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Journal articles on the topic 'Fuel cell diagnostics, impedance spectroscopy'

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Author: Grafiati

Published: 10 December 2022

Last updated: 28 January 2023

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1

Piela, Piotr, Robert Fields, and Piotr Zelenay. "Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy for Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Diagnostics." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 153, no. 10 (2006): A1902. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.2266623.

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2

Caponetto, Riccardo, Fabio Matera, Emanuele Murgano, Emanuela Privitera, and Maria Gabriella Xibilia. "Fuel Cell Fractional-Order Model via Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy." Fractal and Fractional 5, no. 1 (March 6, 2021): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fractalfract5010021.

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The knowledge of the electrochemical processes inside a Fuel Cell (FC) is useful for improving FC diagnostics, and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) is one of the most used techniques for electrochemical characterization. This paper aims to propose the identification of a Fractional-Order Transfer Function (FOTF) able to represent the FC behavior in a set of working points. The model was identified by using a data-driven approach. Experimental data were obtained testing a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) to measure the cell impedance. A genetic algorithm was firstly used to determine the sets of fractional-order impedance model parameters that best fit the input data in each analyzed working point. Then, a method was proposed to select a single set of parameters, which can represent the system behavior in all the considered working conditions. The comparison with an equivalent circuit model taken from the literature is reported, showing the advantages of the proposed approach.

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3

Halvorsen, Ivar J., Ivan Pivac, Dario Bezmalinović, Frano Barbir, and Federico Zenith. "Electrochemical low-frequency impedance spectroscopy algorithm for diagnostics of PEM fuel cell degradation." International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 45, no. 2 (January 2020): 1325–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.04.004.

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4

Le, G. T., L. Mastropasqua, J. Brouwer, and S. B. Adler. "Simulation-Informed Machine Learning Diagnostics of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Stack with Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 169, no. 3 (March 1, 2022): 034530. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/ac59f4.

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This paper reports our initial development of simulation-informed machine learning algorithms for failure diagnostics in solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) systems. We used physics-based models to simulate electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) response of a short SOFC stack under normal conditions and under three different failure modes: fuel maldistribution, delamination, and oxidant gas crossover to the anode channel. These data were used to train a support vector machine (SVM) model, which is able to detect and differentiate these failures in simulated data under various conditions. The SVM model can also distinguish these failures from simulated uniform degradation that often occurs with long-term operation. These encouraging results are guiding our ongoing efforts to apply EIS as a failure diagnostic for real SOFC cells and short stacks.

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5

Sun, Ying, Thomas Kadyk, Andrei Kulikovsky, and Michael Eikerling. "(Digital Presentation) Concentration Admittance Spectroscopy for Oxygen Transport Diagnostics in Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 39 (October 9, 2022): 1401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02391401mtgabs.

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Polymer electrolyte fuel cells will be crucial as efficient and environmentally benign energy conversion devices in a sustainable hydrogen economy. The further development and deployment of PEFCs require powerful diagnostic tools to assess the interplay of transport and reaction processes in an operating cell, extract the relevant parameters, and perform causal analyses of deviations from healthy cell operation. The diagnostic capabilities of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) are widely known and extensively exploited in disentangling the transport and reaction processes in electrochemical cells. The kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and thus the current density produced by a PEFC at a given cell voltage are not only sensitive to modulations in the electrode potential (or cell voltage), as used in EIS, but they are also affected by modulations in oxygen concentration. The latter effect gives rise to another impedance-type response referred to as concentration or pressure impedance. An oxygen concentration impedance (ζ = δE/δc, where δE and δc are the small-amplitude harmonic perturbations of cell voltage and oxygen concentration) could provide useful complementary capabilities to scrutinize oxygen transport processes. Various experimental works have explored the possibility of probing the response of the PEFC cell voltage with small-amplitude periodic perturbations in oxygen concentration or gas pressure1-6 and numerical models have been developed to rationalize these response functions.4,7-9 The presented work builds on a recently developed analytical model for the oxygen concentration/pressure impedance.10,11 In that work, the limit of large air flow stoichiometry and large oxygen transport loss in the catalyst layer was considered. The present work relaxes these assumptions and it focuses on the case of the so-called concentration admittance spectroscopy, which is based on the hitherto unexplored idea of measuring the response in the oxygen concentration variation to a voltage perturbation. We will present a newly developed quasi-2D model for the cathode side concentration admittance of a PEFC that accounts for oxygen transport in the flow-field channel, in the gas diffusion layer, and in the cathode catalyst layer. An analytical expression for the concentration admittance will be presented and parametric dependencies of the static admittance will be discussed. We will demonstrate how information on the oxygen transport coefficients in the flow field channel, gas diffusion layer, and catalyst layer can be drawn from the admittance at the air channel outlet. References: 1Amir M Niroumand, Walter Merida, Michael Eikerling, and Mehrdad Saif, Electrochemistry Communications, 12(1):122, 2010. 2Erik Engebretsen, Thomas J Mason, Paul R Shearing, Gareth Hinds, and Dan JL Brett, Electrochemistry Communications, 75:60 63, 2017. 3Anantrao Vijay Shirsath, Stephane Rael, Caroline Bonnet, and Francois Lapicque , Electrochimica Acta, 363:137157, 2020. 4Lutz Schiffer, Anantrao Vijay Shirsath, Stephane Rael, Caroline Bonnet, Francois Lapicque, and Wolfgang G Bessler. Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 169(3):034503, 2022. 5Qingxin Zhang, Michael H Eikerling, and Byron D Gates. In ECS Meeting Abstracts, number 20, page 1586, 2020. 6Qingxin Zhang, Hooman Homayouni, Byron Gates, Michael Eikerling, and Amir Niroumand. Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 2022. 7Antonio Sorrentino, Tanja Vidakovic-Koch, Richard Hanke-Rauschenbach, and Kai Sundmacher. Electrochim. Acta, 243:53 64, 2017. 8Antonio Sorrentino, T Vidakovic-Koch, and Kai Sundmacher. J. Power Sources, 412:331 335, 2019. 9Antonio Sorrentino, Kai Sundmacher, and Tanja Vidakovic-Koch. D. Electrochim. Acta, 390:138788, 2021. 10Andrei Kulikovsky. eTransportation 2:100026, 2019. 11Andrei Kulikovsky. J. Electroanal. Chem., 899:115672, 2021. Figure 1

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6

Pivac, Ivan, Dario Bezmalinović, and Frano Barbir. "Catalyst degradation diagnostics of proton exchange membrane fuel cells using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy." International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 43, no. 29 (July 2018): 13512–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.05.095.

