expression patterns of the above-mentioned genes and their products during pathogenesis and determine their linkage with infection and fungal growth.
