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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 14 March 2023

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1

Schick, Thomas, ed. Functional Electrical Stimulation in Neurorehabilitation. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-90123-3.

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2

Kralj, Alojz R. Functional electrical stimulation: Standing and walking after spinal cord injury. Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press, 1989.

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3

Phillips, Chandler A. Functional electrical rehabilitation: Technological restoration after spinal cord injury. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991.

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4

1909-, Kohn Kate H., ed. Functional electrical stimulation for ambulation by paraplegics: Twelve years of clinical observations and system studies. Malabar, Fla: Krieger Pub. Co., 1994.

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5

Conference, International Functional Electrical Stimulation Society. Proceedings of IFESS-FESnet 2004: 9th Annual Conferenece of the International Functional Electrical Stimulation Society and the 2nd Conference of FESnet, Bournemouth, United Kingdom, September 6-9, 2004. Salisbury: Salisbury Health Care NHS Trust/Bournemouth University, 2004.

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6

Hanchard, Nigel Clive Anthony. Chronic unilateral electrical stimulation improves human tibialis anterior contractile function ipsilaterally but hampers it contralaterally. Manchester: University of Manchester, 1995.

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7

1940-, Stein Richard B., Peckham P. Hunter, and Popović Dejan, eds. Neural prostheses: Replacing motor function after disease or disability. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

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8

Helena, Knotkova, Cruciani Ricardo, and Merrick Joav 1950-, eds. Pain: Brain stimulation in the treatment of pain. Hauppauge, N.Y: Nova Science Publishers, 2009.

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9

Pain: Brain stimulation in the treatment of pain. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2010.

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10

Investigations, United States Congress House Committee on Veterans' Affairs Subcommittee on Oversight and. Applications of functional muscular stimulation: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Veterans' Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-ninth Congress, second session, February 19, 1986. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1986.

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11

United States. Congress. House. Committee on Veterans' Affairs. Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations. Applications of functional muscular stimulation: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Veterans' Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-ninth Congress, second session, February 19, 1986. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1986.

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12

United States. Congress. House. Committee on Veterans' Affairs. Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations. Applications of functional muscular stimulation: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Veterans' Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-ninth Congress, second session, February 19, 1986. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1986.

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13

O'Connor, Mary Christine. Muscle function studies of human adult quadriceps femoris muscle: An exploration of the effects of differentpatterns of long term electrical stimulation. London: University of East London, Institute of Health and Rehabilitation, 1993.

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14

Brain stimulation in psychiatry: ECT, DBS, TMS, and other modalities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

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15

Chapin, John K., Ph. D. and Moxon Karen A, eds. Neural prostheses for restoration of sensory and motor function. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2001.

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16

Kralj, Alojz, and Tadej Bajd. Functional Electrical Stimulation: Standing and Walking after Spinal Cord Injury. CRC Press LLC, 2021.

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17

Kralj, Alojz, and Tadej Bajd. Functional Electrical Stimulation: Standing and Walking after Spinal Cord Injury. CRC Press LLC, 2021.

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18

Kralj, Alojz, and Tadej Bajd. Functional Electrical Stimulation: Standing and Walking after Spinal Cord Injury. CRC Press LLC, 2021.

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19

Kralj, Alojz, and Tadej Bajd. Functional Electrical Stimulation: Standing and Walking after Spinal Cord Injury. CRC Press LLC, 2021.

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20

Functional Electrical Rehabilitation: Technological Restoration After Spinal Cord Injury. Springer, 2011.

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21

Rotenberg, Alexander, Alvaro Pascual-Leone, and Alan D. Legatt. Transcranial Electrical and Magnetic Stimulation. Edited by Donald L. Schomer and Fernando H. Lopes da Silva. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190228484.003.0028.