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7

Le, Giang Tra, Luca Mastropasqua, Stuart B. Adler, and Jack Brouwer. "Operando Diagnostics of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Stack Via Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Simulation-Informed Machine Learning." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2021-03, no. 1 (July 23, 2021): 38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2021-03138mtgabs.

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8

Le, Giang Tra, Luca Mastropasqua, Stuart B. Adler, and Jack Brouwer. "Operando Diagnostics of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Stack Via Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Simulation-Informed Machine Learning." ECS Transactions 103, no. 1 (July 9, 2021): 1201–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/10301.1201ecst.

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9

Kahia, Hichem, Saadi Aicha, Djamel Herbadji, Abderrahmane Herbadji, and Said Bedda. "Neural Network based Diagnostic of PEM Fuel Cell." Journal of New Materials for Electrochemical Systems 23, no. 4 (December 31, 2020): 225–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.14447/jnmes.v23i4.a02.

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This paper focuses in finding a suitable, effective, and easy to use method, to avoid the frequent mistakes that are presented by the poor flow of water inside the fuel cell during its operation. Towards this aim, the artificial intelligence technology is proposed. More specifically, a neural network model is used to enable monitoring the influence of the humidity content of the fuel cell membrane, through employing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy method (EIS analysis). This technique allows analyzing and diagnosing PEM fuel cell failure modes (flooding & drying). The benefit of this work is summed up in the demonstration of the existence in a simple way that helps to define the state of health of the PEMFC.

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10

Zhang, Qingxin, Hooman Homayouni, Byron D. Gates, Michael H. Eikerling, and Amir M. Niroumand. "Electrochemical Pressure Impedance Spectroscopy for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells via Back-Pressure Control." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 169, no. 4 (April 1, 2022): 044510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/ac6326.

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Electrochemical pressure impedance spectroscopy (EPIS) analyses the voltage response of a polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC) as a function of an applied pressure signal in the frequency domain. EPIS is similar to electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and its development was inspired by the diagnostic capabilities of the latter. The EPIS introduced in this work modulates the cathode pressure of a PEFC with a sinusoidal signal through the use of a back-pressure controller, and monitors the cell voltage while holding the cell at a constant current. A sinusoidal pressure wave propagates along the flow field channels because of this pressure modulation. This pressure wave impacts local reaction rates and transport properties in the cathode, resulting in a sinusoidal voltage response. The amplitude ratio and phase difference between these two sinusoidal waves entail diagnostic information on processes that take place within the PEFC. To demonstrate the utility of the EPIS technique, experiments have been carried out to measure and analyze the frequency response of PEFCs with two different flow fields. A parametric study has been conducted to characterize the effect of pressure oscillation amplitude, load, oxygen concentration, oxygen stoichiometry and cathode gas flow rate on the EPIS signal.

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11

Alboghobeish, Mohammad, Andrea Monforti Ferrario, Davide Pumiglia, Massimiliano Della Pietra, Stephen J. McPhail, Sergii Pylypko, and Domenico Borello. "Developing an Automated Tool for Quantitative Analysis of the Deconvoluted Electrochemical Impedance Response of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell." Energies 15, no. 10 (May 18, 2022): 3702. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15103702.

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Despite being commercially available, solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) technology requires further study to understand its physicochemical processes for diagnostics, prognostics, and quality assurance purposes. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), a widely used characterization technique for SOFCs, is often accompanied by the distribution of relaxation times (DRT) as a method for deconvoluting the contribution of each physicochemical process from the aggregated impedance response spectra. While EIS yields valuable information for the operation of SOFCs, the quantitative analysis of the DRT and its shifts remains cumbersome. To address this issue, and to create a replicable benchmark for the assessment of DRT results, a custom tool was developed in MATLAB to numerically analyze the DRT spectra, identify the DRT peaks, and assess their deviation in terms of peak frequency and DRT amplitude from nominal operating conditions. The preliminary validation of the tool was carried out by applying the tool to an extensive experimental campaign on 23 SOFC button-sized samples from three production batches in which EIS measurements were performed in parametric operating conditions. It was concluded that the results of the automated analysis via the developed tool were in accordance with the qualitative analysis of previous studies. It is capable of providing adequate additional quantitative results in terms of DRT shifts for further analysis and provides the basis for better interoperability of DRT analyses between laboratories.

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12

Duque, Luis, Antonio Molinero, Juan Carlos Oller, José Miguel Barcala, M. Antonia Folgado, and Antonio M. Chaparro. "Analysis of Hydrogen Feeding to the Anode of a PEMFC By a Transport Impedance Technique." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 39 (October 9, 2022): 1406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02391406mtgabs.