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Noninvasive magnetic and electrical stimulation of cerebral cortex is an evolving field. The most widely used variant, transcranial electrical stimulation (TES), is routinely used for intraoperative monitoring. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) are emerging as clinical and experimental tools. TMS has gained wide acceptance in extraoperative functional cortical mapping. TES and TMS rely on pulsatile stimulation with electrical current intensities sufficient to trigger action potentials within the stimulated cortical volume. tDCS, in contrast, is based on neuromodulatory effects of very-low-amplitude direct current conducted through the scalp. tDCS and TMS, particularly when applied in repetitive trains, can modulate cortical excitability for prolonged periods and thus are either in active clinical use or in advanced stages of clinical trials for common neurological and psychiatric disorders such as major depression and epilepsy. This chapter summarizes physiologic principles of transcranial stimulation and clinical applications of these techniques.
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22

Faulkner, J. S. The effects of functional electrical stimulation on children with cerebral palsy. 1999.

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23

Functional Electrical Stimulation in Neurorehabilitation: Synergy Effects of Technology and Therapy. Springer International Publishing AG, 2022.

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24

Teeter, Jeanne O., and Carole Kantor. Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) Resource Guide for Persons With Spinal Cord Injury or Multiple Sclerosis. F E S Information Center, 1995.

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25

Miller, Rosalynn Clara. Neuromuscular restorative therapy: A therapeutic application of functional electrical stimulation in individuals with spinal cord injury. 2005.

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26

Lamb, Amanda. Development of an interactive model and teaching package to convey the dfffect ot functional electrical stimulation on foot drop. 1995.

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27

Gugino, Laverne D., Rafael Romero, Marcella Rameriz, Marc E. Richardson, and Linda S. Aglio. TMS in the perioperative period. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0020.

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Two stimulation approaches developed for selectively exciting descending motor pathways are, transcranial electrical (TES) and transcranial magnetic (TMS) stimulation. This article highlights the comparison between electrical and magnetic transcranial stimulation. Magnetic stimulation is relatively painless; therefore it is the more preferred technique. The article reviews the use of TMS for monitoring the functional integrity of the descending motor systems during surgery and discusses the potential role of TMS in the preoperative period for conscious patients planning to undergo neurosurgical procedures involving the cerebral cortex. Selective monitoring of spinal cord motor function involves acquisition of TMS-induced epidural and/or myogenic responses. As patients are generally given anesthesia before spinal cord surgeries, this article discusses the effect of general anesthetic agents on the myogenic responses.
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28

Davey, Kent. Magnetic field stimulation: the brain as a conductor. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0005.

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For the purposes of magnetic stimulation, the brain can be treated as a homogeneous conductor. A properly designed brain stimulation system starts with the target stimulation depth, and it should incorporate the neural strength–duration response characteristics. Higher-frequency pulses require stronger electric fields. The background of this article is the theoretical base determining, where in the brain TMS induces electrical activity, and whether this shifts as a function of differences in the conductivity and organization of gray matter, white matter, and cerebrospinal fluid. The use of strong electric fields to treat many neurological disorders is well established. Both in the treatment of incontinence and clinical depression, the electric field should be sufficiently strong to initiate an action potential. The frequency, system voltage, capacitance, core stimulator size, and number of turns are treated as unknowns in a TMS stimulation design. This article presents the possible topological changes to be considered in the future.
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29

Chauvel, Patrick, Nathan Earl Crone, Jorge Alvaro Gonzalez-Martinez, and Riki Matsumoto, eds. Does Electrical Stimulation Map Brain Function? Frontiers Media SA, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/978-2-88974-173-1.

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30

Electrical Stimulation: Enhancement of Muscle Function. American Physical Therapy Association, 1993.

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31

Campea, Scott, and Jodie K. Haselkorn. Disorders of Mobility in Multiple Sclerosis. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199341016.003.0014.

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Multiple sclerosis almost invariably affects a person’s ability to ambulate. Weakness, discoordination, spasticity, and decreased sensation may all directly contribute to impaired mobility. Multiple strategies can be used to enhance a person’s, mobility, including exercise, medications, orthotics, wheelchairs, and functional electrical stimulation. Complications of impaired mobility include skin breakdown, osteoporosis, and contractures.
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32

Alarcón, Gonzalo, and Antonio Valentín. Intracranial electroencephalographic recordings. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199688395.003.0012.