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Hydrogen feeding to the catalyst layer of the anode of a proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) must be fast enough to allow for high power response and avoid starvation events. However, there are limitations to the flow rate posed by the anode architecture (manifold, inlet port, flow field), and the gas diffusion layer (GDL). Within the GDL, hydrogen transport conditions may change in-operando as a result of water generation and saturation of pores. Delays in hydrogen feeding will give rise to a decrease in power response, and transitory sub-stoichiometric conditions, that may damage the electrode and decrease fuel cell durability. Therefore, it is of high interest to probe hydrogen feeding conditions when designing new anode architectures, and during operation of the fuel cell. Mass transport conditions in the fuel cell and electrochemical systems can be probed by techniques based on the impedance concept [1,2,3]. Among them, one recently applied in our group is the current modulated H2 flow-rate spectroscopy (CH2S), which provides the transfer function H [4,5]: H(j w) = nF QH2 / I (Eq. 1) Where QH2 is the modulated hydrogen inlet flow, I the modulated cell current, n(=2) the electron exchanges per H2 molecule, and F(=96485 C mol-1) the Faraday constant. A typical response in a PEMFC with dead-end anode is shown in Fig. 1. The H function normally presents two or more semicircles in Nyquist plots, extending in the real axis from H'=0 to H'=1 (stoichiometric modulation). The high frequency semicircle is normally ascribed to the set-up time response limitation, mostly the flow meter. At higher frequencies, the H function shows characteristics of the time response of hydrogen flow up to the anodic catalyst layer. In this communication, the CH2S technique is applied in conventional single cells and in passive portable feeding PEMFCs. Some properties of H2 transport path towards the anodic catalyst layer are analyzed, like conduits length, inlet port type, anode flow field, liquid water contents, hydrogen stoichiometry, and anode hydrophobicity. Acknowledgement: The work is partially financed by the ELHYPORT project (PID2019−110896RB-I00), Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation. [1] C. Deslouis, I. Epelboin, C. Gabrielli, P.S.-R. Fanchine, B. Tribollet, Relationship between the electrochemical impedance and the electrohydrodynamical impedances measured using a rotating disc electrode, J. Electroanal. Chem. Interfacial Electrochem. 107 (1980) 193–195. [2] A. Sorrentino, T. Vidakovic-Koch, R. Hanke-Rauschenbach, K. Sundmacher, Concentration-alternating frequency response: A new method for studying polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell dynamics, Electrochim. Acta. 243 (2017) 53–64. [3] D. Grübl, J. Janek, W.G. Bessler, Electrochemical Pressure Impedance Spectroscopy (EPIS) as Diagnostic Method for Electrochemical Cells with Gaseous Reactants: A Model-Based Analysis, J. Electrochem. Soc. 163 (2016) A599–A610. [4] M.A. Folgado, H. Moreno, A. Molinero, J.C. Oller, J.M. Barcala, A.M. Chaparro Hydrogen Transport Impedance for the Study of Anodes in PEMFCs, European Fuel Cell Forum 2021, A0704 (Extended Abstract). Lucerne (Switzerland). [5] A. Molinero, J.C. Oller, J.M. Barcala, H. Moreno, M.A. Folgado, A.M. Chaparro, Experimental Set-Up for Transport Studies of Anodes in PEMFCs. European Fuel Cell Forum 2021, B0207 (Extended Abstract). Lucerne (Switzerland). Fig. 1. Nyquist plot of the H function according to Eq. 1, for a PEMFC cell with commercial electrodes (Pt/C 0.3mg·cm-2) and Nafion 212NR membrane, working with hydrogen feeding in dead-end mode, and air feeding in cathode. a) Full signal; b) Low frequency detail. Numbers are modulation frequencies. Figure 1

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13

Giesbrecht, Patrick K., and Michael S. Freund. "Advanced Electrochemical Impedance Analysis Using Distribution of Relaxation Times for in Operando Mechanistic Insights of Fuel Cell and Water Electrolyzer Designs." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 50 (October 9, 2022): 2436. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02502436mtgabs.

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The development of sustainable and carbon-neutral alternative energy frameworks and chemical feedstocks requires rapid production of scalable water electrolyzer designs for hydrogen production.[1] Coupling electrolyzers to renewable energy supplies can provide a ‘green’ hydrogen production pathway, enabling clean production of chemical feedstocks as well as an energy storage framework. Current acid-based electrolyzer designs, however, integrate precious metals for stable operation, where drastic reductions in iridium use and increased cell durability are required for scalable deployment.[2] This requires the ability to monitor changes to the cell in operando for rapid diagnostics during initial and long-term operation under sustained or intermittent profiles. One technique proposed is electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), which can provide a breakdown of the cell resistances based on the timescale of the process.[3] Further analysis by circuit modeling, however, requires significant insight into the system for accurate interpretations. By coupling conventional EIS methods with distribution of relaxation times (DRT) analysis, the number of processes impacting cell operation can be determined without a priori knowledge of the system.[4] This has improved circuit modeling analysis of Li-ion batteries and solid oxide fuel cells.[5] Here, we demonstrate the power of EIS-coupled DRT analysis by analyzing the operation porous cathode and anode films of Nafion-based electrolyzer cells in half-cell and full cell configuration. Analysis of the electrodes in half-cell configurations provides estimates of kinetic parameters, active area, ionic conductivity, and diffusion coefficients associated with the electrode from a single EIS spectrum that are comparable to values obtained from in situ values.[6] Further analysis of the full cell operation with variable cathode gas composition provides insight as to the effect of the cathode gas composition on both the cathode and anode operation and stability. The work presented here will show the versatility and limitations of DRT-coupled EIS analysis of novel fuel cell and electrolyzer designs as well as present key findings for improving electrolyzer performance and stability. [1]Ayers, K. et al. Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomolec. Eng. 2019, 10, 219-239. [2]Pham, C. et al Adv. Energy Mater. 2021, 11, 2101998. [3]Liu, H. et al. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2022, 13, 6520-6531. [4]Wan, T. et al. Electrochimica Acta 2015, 184, 483-499. [5]Dierickx, S., Ivers-Tiffee, E. Electrochimica Acta 2020, 355, 136764. [6]Giesbrecht, P.K., Freund, M.S. J. Phys. Chem. C 2022, 126, 132-150.

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14

Choi, Pilsoo, and Kwang Sup Eom. "Analysis of Electrode Degradation By High-Potential Environment-Using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 39 (October 9, 2022): 1391. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02391391mtgabs.

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A Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is one of the most important applications for decarbonization of energy using hydrogen as an energy source and is considered a promising future power source due to its high efficiency, low operating temperature, fast startup, and low noxious emissions. In particular, improvement in durability of PEMFC is one of the major issues to spur the commercialization of the PEMFC system. Therefore, to improve the durability of PEMFC systems, diagnostic strategies are required to identify faulty conditions of PEMFC systems such as fuel starvation, dehydration, flooding, load cycling, and startup-shutdown (SU/SD). The problematic form of the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) that causes a decrease in the performance of PEMFCs in steady-state and dynamic operating conditions includes Pt dissolution, ionomer degradation, carbon corrosion [1] , and mechanical problems of the membrane in some circumstances. Among them, the undesired corrosion reaction, namely, the electrochemical carbon oxidation reaction, results in a drastic decrease in electrochemical double layer capacitance (EDLC), generation of oxygen functional groups in carbon supports, and severe electrochemical surface area (ECSA) fading [2, 3], followed by deteriorated PEMFC performance. Typically, the high potential inducing carbon corrosion reactions would occur during SU/SD and fuel starvation conditions. In detail, as for fuel starvation, a temporary shortage of H2 supply to one or several cells in a PEMFC stack causes the cell voltage reversal, accompanied by a potential strike over 1.0 V vs. RHE (Figure 1) with significant electrode degradation [4 , 5]. Also, the generation of hydrogen/air boundary at the anode due to the gas crossover through the membrane results in a high potential (~1.4 V vs. RHE), accelerating the decomposition of carbon support [6]. Therefore, in this work, to investigate the effects of high potential inducing electrode degradation on PEMFC performance, we conducted accelerated stress tests (AST), and in particular, we studied the correlation between electrode degradation behaviors as well as structural properties of porous carbon such as ionic resistance, EDLC with PEMFC performance in the systemic point of view. Specially, we could see the contrasting degradation behaviors and various performance decay rates using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) analysis. EIS can be used to isolate the contribution of many processes to performance loss, allowing investigation of the effect of carbon corrosion-induced catalyst layer changes on fuel cell performance [ 7]. The measured EIS data is evaluated through the parametric fitting of the transmission line model (TLM) to the EIS spectrum. In addition, relaxation time distribution (DRT) analysis for direct analysis of internal resistance factors by reinforcing the TLM-based impedance analysis results was applied as a diagnostic method to evaluate electrode degradation. During the ASTs, electrochemical measurements (i-V, CV, LSV, and EIS) were performed to estimate the degree of PEMFC degradation, we also conducted ex-situ surface analysis of MEA using SEM, TEM, and XPS to elucidate the specific degradation components. References [1] Sorrentino, Antonio, Kai Sundmacher, and Tanja Vidakovic-Koch. "Polymer electrolyte fuel cell degradation mechanisms and their diagnosis by frequency response analysis methods: a review." Energies 13.21 (2020): 5825. [2] Macauley, Natalia, et al. "Carbon corrosion in PEM fuel cells and the development of accelerated stress tests." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 165.6 (2018): F3148. [3] Kwon, JunHwa, et al. "Identification of electrode degradation by carbon corrosion in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells using the distribution of relaxation time analysis." Electrochimica Acta (2022): 140219. [4] Bentele, D., et al. "PEMFC Anode Durability: Innovative Characterization Methods and Further Insights on OER Based Reversal Tolerance." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 168.2 (2021): 024515. [5] Tovini, Mohammad Fathi, et al. "Degradation mechanism of an IrO2 anode co-catalyst for cell voltage reversal mitigation under transient operation conditions of a PEM fuel cell." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 168.6 (2021): 064521. [6] Bisello, Andrea, et al. "Mitigated Start-Up of PEMFC in Real Automotive Conditions: Local Experimental Investigation and Development of a New Accelerated Stress Test Protocol." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 168.5 (2021): 054501. [7] Kwon, JunHwa, et al. "A Comparison Study on the Carbon Corrosion Reaction under Saturated and Low Relative Humidity Conditions via Transmission Line Model-Based Electrochemical Impedance Analysis." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 168.6 (2021): 064515. Figure 1

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15

Schiller, Günter, Erich Gülzow, Mathias Schulze, Norbert Wagner, and K. Andreas Friedrich. "Analytical Investigation of Fuel Cells by Using In Situ and Ex Situ Diagnostic Methods." Materials Science Forum 638-642 (January 2010): 1125–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.638-642.1125.

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The study of the behaviour of fuel cells by using various in-situ and ex-situ diagnostic methods is a main topic at the German Aerospace Center (DLR). The degradation of cell components of polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFC, DMFC) and of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are of special interest. For this purpose physical and electrochemical methods are used individually as well as in combination. In addition to routinely applied electrochemical methods different methods for locally resolved current density measurements by means of segmented cell technology and integrated temperature sensors have been developed. The latest development with segmented bipolar plates based on printed circuit boards (PCB) is used both in single PEFC cells and stacks. Furthermore, a measuring system for segmented SOFC cells has been developed allowing for the spatially resolved characterisation of cells in terms of current density/voltage characteristics, impedance spectroscopy data, operating temperature and gas composition. The paper summarises the capabilities at DLR with respect to the analysis of fuel cells’ behaviour and gives examples of analytical studies to discuss the potentials and limitations of the diagnostic methodology that is applied.

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16

Tomas, Martin, Pavel Novotny, Fatemeh Gholami, Ondrej Tucek, and Frantisek Marsik. "A Comparative Study of Dynamic Load Response of High Temperature PEM Fuel Cells." Environmental and Climate Technologies 24, no. 1 (January 1, 2020): 529–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/rtuect-2020-0033.

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Abstract The high temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (HT-PEMFC) based on the polybenzimidazole (PBI) membrane doped with phosphoric acid (H3PO4) presents a promising route in the development of fuel cell technology. The higher operating temperature of 160–200 °C results in an increased tolerance of the platinum catalyst to the carbon monoxide, an improved electrode kinetics, a higher-grade heat produced by the fuel cell, and a simplified water management due to the absence of liquid water in the system. In this study, the accelerated stress test protocol (AST) corresponding to the Driving Duty Cycle was used to characterize two sets of commercial MEAs, by Danish Power Systems Ltd. and FuMA-tech GmbH, respectively. Performance characteristics prior to and after the AST procedure were measured. The changes in the resistivity of the MEA were examined by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The EIS data were analysed and interpreted by a suitable equivalent circuit that consisted of a resistor and the Voigt’s structure in series with constant phase elements. Conducted experiments and their analysis showed suitability of the HT-PEMFC technology in applications where dynamical load of the cell is expected. Moreover, the lower number of AST cycles did not seriously affect the cell performance. As expected, with increasing number of AST cycles, decrease in the cell performance was observed. In general, presented comparative study is expected to provide an extension of existing data for present and future development of diagnostic in the field of HT-PEMFC.

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Sorrentino, Antonio, Kai Sundmacher, and Tanja Vidakovic-Koch. "Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Degradation Mechanisms and Their Diagnosis by Frequency Response Analysis Methods: A Review." Energies 13, no. 21 (November 8, 2020): 5825. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13215825.