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Around 30% of patients assessed for surgery for the treatment of epilepsy require intracranial electrodes to localize the epileptic focus or to identify functionally relevant cortex. Patients can be very different and the various non-invasive techniques used during presurgical assessment often render conflicting or contradictory results. Deciding the type of electrodes to be used and the sites to be implanted can be puzzling. This chapter describes the electrode types available, their indications, and various implantation strategies. This chapter also summarizes the criteria used to interpret chronic and acute (intraoperative) intracranial recordings, as well at the methods used to carry out and interpret functional mapping with electrical stimulation.
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33

Cameron, Earl Joseph. A general purpose 8-channel microprocessor-based functional electrical stimulator. 1986.

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34

Ramdass, Ranjit. Neurophysiology in the assessment of inflammatory myopathies. Edited by Hector Chinoy and Robert Cooper. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198754121.003.0015.

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Clinical neurophysiology (electrodiagnosis) includes the assessment of peripheral nerves by electrical stimulation (nerve conduction studies, NCS) and needle examination of muscles (electromyography, EMG). Electrodiagnostic assessment is a functional extension of clinical examination into the laboratory. It plays an important role in the investigation of a patient suspected of having myositis, providing valuable information regarding peripheral nerve, neuromuscular junction and muscle functions, to better characterize clinical syndromes. NCS can establish the presence and quantify the severity of a primary or co-existing peripheral neuropathy, while EMG examination can help discriminate between primary myogenic and primary neurogenic disorders. EMG is potentially more sensitive than clinical examination, as abnormalities can be detected in muscles apparently unaffected on clinical examination. Additionally, a number of muscles can be sampled to help target an optimal muscle biopsy site. Neurophysiology can also assist in monitoring treatment responses and detecting emerging problems, such steroid myopathy or drug-induced neuropathy.
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35

Narayana, Shalini, Felipe Salinas, Frederick A. Boop, James W. Wheless, and Andrew C. Papanicolaou. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Edited by Andrew C. Papanicolaou. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199764228.013.11.

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used to study cortical function by applying localized magnetic fields in a noninvasive manner. This chapter reviews the basic principles of TMS, including the stimulator unit, coils, and the interaction of TMS-induced electric field with the cortex. The advantages of TMS over invasive brain mapping techniques are highlighted. Improvements in the spatial accuracy of TMS are described in the context of image-guided TMS. Types of responses induced by motor cortex stimulation and their utility in mapping normal and diseased motor cortex are discussed. Language mapping with TMS takes advantage of the TMS-induced transient disruption of function, also termed “virtual lesion.” The authors provide examples of successful application of TMS in presurgical mapping of the motor and language areas in the brain. Emerging applications of TMS in the diagnosis of neuropsychiatric disorders and safety of TMS are also discussed.
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36

Vassanelli, Stefano. Implantable neural interfaces. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199674923.003.0050.

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Establishing direct communication with the brain through physical interfaces is a fundamental strategy to investigate brain function. Starting with the patch-clamp technique in the seventies, neuroscience has moved from detailed characterization of ionic channels to the analysis of single neurons and, more recently, microcircuits in brain neuronal networks. Development of new biohybrid probes with electrodes for recording and stimulating neurons in the living animal is a natural consequence of this trend. The recent introduction of optogenetic stimulation and advanced high-resolution large-scale electrical recording approaches demonstrates this need. Brain implants for real-time neurophysiology are also opening new avenues for neuroprosthetics to restore brain function after injury or in neurological disorders. This chapter provides an overview on existing and emergent neurophysiology technologies with particular focus on those intended to interface neuronal microcircuits in vivo. Chemical, electrical, and optogenetic-based interfaces are presented, with an analysis of advantages and disadvantages of the different technical approaches.
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37

Fox, Kieran C. R. Neural Origins of Self-Generated Thought. Edited by Kalina Christoff and Kieran C. R. Fox. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190464745.013.1.