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Several experimental techniques involving dynamic electrical variables are used to study the complex behaviour of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells in order to improve performance and durability. Among them, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is one of the most employed methods. Like any frequency response analysis (FRA) methodology, EIS enables one to separate the contribution of many processes to performance losses. However, it fails to identify processes with a similar time constant and the interpretation of EIS spectra is often ambiguous. In the last decade, alternative FRA methodologies based on non-electrical inputs and/or outputs have been developed. These studies were mainly driven by requirements for a better diagnosis of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) faulty operation conditions as well as better component and material design. In this contribution, a state-of-the-art EIS and novel FRA techniques for PEMFC diagnosis are summarised. First, common degradation mechanisms and their causes are discussed. A mathematical framework based on linear system theory of time invariant systems is described in order to explain the theoretical implications of the use of different input/output configurations. In relation to this, the concepts and potential are depicted as well as the problematic aspects and future prospective of these diagnostic approaches.

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18

Guarino, Antonio, Giovanni Petrone, and Walter Zamboni. "Improving the Performance of a Dual Kalman Filter for the Identification of PEM Fuel Cells in Impedance Spectroscopy Experiments." Energies 12, no. 17 (September 2, 2019): 3377. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en12173377.

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In this paper, the Dual Kalman Filter (DKF) is used for the parametric identification of an RC model of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (FC) stack. The identification is performed for diagnostic purposes, starting from time-domain voltage and current signals in the framework of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) tests. Here, the sinusoidal input of the tests makes the identification of DKF parameters challenging. The paper analyzes the filter performance and proposes a possible approach to address the filter tuning to let it work with FC operating either in normal conditions or in the presence of drying and flooding fault conditions, or in fuel starvation mode. The analysis is mainly performed in a simulated environment, where the Fouquet model is used to simulate the FC. Some criteria to tune the filter are derived from the analysis and used also with experimental data produced by some EIS tests, to achieve the best estimate in constrained conditions. The results show that the DKF can be turned into a valuable tool to identify the model parameters even with signals developed for other scopes. The identification results envisage the possibility of assisting the model-based FC diagnosis by means of a very simple tool that can run on a low-cost embedded device. Indeed, the simplicity of the filter approach and a lightweight implementation allow the deployment of the algorithm in embedded solutions.

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19

Gado, Alanna M., Stoyan Bliznakov, Leonard J. Bonville, and Radenka Maric. "Using Distribution of Relaxation Times Analysis to Explore Overpotentials in Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolyzers Utilizing Sintered Metal and Fibrous Titanium Porous Transport Layers." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 39 (October 9, 2022): 1442. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02391442mtgabs.

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Proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers (PEMWEs) show potential for the clean production of renewable and high-purity hydrogen. [1] The widespread implementation of PEMWE usage faces performance and economic hurdles. In order to improve cell performance and durability, thus reducing capital cost, identifying and understanding the origins of performance losses is crucial. Overpotentials fall into three categories: ohmic, kinetic, and mass transport, which relate to various resistances within the cell during operation. Traditionally, electrochemical equivalent circuits (EEC) have been used to analyze electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) for polarizing processes, but this tool requires extensive background knowledge of both electrochemical processes and circuits. The use of distribution of relaxation times (DRT) as an EIS analysis tool allows for the objective distinguishing of individual and distinct electrochemical processes within the cell that contribute to these overpotentials [2,3,4]. DRT as an EIS analysis tool allows for more comprehensive understanding and comparison of overpotential processes, especially between cells of varying configurations. Understanding overpotential origins will provide a pathway for mitigating performance restricting processes and developing better performing, more durable, and more cost-effective build configurations. In this work, several configurations of a single cell 25 cm2 PEMWE were tested. Cell performance using titanium fiber porous transport layers (PTLs) is compared against the use of sintered titanium PTLs, in both unplated and plated configurations. Four PEMWE cells were built using Bekaert unplated and plated titanium fiber PTLs, and Mott 20 mil unplated and plated sintered titanium PTLs. Results show good cell performance. DRT analysis of diagnostic data allows for the objective identification, discussion, and comparison of overpotential contributions. References [1] Aricò, A. S., Siracusano, S., Briguglio, N., Baglio, V., Di Blasi, A., & Antonucci, V. (2012). Polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolysis: Status of technologies and potential applications in combination with renewable power sources. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, 43(2), 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-012-0490-5 [2] Dierickx, S., Weber, A., & Ivers-Tiffée, E. (2020). How the distribution of relaxation times enhances complex equivalent circuit models for fuel cells. Electrochimica Acta, 355, 136764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2020.136764 [3] Ivers-Tiffée, E., Weber, A. (2017). Evaluation of electrochemical impedance spectra by the distribution of Relaxation Times. Journal of the Ceramic Society of Japan, 125(4), 193–201. https://doi.org/10.2109/jcersj2.16267 [4] Gado, A., Ouimet, R. J., Bonville, L., Bliznakov, S., & Maric, R. (2021). Analysis of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy using distribution of relaxation times for proton exchange membrane fuel cells and electrolyzers. ECS Meeting Abstracts, MA2021-02(41), 1261–1261. https://doi.org/10.1149/ma2021-02411261mtgabs

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Saha, Prantik, Tim Van Cleve, and Kenneth C. Neyerlin. "In-situ Electrochemical Diagnostics for Morphological Study of CO₂ Reduction Electrodes." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 39 (October 9, 2022): 1438. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02391438mtgabs.

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Electrochemical CO2 reduction (CO2R) devices have immense potential to capture the effluent CO2 in hard-to-decarbonize sectors and convert them to valuable chemicals like CO, C2H4, CH4, alcohols etc. Inside these devices, CO2R occurs inside gas diffusion electrodes (GDE). The reaction rate strongly depends on the local environment at the catalyst-electrolyte interface like ionomer binders, pH, electrolyte cations etc[1]. The transport of reactants and products to and from the catalyst-electrolyte interface depends on the pore-space structure of the GDE, which comprises mostly of micro and smaller mesopores. Ionomer binders used in these GDEs also affect the Faradaic efficiencies (FE) of the CO2R products. Moreover, experimental results indicate that the KOH fed as the anolyte in alkaline CO2 electrolyzers impact the performance of CO2R at the cathode [2]. At present, there is a lack of simple experimental methods in the literature to systematically study the local electrochemical environments present in real decices and identify critical limiting phenomena. We have developed a novel setup to study the morphological aspects of CO2 electrodes at the electrode level without the complexities due to water splitting at the anode. A stable reference electrode, an ion-exchange membrane, and the CO2R cathode are integrated together to form a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) for the purpose of precise and reproducible electrochemical experimentation. AC impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is used to measure capacitance and ion-transport resistance of the CO2R electrodes. A novel MEA setup, previously developed in this group to study oxygen mass transport resistance (MTR) in non-Platinum group metal fuel cells electrodes, is used to measure MTR of CO2 in the CO2R electrodes [3]. We vary the experimental conditions used in the CO2R experiments, like feed gas RH, KOH flow rate etc., and measure the above-mentioned properties. In addition, we also used these diagnostic methods to study the role of ionomer, specifically the ionomer-catalyst interaction in these electrodes. Experiments done by our group members indicate that a suitable electrode ink recipe (catalyst and ionomer loading, organic solvent etc.) is required to optimize the performance of CO2R inside these electrodes. Overall, these techniques can be used to understand the CO2R trends of various electrodes and to identify key design parameters for more efficient CO2 reduction electrodes. Important references: Bui et al., Engineering Catalyst–Electrolyte Microenvironments to Optimize the Activity and Selectivity for the Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 on Cu and Ag; Acc. Chem. Res. 2022, 55, 484−494. Dinh et al., CO2 electroreduction to ethylene via hydroxide-mediated copper catalysis at an abrupt interface; Science, (2018), 783-787, 360(6390). Star et a., Mass transport characterization of platinum group metal-free polymer electrolyte fuel cell electrodes using a differential cell with an integrated electrochemical sensor; Journal of Power Sources, (2020), 227655, 450.

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Jacquemond, Rémy Richard, Maxime van der Heijden, Emre Burak Boz, Jeffrey A. Kowalski, Katharine Greco, Kitty Nijmeijer, Fikile R. Brushett, Pierre Boillat, and Antoni Forner-Cuenca. "Neutron Radiography As a Powerful Method to Visualize Reactive Flows in Redox Flow Batteries." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-01, no. 48 (July 7, 2022): 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-01482014mtgabs.

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Spatial and temporal gradients in reactant concentration, influenced by local microstructure and surface properties, govern the performance and durability of various advanced electrochemical systems. The cell and stack performance is typically assessed using traditional electrochemical diagnostics (e.g. polarization curves, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy) and the influence of materials is macroscopically evaluated based on empirical comparison of novel materials with the current state-of-the-art. While this is a valid approach to identify promising candidates, valuable information is lost due to the difficulty of identifying performance-limiting factors. Operando imaging of electrochemical systems, in tandem with complementary electrochemical diagnostics, has been instrumental in the development of advanced polymer electrolyte fuel cells1,2 and, more recently, lithium-ion batteries3,4. Over the past few years, several groups have developed novel imaging and spectroscopic techniques for operando characterization of redox flow batteries, which is the focus of this work. Wong et al. employed fluorescence microscopy and particle velocimetry to image concentration and velocity distributions near the electrode-flow field interface5. Tanaka et al. visualized flow distribution in redox flow batteries with infrared thermography6. Zhao et al. employed in-situ nuclear magnetic resonance to track reaction mechanisms occurring within the electrolyte7. Finally, several groups recently employed X-ray tomographic microscopy to visualize gas pockets within the liquid electrolyte imbibed porous electrode8–10. While these methods have provided important insights, an approach that enables quantitative mapping of species concentrations, in a non-invasive fashion and within an operating cell, has remained elusive. In this presentation, I will discuss our recent efforts to develop neutron radiography as an operando characterization method for non-aqueous redox flow batteries. We leverage the high attenuation of organic materials (i.e., high hydrogen content) in solution and, combined with isotopic labelling, we perform subtractive neutron imaging to quantify the concentration of active species and supporting electrolytes. To demonstrate the potential of this diagnostic tool, we characterize active species concentration distribution within a redox flow cell in a single electrolyte configuration with a non-aqueous electrolyte containing a TEMPO/TEMPO+ redox couple and study the influence of electrode microstructure, membrane type (e.g. porous or dense), and flow field design. To resolve the concentration profiles across the different layers, we employ the in-plane imaging configuration11 and correlate these concentration profiles to cell performance via polarization measurements under different operating conditions. In the final part of the talk, I will discuss our latest experimental campaign in which we investigated the use of energy-selective neutron radiography to deconvolute concentrations of active species and supporting electrodes during operation. References 1 P. Boillat, E. H. Lehmann, P. Trtik and M. Cochet, Curr. Opin. Electrochem., , DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2017.07.012. 2 J. Eller, T. Rosén, F. Marone, M. Stampanoni, A. Wokaun and F. N. Büchi, J. Electrochem. Soc., 2011, 158, B963. 3 B. Michalak, H. Sommer, D. Mannes, A. Kaestner, T. Brezesinski and J. Janek, Sci. Rep., 2015, 5, 15627. 4 D. P. Finegan, M. Scheel, J. B. Robinson, B. Tjaden, I. Hunt, T. J. Mason, J. Millichamp, M. Di Michiel, G. J. Offer, G. Hinds, D. J. L. Brett and P. R. Shearing, Nat. Commun., 2015, 6, 6924. 5 A. A. Wong, M. J. Aziz and S. Rubinstein, ECS Trans. , 2017, 77, 153–161. 6 H. Tanaka, Y. Miyafuji, J. Fukushima, T. Tayama, T. Sugita, M. Takezawa and T. Muta, J. Energy Storage, 2018, 19, 67–72. 7 E. W. Zhao, T. Liu, E. Jónsson, J. Lee, I. Temprano, R. B. Jethwa, A. Wang, H. Smith, J. Carretero-González, Q. Song and C. P. Grey, Nature, 2020, 579, 224–228. 8 R. Jervis, L. D. Brown, T. P. Neville, J. Millichamp, D. P. Finegan, T. M. M. Heenan, D. J. L. Brett and P. R. Shearing, J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys., , DOI:10.1088/0022-3727/49/43/434002. 9 F. Tariq, J. Rubio-Garcia, V. Yufit, A. Bertei, B. K. Chakrabarti, A. Kucernak and N. Brandon, Sustain. Energy Fuels, 2018, 2, 2068–2080. 10 K. Köble, L. Eifert, N. Bevilacqua, K. F. Fahy, A. Bazylak and R. Zeis, J. Power Sources, , DOI:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229660. 11 P. Boillat, D. Kramer, B. C. Seyfang, G. Frei, E. Lehmann, G. G. Scherer, A. Wokaun, Y. Ichikawa, Y. Tasaki and K. Shinohara, Electrochem. commun., 2008, 10, 546–550.