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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has begun to narrow down the neural correlates of self-generated forms of thought, with current evidence pointing toward central roles for the default, frontoparietal, and visual networks. Recent work has linked the arising of thoughts more specifically to default network activity, but the limited temporal resolution of fMRI has precluded more detailed conclusions about where in the brain self-created mental content is generated and how this is achieved. This chapter argues that the unparalleled spatiotemporal resolution of intracranial electrophysiology (iEEG) in human epilepsy patients can begin to provide answers to questions about the specific neural origins of self-generated thought. The chapter reviews the extensive body of literature from iEEG studies over the past few decades and shows that many studies involving passive recording or direct electrical stimulation throughout the brain point to the medial temporal lobe as a key site of thought-generation.
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38

(Editor), Richard B. Stein, P. Hunter Peckham (Editor), and Dejan B. Popovic (Editor), eds. Neural Prostheses: Replacing Motor Function after Disease or Disability. Oxford University Press, USA, 1992.

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39

Gerovasili, Vasiliki, and Serafim N. Nanas. Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation: A New Therapeutic and Rehabilitation Strategy in the ICU. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199653461.003.0044.

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Many critically ill patients undergo a period of immobilization with detrimental effects on skeletal muscle, effects which seem most pronounced in the first days of critical illness. Diagnosis of intensive care unit muscle weakness (ICUAW) is often made after discontinuation of sedation when significant nerve and/or muscle damage may already have occurred. Recently, there has been interest in early mobilization during the acute phase of critical illness, with the goal of preventing ICUAW. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NEMS) is an alternative form of exercise that has been successfully used in patients with advanced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and chronic heart failure. NEMS is a rehabilitation tool that can be used in critically ill, sedated patients, does not require patient cooperation, and is therefore a promising intervention to prevent muscle dysfunction in the critically ill. When applied early during the course of critical illness, NEMS can preserve muscle morphology and function. Available evidence suggests that NEMS may have a preventive role in the development of ICUAW and could even contribute to a shorter duration of weaning from mechanical ventilation. Studies are needed to evaluate the long-term effect of NEMS and to explore NEMS settings and delivery characteristics most appropriate for different subgroups of critically ill patients.
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40

Vassilakopoulos, Theodoros, and Charis Roussos. Respiratory muscle function in the critically ill. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0077.

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The inspiratory muscles are the diaphragm, external intercostals and parasternal internal intercostal muscles. The internal intercostals and abdominal muscles are expiratory. The ability of a subject to take one breath depends on the balance between the load faced by the inspiratory muscles and their neuromuscular competence. The ability of a subject to sustain the respiratory load over time (endurance) depends on the balance between energy supplied to the inspiratory muscles and their energy demands. Hyperinflation puts the diaphragm at a great mechanical disadvantage, decreasing its force-generating capacity. In response to acute increases in load the inspiratory muscles become fatigued and inflammed. In response to reduction in load by the use of mechanical ventilation they develop atrophy and dysfunction. Global respiratory muscle function can be tested using maximum static inspiratory and expiratory mouth pressures, and sniff pressure. Diaphragm function can be tested by measuring the transdiaphragmatic and twitch pressures developed upon electrical or magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerve.
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41

Sandbrink, Friedhelm. The MEP in clinical neurodiagnosis. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0019.