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Braz, B. A., C. S. Moreira, V. B. Oliveira, and A. M. F. R. Pinto. "Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy as a diagnostic tool for passive direct methanol fuel cells." Energy Reports 8 (November 2022): 7964–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.06.045.

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23

Mack, F., R. Laukenmann, S. Galbiati, J. A. Kerres, and R. Zeis. "Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy as a Diagnostic Tool for High-Temperature PEM Fuel Cells." ECS Transactions 69, no. 17 (October 2, 2015): 1075–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/06917.1075ecst.

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24

changjun, Xie, and Quan shuhai. "Drawing impedance spectroscopy for Fuel Cell by EIS." Procedia Environmental Sciences 11 (2011): 589–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2011.12.092.

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25

Vladikova, Daria, Zdravko Stoynov, Gergana Raikova, Alain Thorel, Anthony Chesnaud, Joao Abreu, Massimo Viviani, Antonio Barbucci, Sabrina Presto, and Paola Carpanese. "Impedance spectroscopy studies of dual membrane fuel cell." Electrochimica Acta 56, no. 23 (September 2011): 7955–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2011.02.007.

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26

Brunetto, Carmelo, Antonino Moschetto, and Giuseppe Tina. "PEM fuel cell testing by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy." Electric Power Systems Research 79, no. 1 (January 2009): 17–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2008.05.012.

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27

Hsueh, Kan-Lin, Chien-Ming Lai, Chiou-Ping Hwang, Fu-Chi Wu, Li-Duan Tsai, Alex Yu-Min Peng, and Jing-Chie Lin. "Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy of Direct Methanol Fuel Cell." ECS Transactions 1, no. 6 (December 21, 2019): 323–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.2214503.

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28

Zhang, Qingxin, Michael Hermann Eikerling, and Byron D. Gates. "Electrochemical Pressure Impedance Spectroscopy As a Diagnostic Method for Hydrogen-Air Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2020-01, no. 21 (May 1, 2020): 1261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2020-01211261mtgabs.

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29

Zhang, Qingxin, Michael H. Eikerling, and Byron D. Gates. "Electrochemical Pressure Impedance Spectroscopy As a Diagnostic Method for Hydrogen-Air Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2020-02, no. 20 (November 23, 2020): 1586. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2020-02201586mtgabs.

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30

de Beer, Chris, Paul S. Barendse, and Pragasen Pillay. "Fuel Cell Condition Monitoring Using Optimized Broadband Impedance Spectroscopy." IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 62, no. 8 (August 2015): 5306–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tie.2015.2418313.

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31

Easton, E. Bradley, and Peter G. Pickup. "An electrochemical impedance spectroscopy study of fuel cell electrodes." Electrochimica Acta 50, no. 12 (April 2005): 2469–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2004.10.074.

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32

LAI, C., J. LIN, K. HSUEH, C. HWANG, K. TSAY, L. TSAI, and Y. PENG. "On the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of direct methanol fuel cell." International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 32, no. 17 (December 2007): 4381–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2007.03.040.

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33

Asghari, Saeed, Ali Mokmeli, and Mahrokh Samavati. "Study of PEM fuel cell performance by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy." International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 35, no. 17 (September 2010): 9283–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.03.069.

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34

Ben Yahia, Mohamed Sélmene, Hatem Allagui, Arafet Bouaicha, and Abdelkader Mami. "Fuel Cell Impedance Model Parameters Optimization using a Genetic Algorithm." International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE) 7, no. 1 (February 1, 2017): 184. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijece.v7i1.pp184-193.

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<p>The objective of this paper is the PEM fuel cell impedance model parameters<strong> </strong>identification. This work is a part of a larger work which is the diagnosis of the fuel cell which deals with the optimization and the parameters identification of the impedance complex model of the Nexa Ballard 1200 W PEM fuel cell. The method used for the identification is a sample genetic algorithm and the proposed impedance model is based on electric parameters, which will be found from a sweeping of well determined frequency bands. In fact, the frequency spectrum is divided into bands according to the behavior of the fuel cell. So, this work is considered a first in the field of impedance spectroscopy So, this work is considered a first in the field of impedance spectroscopy. Indeed, the identification using genetic algorithm requires experimental measures of the fuel cell impedance to optimize and identify the impedance model parameters values. This method is characterized by a good precision compared to the numeric methods. The obtained results prove the effectiveness of this approach.</p>

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35

Ishibashi, Yusuke, Atsushi Nishikata, and Tooru Tsuru. "Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy of PEM Fuel Cell with Metal Bipolar Plates." ECS Transactions 16, no. 24 (December 18, 2019): 85–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.3109635.

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36

Rayman, Sean C., Mark Koslowske, Linda Bateman, Thomas Tao, and Ralph E. White. "Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy of Liquid Tin Anode Solid Oxide Fuel Cell." ECS Transactions 33, no. 39 (December 17, 2019): 93–121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.3589924.

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37

Wilson, J. R., D. T. Schwartz, and S. B. Adler. "Nonlinear electrochemical impedance spectroscopy for solid oxide fuel cell cathode materials." Electrochimica Acta 51, no. 8-9 (January 2006): 1389–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2005.02.109.

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38

Mastropasqua, Luca, Alireza Saeedmanesh, Giang Tra Le, Stuart B. Adler, and Jack Brouwer. "Galvanodynamic Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy on a Solid Oxide Cell Stack for In-Operando Diagnostics." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2021-03, no. 1 (July 23, 2021): 36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2021-03136mtgabs.

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39

Mastropasqua, Luca, Alireza Saeedmanesh, Giang Tra Le, Stuart B. Adler, and Jack Brouwer. "Galvanodynamic Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy on a Solid Oxide Cell Stack for In-Operando Diagnostics." ECS Transactions 103, no. 1 (July 9, 2021): 1189–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/10301.1189ecst.

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40

Staffolani, Antunes, Arianna Baldinelli, Linda Barelli, Gianni Bidini, and Francesco Nobili. "Early-Stage Detection of Solid Oxide Cells Anode Degradation by Operando Impedance Analysis." Processes 9, no. 5 (May 12, 2021): 848. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr9050848.