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This article gives information on the clinical application of motor-evoked potential (MEP). Transcranial stimulation of the cerebral cortex to elicit MEPs is a noninvasive method for assessing the integrity of the central motor pathway function. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used in diagnosing and monitoring neurological disorders. This article highlights the neurophysiological differences between TMS and transcranial electric stimulation. All the different MEP parameters that can be measured by TMS, the latency of the MEP is generally regarded as the most reliable and useful. TMS studies have been described in many neurological disorders. The sensitivity of TMS in detecting subclinical upper motor neuron lesion varies in different disorders, depending on number of muscles and different parameters used. This article talks about the application of MEP in pathophysiology, multiple sclerosis, motor neuron diseases, meyloptahy, cerebral infarction, movement disorders, epilepsy, Lumbar spinal stenosis and radiculopathies, peripheral nerve disorders etc.
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42

Song, Dong, and Theodore W. Berger. Hippocampal memory prosthesis. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199674923.003.0055.

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Damage to the hippocampus and surrounding regions of the medial temporal lobe can result in a permanent loss of the ability to form new long-term memories. Hippocampal memory prosthesis is designed to restore this ability. The animal model described here is the memory-dependent, delayed nonmatch-to-sample (DNMS) task in rats, and the core of the prosthesis is a biomimetic multi-input, multi-output (MIMO) nonlinear dynamical model that predicts hippocampal output (CA1) signals based on input (CA3) signals. When hippocampal CA1 function is pharmacologically blocked, successful DNMS behavior is abolished. However, when MIMO model predictions are used to re-instate CA1 memory-related activities with electrical stimulation, successful DNMS behavior and long-term memory function are restored. The hippocampal memory prosthesis has been successfully implemented in rodents and nonhuman primates, but the current system requires major advances before it can approach a working prosthesis. Looking forward, a deeper knowledge of neural coding will provide further insights.
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43

Chapin, John K., and Karen A. Moxon. Neural Prostheses for Restoration of Sensory and Motor Function. Taylor & Francis Group, 2000.

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44

Chapin, John K., and Karen A. Moxon. Neural Prostheses for Restoration of Sensory and Motor Function. Taylor & Francis Group, 2019.

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45

Chapin, John K., and Karen A. Moxon. Neural Prostheses for Restoration of Sensory and Motor Function. Taylor & Francis Group, 2000.

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46

Moore, Michael R., and Ehab Farag. Unstable Cervical Spine and Airway Management. Edited by David E. Traul and Irene P. Osborn. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190850036.003.0012.

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In patients with cervical myelopathy, the spinal cord is already compromised to a point at which there is little reserve for surgical maneuvers and the slightest adverse action can result in dramatic consequences. Awake fiberoptic intubation and neurological assessment before induction of anesthesia could be the safest way to avoid waking up the patient before proceeding with surgery in the case of absent motor evoke potentials (MEPs) in spite of increasing the stimulating voltage together with increasing the rate of stimulating pulses. Hypotension is an additional factor, which may lead to irreversible neurologic deficit in a partially compressed but functionally intact spinal cord. Intraoperative neurophysiologic monitoring for cervical myelopathy should include somatosensory evoked potentials, transcranial electric MEPs, and electromyography to provide complementary information and monitor different spinal cord tracts and individual nerve roots.
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47

(Editor), John K. Chapin, and Karen A. Moxon (Editor), eds. Neural Prostheses for Restoration of Sensory and Motor Function (Methods and New Frontiers in Neuroscience). CRC, 2000.

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48

Turner, Martin R., Matthew C. Kiernan, and Kevin Talbot. Technical advances in neuroscience. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199658602.003.0001.

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This chapter highlights key technological advances in neuroimaging, the understanding of impulse transmission, and the molecular biology of the nervous system that have underpinned our modern understanding of the brain, mind, and nervous system. Neuroimaging spans the sub-cellular and systems levels of neuroscience, beginning with electron microscopy and then, 50 years later, magnetic resonance imaging and increasingly sophisticated mathematical modelling of brain function. These developments have been interleaved with the improved understanding of neurotransmission, starting with the seminal observations made from giant squid axon recordings, which were translated into clinically useable tools through the application of electric current, and later with magnetic stimulation. It is during the last 50 years that a molecular framework for these concepts emerged, with the cloning of genes that began in Duchenne muscular dystrophy, paving the way for the wider human genome project.
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