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Solid oxide cells represent one of the most efficient and promising electrochemical technologies for hydrogen energy conversion. Understanding and monitoring degradation is essential for their full development and wide diffusion. Techniques based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and distribution of relaxation times of physicochemical processes occurring in solid oxide cells have attracted interest for the operando diagnosis of degradation. This research paper aims to validate the methodology developed by the authors in a previous paper, showing how such a diagnostic tool may be practically implemented. The validation methodology is based on applying an a priori known stress agent to a solid oxide cell operated in laboratory conditions and on the discrete measurement and deconvolution of electrochemical impedance spectra. Finally, experimental evidence obtained from a fully operando approach was counterchecked through ex-post material characterization.

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41

Ma, Tiancai, Jiajun Kang, Weikang Lin, Xinru Xu, and Yanbo Yang. "Highly Integrated Online Multi-Channel Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Measurement Device for Fuel Cell Stack." Energies 15, no. 9 (May 7, 2022): 3414. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15093414.

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Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) can provide information about the internal state of fuel cells, which makes EIS an important tool for fuel cell fault diagnosis. However, high cost, large volume, and poor scalability are limitations of existing EIS measurement equipment. In this study, a multi-channel online fuel cell EIS measurement device was designed. In this device, based on multi-phase interleaved Boost topology and average current control, an excitation source, which can output 1~500 Hz, 10 A sinusoidal excitation current was designed and verified by model simulation. Then, based on the quadrature vector digital lock-in amplifier (DLIA) algorithm, an impedance measuring module that can achieve precise online impedance measurement and calculation was designed. A prototype was then built for the experiment. According to the experiment test, the amplitude error of the excitation source is less than 1.8%, and the frequency error is less than 0.3%. Compared with the reference data, the impedance measured by the prototype has a modulus error of less than 3.5% and a phase angle error of less than 1.5°. Moreover, the waveform control and impedance extraction function of the EIS measurement device is implemented on an embedded controller, which can cut the price and reduce the volume.

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42

Zhang, Zhao, Xiaowen Huang, Ke Liu, Tiancong Lan, Zixin Wang, and Zhen Zhu. "Recent Advances in Electrical Impedance Sensing Technology for Single-Cell Analysis." Biosensors 11, no. 11 (November 22, 2021): 470. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/bios11110470.

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Cellular heterogeneity is of significance in cell-based assays for life science, biomedicine and clinical diagnostics. Electrical impedance sensing technology has become a powerful tool, allowing for rapid, non-invasive, and label-free acquisition of electrical parameters of single cells. These electrical parameters, i.e., equivalent cell resistance, membrane capacitance and cytoplasm conductivity, are closely related to cellular biophysical properties and dynamic activities, such as size, morphology, membrane intactness, growth state, and proliferation. This review summarizes basic principles, analytical models and design concepts of single-cell impedance sensing devices, including impedance flow cytometry (IFC) to detect flow-through single cells and electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) to monitor immobilized single cells. Then, recent advances of both electrical impedance sensing systems applied in cell recognition, cell counting, viability detection, phenotypic assay, cell screening, and other cell detection are presented. Finally, prospects of impedance sensing technology in single-cell analysis are discussed.

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Kashyap, Diwakar, Prabhat K. Dwivedi, Jitendra K. Pandey, Young Ho Kim, Gyu Man Kim, Ashutosh Sharma, and Sanket Goel. "Application of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy in bio-fuel cell characterization: A review." International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 39, no. 35 (December 2014): 20159–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.10.003.

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44

Reshetenko, Tatyana, and Andrei Kulikovsky. "Variation of PEM Fuel Cell Physical Parameters with Current: Impedance Spectroscopy Study." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 163, no. 9 (2016): F1100—F1106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/2.0981609jes.

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45

Saleh, Farhana S., and E. Bradley Easton. "Diagnosing Degradation within PEM Fuel Cell Catalyst Layers Using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 159, no. 5 (2012): B546—B553. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/2.098205jes.

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46

Han, Soo-Bin, Hwanyeong Oh, Won-Yong Lee, Jinyeon Won, Suyong Chae, and Jongbok Baek. "On-Line EIS Measurement for High-Power Fuel Cell Systems Using Simulink Real-Time." Energies 14, no. 19 (September 26, 2021): 6133. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14196133.

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Impedance measurements by EIS are used to build a physical circuit-based model that enables various fault diagnostics and lifetime predictions. These research areas are becoming increasingly crucial for the safety and preventive maintenance of fuel cell power systems. It is challenging to apply the impedance measurement up to commercial applications at the field level. Although EIS technology has been widely used to measure and analyze the characteristics of fuel cells, EIS is applicable mainly at the single-cell level. In the case of stacks constituting a power generation system in the field, it is difficult to apply EIS due to various limitations in the high-power condition with uncontrollable loads. In this paper, we present a technology that can measure EIS on-line by injecting the perturbation current to fuel cell systems operating in the field. The proposed EIS method is developed based on Simulink Real-Time so that it can be applied to embedded devices. Modeling and simulation of the proposed method are presented, and the procedures from the simulation in virtual space to the real-time application to physical systems are described in detail. Finally, actual usefulness is shown through experiments using two physical systems, an impedance hardware simulator and a fuel cell stack with practical considerations.

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47

Maidhily, M., N. Rajalakshmi, and K. S. Dhathathreyan. "Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy as a diagnostic tool for the evaluation of flow field geometry in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells." Renewable Energy 51 (March 2013): 79–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.09.016.

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48

Li, Sida, Xuezhe Wei, Shangfeng Jiang, Hao Yuan, Pingwen Ming, Xueyuan Wang, and Haifeng Dai. "Hydrogen crossover diagnosis for fuel cell stack: An electrochemical impedance spectroscopy based method." Applied Energy 325 (November 2022): 119884. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119884.

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49

INOUE, Mitsuhiro, Tatsuya IWASAKI, and Minoru UMEDA. "Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy of Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Having Ag/Ag2SO4 Reference Electrode." Electrochemistry 79, no. 5 (2011): 329–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.5796/electrochemistry.79.329.

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50

Reshetenko, Tatyana, and Andrei Kulikovsky. "Impedance Spectroscopy Study of the PEM Fuel Cell Cathode with Nonuniform Nafion Loading." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 164, no. 11 (2017): E3016—E3021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/2.0041711jes.

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